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Follow-up Methods for Bracken Control Following an Initial Glyphosate Application: The Use of Weed Wiping, Cutting and Reseeding
Abstract
Between 1990 and 1996 a range of follow-up strategies were applied to a permanent meadow in Bulgaria infested with bracken
(Pteridium aquilinum), which was recovering after initial control using glyphosate. The initial glyphosate treatment (4·3 kg ha-1) reduced both the bracken infestation and the underlying weedy vegetation, and facilitated the recovery of pasture species.
However, there was rapid bracken recovery within 5 years where no follow-up treatment was applied. Cutting twice yearly slowed
recovery, but the most effective treatments were where (1) there had been a single follow-up weed wiping application of glyphosate
plus cutting twice yearly, or (2) where Festuca rubra and Vicia cassubica were sown. Reseeding on its own or combined with cutting twice yearly provided good bracken control and a high forage quality
over the 5 year period.
... In such instances, repeat application of a control treatment or successional application of different treatments may provide a better control outcome. For example, an experimental study on Pteridium aquilinum reported that one-time application of glyphosate herbicide provided good initial control; however, the invasive plant species reappeared at the control site and needed additional treatment for proper control (Petrov and Marrs 2000). Unfortunately, empirical studies on invasive plant species subjected to multiple control treatments are rare (Rohal et al. 2019). ...
... Many earlier studies showed that long-term control programs were more successful in controlling the targeted invaders when treatments were applied multiple times as opposed to one time. As an example, a one-time application of glyphosate to P. aquilinum provided good initial control; however, the invasive species rebounded, and an additional treatment was needed to control its spread (Petrov and Marrs 2000). Nonetheless, caution must be used when repeat application of herbicides is needed because it may have profound negative impacts on native plant species. ...
... Different practice to reduce infestation of bracken fern like frequent liming and fertilizer application are useful strategy in upland grassland. Additional planting with preferable forage grasses or herbaceous species such successfully reduced the cover of bracken (Petrov and Marrs, 2000) ...
... Active ingredient, mode of action and time of application herbicides that can be applied in Croatia are listed in Table 1. The efficiency of glyphosate for initial bracken control has been confirmed by many (Petrov andMarrs, 2000, Robocker, 2017), but this herbicide seek the renewal of the EU authorization (https:// www.glyphosate.eu). Effectiveness of all these herbicides listed in Table 1 depends on followup control measures, because bracken fern recovers rapidly. ...
Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) is cosmopolitan fern, found at varying altitudes on all continents except Antarctica. It is an aggressive colonizer and can appear in various plant communities, but an important characteristic is its ability to dominate in dense patches. Once establish, the deep-set rhizomes are nearly impossible to eradicate. In Croatia, bracken dominate on specific habitat type called “bujadnice” in Lika region, but can also be found in herbaceous layers in following forest communities: As. Betulo-Quercetum; As. Pteridio-Betuletum; As. Potentillo albae-Quercetum pubescentis; As. Castaneo sativae-Fagetum; As. Helleboro nigri-Piceetum. Bracken fern is significant problem for livestock-based extensive agriculture, because it causes a range of syndromes in farm animals including thiamine deficiency, acute hemorrhagic syndrome, bright blindness, enzootic hematuria and upper alimentary carcinoma. Man may consume the toxins of bracken either directly or indirectly. In terms of the economic loss and suffering caused by bracken, it is clearly that some steps must be taken to control distribution of this fern. Timing is important in any management treatment of bracken fern. The most effective time for bracken control is summer just after the new fronds have fully expanded and starch reserves in the rhizome are at their lowest level. Two or more annual treatments and combinations of cutting and herbicide are more effective than single treatments or even single annual treatments.
... Following control treatment, restoration by litter disturbance and seeding or fertilization may be attempted. There is evidence that development of competitive vegetation can help in controlling bracken (Watt 1955;Lowday & Marrs 1992;Petrov & Marrs 2000). ...
... Restoration treatment, proposed as an additional strategy for bracken control (Lowday & Marrs 1992;Marrs, Johnson & Le Duc 1998b;Petrov & Marrs 2000), changed M in some situations. Generally, where vegetation had been improved in some way M was reduced, e.g. by fertilizing and seeding (Carneddau), Calluna seeding and grazing manipulation (Peak) and fertilizing and harrowing (Cannock). ...
Bracken Pteridium aquilinum is a serious weed of upland and marginal land. Its extensive rhizome system and large carbohydrate reserves make control difficult. This paper reports the results of seven long‐term experiments, established in four diverse UK locations, to test control and vegetation restoration treatments.
Samples were obtained from 580 rhizome pits between 1998 and 2000. Total dry mass per unit area ( M , a measure of performance) and ratio of frond‐bearing to total rhizome dry mass ( R , a relative measure of investment in frond production) were measured.
The range of means for M in untreated bracken was 1·8–5·1 kg m ⁻² , greater than that reported by others (1·2–3·0 kg m ⁻² ). Measured values for R were 0·24–0·42, again differing from other reports (0·10–0·38), probably due to our policy of avoiding advancing bracken fronts.
Randomization tests were used to check for non‐independence of sampling units. They confirmed the general adequacy of the anova results; there was little detectable interference between plots. Two regions contained matching pairs of experiments, thus variation within region was tested and differences were found in one region.
Five bracken control treatments (cutting, herbicide application and combinations) were employed at all but one experiment. Cutting once or twice per year generally gave the best results, reducing M by c . 60% after ≤ 5 years. Some subtreatments designed mainly for vegetation restoration, notably surface disturbance, also affected M .
R was reduced by herbicide treatment, for example from 0·30 to 0·16. Such low values of R are typical of invading bracken and are thought to represent rejuvenated and invasive rhizomes. Follow‐up treatments are needed in such situations. Despite large differences between untreated M at matching experiments on Cannock Chase (Staffordshire), treatment effects were similar at both sites (cutting twice per year or cutting together with herbicide application were best). At Sourhope (Cheviot Hills) a different pattern of response was obtained, with cutting alone giving better results than treatments involving herbicide.
The ratio of rhizome to frond dry mass per unit area was 10 : 1 in good conditions for growth, but the proportionate size of rhizomes could be reduced in poor growing conditions such as wet summers.
Synthesis and applications . In order to develop a national control strategy the following must be considered: rhizome mass differs between sites and in response to control treatments; cutting twice per year is generally most effective; where cutting is impossible, herbicide treatment should be applied. Weather may affect rhizome mass, with wet years being detrimental. This raises the possibility that bracken may increase under the drier conditions that may occur with global warming.
... Assessment of control is compromised by short-term monitoring because long-term conclusions can differ from initial findings (Blossey 1999). For example, in their 5-year study of P. aquilinum control, Petrov & Marrs (2000) found that despite good initial control using one application of glyphosate herbicide, P. aquilinum recovered and ultimately required additional treatment for control. Implementing control methods for short time periods can also complicate control method evaluation, as evaluating multi-year control efforts can reveal important outcomes. ...
... Reintroducing propagules of target native species can catalyse the development of the native plant community to serve as a natural barrier to colonization and expansion of undesirable species. Several studies we evaluated demonstrate a biological mechanism by which revegetation can have weed control benefits (Petrov & Marrs 2000;Wilson & Pa¨rtel 2003;Bakker & Wilson 2004;Prober et al. 2005). To more completely understand when revegetation is beneficial for controlling future invasions, native revegetation should be better integrated into invasive plant control experiments. ...
1. Invasive plants can reduce biodiversity, alter ecosystem functions and have considerable economic impacts. Invasive plant control is therefore the focus of restoration research in invader-dominated ecosystems. Increasing the success of restoration practice requires analysis and synthesis of research findings and assessment of how experiments can be improved.
2. In a systematic review and meta-analysis of invasive plant control research papers, we asked: (i) what control efforts have been most successful; and (ii) what invasive plant control research best translates into successful restoration application?
3. The literature evaluated typically described experiments that were limited in scope. Most plot sizes were small (<1 m2), time frames were brief (51% evaluated control for one growing season or less) and few species and ecosystems (predominantly grasslands) were studied throughout much of the literature. The scale at which most experiments were conducted potentially limits relevance to the large scales at which restorations typically occur.
4. Most studies focused on invasive species removal and lacked an evaluation of native revegetation following removal. Few studies (33%) included active revegetation even though native species propagule limitation was common. Restoration success was frequently complicated by re-invasion or establishment of a novel invader.
5. Few studies (29%) evaluated the costs of invasive species control. Additionally, control sometimes had undesirable effects, including negative impacts to native species.
6. Synthesis and applications. Despite a sizeable literature on invasive plant control experiments, many large-scale invasive plant management efforts have had only moderate restoration success. We identified several limitations to successful invasive species control including: minimal focus on revegetation with natives after invasive removal, limited spatial and temporal scope of invasive plant control research, and incomplete evaluation of costs and benefits associated with invasive species management actions. We suggest that information needed to inform invasive plant management can be better provided if researchers specifically address these limitations. Many limitations can be addressed by involving managers in research, particularly through adaptive management.
... Pteridium aquilinum extracts and spores can contaminate water sources and are genotoxic (Fernández & Sierra, 2022). The spread of the invasive species in pastures creates conditions for severe degradation, leading to disturbance of biodiversity (Sarateanu et al., 2021), and the application of various agrotechnical measures for weed control, including the use of herbicides or sowing with suitable competitive species, such as Festuca rubra and Vicia cassubica (Petrov & Marrs, 2000;Stewart et al., 2007;Ghorbani et al., 2006;Milligan et al., 2016;Akpınar et al., 2023). Controlling Pteridium aquilinum is very difficult in natural grass areas and requires different approaches. ...
The aim of the experiment is to determine the staged annual mowing of a population of Pteridium acuilinum (harmful species), in a natural grass stand of Chrysopogon gryllus type. The results of the conducted research show a progressive reduction of the harmful species from the first to the last experimental years, ranging from 72.0-78.0 pcs. of plants/m 2 (2014) up to 14.2-15.9 pcs. of plants/m 2 (2019). A positive trend was established regarding the recovery of grass cover and an increase in the number of useful fodder species such as: Festuca arundinaceae Scherb, Agrostis alba L., Dactylis glomerata L., Trifolium hybridum L. and Chrysopogon gryllus L.
... Cornett et al. 2006;Ingham 2014;Nolden 2019). These outcomes are not uncommon for plant management methods generally, such as mowing or herbicide use (Petrov & Marrs 2000;Simmons et al. 2007). Only a single study in the meta-analysis examined effects 2 years after grazing ended. ...
The use of targeted grazing to control undesired plants as a component of ecological restoration is gaining in popularity, but there is considerable uncertainty among land managers about the effectiveness of this approach. We synthesized existing literature on the use of livestock (ruminants, swine, and equids) to control undesired plants using a meta-analysis to address questions about the effectiveness of the approach. Seventy studies matched our inclusion criteria, these comprised 86% peer-reviewed journal articles and 14% grey literature. Studies were conducted in 17 countries but highly concentrated in the United States and Europe. Cattle, goats, horses, and sheep were used for vegetation management in the studies. Most target plant species were non-native perennial forbs. Median study duration was 3 years, with a maximum of 10 years. We found that, overall, the use of targeted grazing significantly reduced undesired plants and significantly increased plant species richness. However, several important questions remain. In particular, further research is needed to differentiate temporary defoliation from actual plant mortality, to separate the contributions of native vs. non-native species to gains in plant species richness, and to address longer term outcomes following grazing cessation.
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... Seed addition has proven to be an effective tool in post-mining restoration, the reestablishment of the semi-natural grasslands on former croplands, or as a supplement to planting in forest restoration (Ballesteros et al., 2012;Coiffait-Gombault, Buisson, & Dutoit, 2012;Kirmer, Baasch, & Tischew, 2012;Mitchley, Jongepierová, & Fajmon, 2012;Ceccon, González, & Martorell, 2016). On the other hand, seed addition in post-invasive restoration has had mixed success (Petrov & Marrs, 2000;Wilson & Pärtel, 2003;Pyke, Wirth, & Beyers, 2013), suggesting that this is a critical area for research in order to promote establishment of native species and prevent repeated invasions (Kettenring & Adams, 2011). ...
Invasive plant species reduce biodiversity, alter ecosystem processes, and cause economic losses. Control of invasive plants is therefore highly desired by land managers and policy makers. However, invasive plant control strategies frequently fail, partly because management often concentrates only on the eradication of invasive plants and not on revegetation with native species that use the available resources and prevent reinvasion. In this study, we focused on the intracontinental invader Rumex alpinus L., which was introduced by humans from the Alps to the lower mountains of Central Europe, where it has spread to semi-natural meadows, suppresses local biodiversity, and reduces the quality of hay used as cattle fodder. The species can be effectively removed using herbicide, but this leaves behind a persistent seed bank. Without further treatment, the invader rapidly regenerates and reinvades the area. We supplemented the herbicide treatment by adding the seeds of native grasses. Addition of native-seed effectively suppressed the regeneration of the invader from the seed bank, reduced its biomass, and consequently, prevented massive reinvasion. While the invader removal was successful, the restored community remained species-poor because the dense sward of native grasses blocked the regeneration of native forbs from the seed bank. Nevertheless, the addition of native seed proved to be an effective tool in preventing reinvasion after the eradication of the invasive plant.
... Thus, the benefits of imazapyr may not justify its increased cost. Invasive plants frequently reinvade management areas (Petrov & Marrs, 2000), because they often take advantage of the high resource availability associated with the physical disturbances that occur with management (Davis, Grime, Thompson, Davis, & Philip, 2000). ...
Abstract The outcomes of invasive plant removal efforts are influenced by management decisions, but are also contingent on the uncontrolled spatial and temporal context of management areas. Phragmites australis is an aggressive invader that is intensively managed in wetlands across North America. Treatment options have been understudied, and the ecological contingencies of management outcomes are poorly understood. We implemented a 5‐year, multi‐site experiment to evaluate six Phragmites management treatments that varied timing (summer or fall) and types of herbicide (glyphosate or imazapyr) along with mowing, plus a nonherbicide solarization treatment. We evaluated treatments for their influence on Phragmites and native plant cover and Phragmites inflorescence production. We assessed plant community trajectories and outcomes in the context of environmental factors. The summer mow, fall glyphosate spray treatment resulted in low Phragmites cover, high inflorescence reduction, and provided the best conditions for native plant recruitment. However, returning plant communities did not resemble reference sites, which were dominated by ecologically important perennial graminoids. Native plant recovery following initial Phragmites treatments was likely limited by the dense litter that resulted from mowing. After 5 years, Phragmites mortality and native plant recovery were highly variable across sites as driven by hydrology. Plots with higher soil moisture had greater reduction in Phragmites cover and more robust recruitment of natives compared with low moisture plots. This moisture effect may limit management options in semiarid regions vulnerable to water scarcity. We demonstrate the importance of replicating invasive species management experiments across sites so the contingencies of successes and failures can be better understood.
... Seed addition has proven to be an effective tool in post-mining restoration (Ballesteros et al., 2012;Kirmer, Baasch, & Tischew, 2012), the reestablishment of the seminatural grasslands on former croplands (Coiffait-Gombault, Buisson, & Dutoit, 2012;Mitchley, Jongepierová, & Fajmon, 2012), or as a supplement to planting in forest restoration (Ceccon, González, & Martorell, 2016). On the other hand, seed addition in post-invasive restoration has had mixed success (Petrov & Marrs, 2000;Wilson & Pärtel, 2003;Pyke, Wirth, & Beyers, 2013), suggesting that this is a critical area for research in order to promote establishment of native species and prevent repeated invasions (Kettenring & Adams, 2011). ...
... This narrow scope of our sampling efforts limits the ability to apply our results to treatment in other habitats or longer lived invasions (Kettenring and Adams 2011). Additionally, long-term post-treatment effects may vary more between manually and chemically treated areas than short-term effects (~ 1 year; Petrov and Marrs 2000;Price and Weltzin 2003;Cornish and Burgin 2005). Control plots were also not available in this area precluding comparison to plots without P. tomentosa control (but see chapter 1). ...
Multiple large-scale Paulownia tomentosa invasions have been promoted in the Linville
Gorge Wilderness Area (LGWA), Burke County, NC following a series of wildfires since 2000. Chapter 1 evaluates the effects of varied post-fire P. tomentosa invasions on native plant populations and the genetic diversity within and among distinct P. tomentosa populations separated by a geographic barrier in the LGWA. Plant communities significantly shifted between invaded and non-invaded plots in all invaded areas with decreased diversity indices in invaded plots of multiple invasions. Genetic diversity was extremely low within and among P. tomentosa populations indicating that dispersal is high within the LGWA and that one highly competitive genotype promotes the tree’s invasive success. Chapter 2 compares the efficacy and non-target effects of manual and chemical treatment of P. tomentosa invasions in the LGWA. Each treatment method successfully reduced P. tomentosa populations with ~ 1% cover remaining one year following treatment. I observed no significant differences between plant community composition in manually and chemically treated plots, although diversity indices consistently trended negatively in chemically treated plots. This information concerning plant community impacts, invasion genetics, and control strategies provides a new framework of the role P. tomentosa plays in invaded areas and may help inform and guide effective land management.
... The top reason for not actively revegetating across the watershed was because the respondent "did not think it was necessary" (86% of respondents), followed by too costly to pay personnel (27%), and too costly to acquire seeds/plants (32%). While most managers did not view revegetation as necessary, the peerreviewed literature suggests reintroduction of native propagules is an effective tool to prevent the colonization and expansion of undesirable vegetation following control (Petrov and Marrs, 2000;Bakker and Wilson, 2004;Kettenring and Adams, 2011), and has been demonstrated as effective against Phragmites (Peter and Burdick, 2010;Byun et al., 2013). Recruitment of native species following invasive species control has been limited in many studies (Provencher et al., 2000;Hartman and McCarthy, 2004), indicating that the belief that revegetation is not necessary to achieve native plant restoration is not scientifically supported. ...
Managers of invasive species consider the peer-reviewed literature only moderately helpful for guiding their management programs. Though this "knowing-doing gap" has been well-described, there have been few efforts to guide scientists in how to develop useful and usable science. Here we demonstrate how a comprehensive survey of managers (representing 42 wetland management units across the Great Salt Lake watershed) can highlight management practices and challenges (here for the widespread invasive plant, Phragmites australis, a recent and aggressive invader in this region) to ultimately inform a research program. The diversity of surveyed organizations had wide-ranging amounts of Phragmites which led to different goals and approaches including more aggressive control targets and a wider array of control tools for smaller, private organizations compared to larger government-run properties. We found that nearly all managers (97%) used herbicide as their primary Phragmites control tool, while burning (65%), livestock grazing (49%), and mowing (43%) were also frequently used. Managers expressed uncertainties regarding the timing of herbicide application and type of herbicide for effective control. Trade-offs between different Phragmites treatments were driven by budgetary concerns, as well as environmental conditions like water levels and social constraints like permitting issues. Managers had specific ideas about the plant communities they desired following Phragmites control, yet revegetation of native species was rarely attempted. The results of this survey informed the development of large-scale, multi-year Phragmites control and native plant revegetation experiments to address management uncertainties regarding herbicide type and timing. The survey also facilitated initial scientist-manager communication, which led to collaborations and knowledge co-production between managers and researchers. An important outcome of the survey was that experimental results were more pertinent to manager needs and trusted by managers. Such an approach that integrates manager surveys to inform management experiments could be adapted to any developing research program seeking to be relevant to management audiences.
... Estos resultados coinciden con los de Sánchez et al. (2002) quienes reportaron una disminución significativa de los brotes del helecho con el uso de este herbicida. Petrov y Marrs (2000) indican que una aplicación de glifosato no produce un control efectivo de Pteridium aquilinum sino que son necesarias aplicaciones continuas. Con base en nuestros resultados, el metsulfuron-metil puede plantearse como una alternativa ante el asulam, un herbicida carbamato de amplio uso para el control de Pteridium aquilinum en diferentes países y del que se ha comprobado una eficiente acción sobre esta especie (Le . ...
With the objective of evaluating weed control in coffee plantations (Coffea arabica L.) with emphasis in the bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum L. Kuhn) and the effect of the continued use of the herbicides glyphosate and metsulfuron-metil on the flora associated to the crop, two tests were conduced in a plantation located in Bruzual County, Yaracuy State, Venezuela. A randomized block design was used with four repetitions and the following five treatments: control, hand weeding, glyphosate (1920 g·ha -1), metsulfuron-metil (9 g·ha -1), and glyphosate+metsulfuron- metil. In test I total cover of weeds (TCW) in four groups (broadleaf, grassweed, cyperaceae and ferns) and fresh biomass of weeds were evaluated. In test II the number of plants of bracken fern by square meter was evaluated. There were significant differences in TCW for the herbicides, with reductions of 25, 35 and 66 % for glyphosate, metsulfuron-metil and the mixture, respectively. Besides, a differential effect among the groups of present weeds, occurred, which indicates the property that have those herbicides in continuous form during a period of relatively short time (374 days) to modify the composition of the weed populations associated to the coffee plantation. With the mixture of herbicide the smallest values of weed biomass was obteined, followed by the treatments of glyphosate and metsulfuron-metil. The treatments with glyphosate, metsulfuron-metil, and the mixture reduced the populations of bracken fern in 56, 87, 73 % respectively with respect to the initial values.
... These findings are not surprising since the rigorous experimental designs of GD-EF studies call for replication of each level of diversity, which makes them logistically challenging, and because this is a relatively recent field of inquiry, so long-term data sets are not yet available. Nonetheless, these spatial and temporal scales are mismatched with common restoration projects, which can be hundreds if not thousands of square metres in area (a similar scale mismatch exists between BEF research and conservation; Srivastava & Vellend 2005) and should be monitored for multiple years to assess responses over a range of environmental conditions (Blossey 1999;Petrov & Marrs 2000;Palmer 2009). The utility of GD for restoring functioning ecosystems should be empirically tested by manipulating GD in restorations. ...
Three common goals for restoration are (i) rapid plant establishment, (ii) long‐term plant persistence and (iii) restoration of functioning ecosystems. Restoration practitioners often use cultivars optimized for rapid plant establishment under highly disturbed conditions to achieve the first goal; locally adapted genotypes are championed for the second because they can be well suited for local environmental conditions. Restoring functioning ecosystems is considered a loftier goal that practitioners struggle to achieve because we lack proven techniques.
Similar to the demonstrated benefits of species, functional and phylogenetic diversity for ecosystem functions ( EF s), recent genetic diversity ( GD )–ecosystem function ( EF ) experiments have shown that increases in plant GD can positively influence many different EF s. Would the introduction of diverse plant genotypes of a given species into a restoration enhance ecosystem functioning and the evolutionary potential of restored populations?
In this review, we first examine three propagule‐sourcing approaches: cultivar, local adaptation and GD . Next, we raise questions that if addressed, could help practitioners implement a GD approach in restoration: (i) How might the selection, relatedness and arrangement of genotypes be optimized to restore functioning ecosystems, (ii) How do traits that affect an EF relate to neutral or adaptive diversity, more common measures of GD and (iii) at which spatial and temporal scales does GD influence EF s in restorations?
Synthesis and applications . Although each propagule‐sourcing approach may be best suited for a particular restoration goal, each approach may simultaneously benefit other goals. Yet cultivars and locally adapted populations that have experienced artificial and/or natural selection may not possess the levels of diversity that will confer expected benefits to different ecosystem functions. Future research should determine the relative value of each approach (or a combination of approaches) for simultaneously achieving multiple restoration goals. Restoration experiments, where plant genetic diversity ( GD ) is manipulated and monitored over scales relevant to restoration, could reveal the true promise of a GD approach to restoration.
... p < 0.001). Petrov and Marrs (2000) studied the recovery of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) after glyphosate treatment and found that there was a rapid bracken recovery within 5 years where there were no follow-up treatments. ...
2 Institute of Ecology and Botany of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Abstract: In Hungary, large abandoned agricultural areas have been invaded by the non-indigenous common milkweed ( Asclepias syriaca L.). This species hinders the regeneration of sand y oldfields to open sand grassland (Pannonic sand steppes - Annex I 6260 habitat type). Glyphosate application is a cost-effect ive control method that helps avoid soil surface distur bance and subsequent germination of milkweed seeds in the soil. However, it affects non-target plant species negatively, as well. In our study we explored the e ffects of the treatment on the non-target vegetation. Glyphos ate spraying was applied to three oldfields in the Kiskunság National Park to control vigorous stands of A. syriaca in July 2006. Shoot number of A. syri aca and percentage cover of plant species were estimate d in 1m 2 permanent plots before and after treatment (June 2006 and June 2007). Elimination of common milkweed was successful in the short term. Multivariate analysis showed a general shift of species composit ion following herbicide spraying. The share of summer annual herbs and grasses increased significantly, w hile perennial grasses and herbs decreased in cover . A significant decrease in the average cover of sand g rassland specialist species were detected, while we edy species increased in their abundance. The revealed changes showed that it is an effective way to contr ol common milkweed in the short term. However, it disturbs the underlying vegetation so that it relapses succession back to an earlier stage, rich in annual species in the case of the open patch types, while helps to proceed succession when the vegetation has been closed by clonal grasses.
... Asulam could be replaced by the cheaper glyphosate, though the application of this herbicide needs greater care (e.g. weed-wiping) to prevent deleterious effects on other species present (Petrov & Marrs 2000). ...
Pteridium aquilinum (bracken) encroachment is an important factor in the loss of certain habitats in the United Kingdom. However, no information exists as to whether prevention of encroachment is a cost‐effective strategy for Pteridium management. Conventional methods for the control of Pteridium (cutting, asulam application) were tested at one site (Levisham) to quantify their ability to prevent or delay encroachment and to affect the vigour of the Pteridium at the edge of the stand. The effects of encroachment and asulam application on the vegetation present were monitored at a second site (Ramsley), where techniques commonly used for moorland restoration were employed in combination with asulam application.
Cutting once per year or a single application of asulam delayed the advance of the Pteridium front. At Levisham, the untreated front advanced 2.7 m in 5 yr, while in the same period the cut front advanced 0.88 m and the sprayed front was 1.5 m behind its initial position. At Ramsley, the untreated front invaded 1.8 m in 5 yr, and the sprayed front was again 1.5 m behind its starting position. Both spraying and cutting reduced frond biomass, frond cover and rhizome biomass. Herbicide spraying prevented the loss of Calluna vulgaris , though the restoration treatments had little effect. The merits of a balanced targeting of control on encroaching fronts or Pteridium at the stand level are discussed for different situations.
... Experiments confirm that biannual cutting can be an efficient control measure (Lowday and Marrs, 1992a, b;Marrs et al., 1993Marrs et al., , 1998aLe Duc et al., 2007). In the 1960s herbicides became widely used in the UK and at present asulam is the most common means of controlling bracken in Europe (Petrov and Marrs, 2000). Recently, asulam's long-term efficiency has been questioned and multiple follow-up treatments are often recommended (Stewart et al., 2005;Marrs and Watt, 2006;Pakeman et al., 2007). ...
The coastal heathlands of north-western Europe are endangered habitats of great conservation value. Invasion by bracken Pteridium aquilinum is a major challenge for conservation and restoration of these heathlands, including the under-studied northern regions. Today, the herbicide asulam is the most widely applied bracken control measure, but increasing focus on organic farming and nature conservation calls for alternative, preferably mechanical, approaches. In a 7-year replicated field experiment in western Norway, we investigated efficiencies of the four bracken control measures asulam, Gratil, annual cutting and biannual cutting, in restoring the characteristic heathland vegetation structure and species composition. We specifically tested herbicide effects on diversity and composition of non-target species. Effects of treatments over time were evaluated by repeated measures ANOVA, and for multivariate data, Principal Response Curves. Our results show that UK based control methods are largely applicable to bracken at its northern limit in the European heathland habitat. Asulam resulted in the fastest reduction in cover but cutting proved equally efficient long-term. Community compositions progressed towards desired heathland vegetation, but successional trajectories differed. Asulam had unintended effects on a number of heathland species not predictable by species characteristics or functional groups. Gratil failed to have any long-term effects. In summary, cutting is as efficient as herbicide application in reducing bracken, and more so in restoring northern heathland vegetation over time.
Perennial plants may be classified as simple herbaceous or creeping herbaceous perennials. Throughout most of Europe some of the most important grassland perennial weeds are Rumex species and Cirsium arvense. Both genera are spread vegetatively by cultivation and are prolific seed producers, and are often managed in a similar fashion. Rumex management is usually considered as part of the grazing or mowing regime of the grassland. Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) is a unique plant: it is the only terrestrial fern that can dominate grassland and land other than woodland in temperate areas. Some reasons for bracken's success are the same as other perennial weeds: a large rhizome system with large carbohydrate and nutrient reserves; many buds able to produce new growth; and high productivity. Bracken-infested land can be managed by converting it to either outcome: in agricultural situations we will concentrate on the bracken-grassland interaction.
In Hungary, common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca L.) has invaded large areas of semiarid sandy ex-arable fields. Elimination of this species is required since it hinders secondary succession. In June 2006 broadcast-applied glyphosate was sprayed to three oldfileds. Broadcast application of glyphosate affects both target and non-target species in the plant community. In June 2006 and 2007, percentage cover of vascular plant species was estimated in 1 m(2) plots. Relative abundance of categories of seed bank types and time of seed production were used to explore the effects of herbicide treatment on the resident vegetation. The revealed changes showed that non-target vegetation was significantly affected by the extensive herbicide application in the study sites. The time of seed production has more predictive value on the nature of vegetation changes than does soil seed bank type. Species producing seeds before glyphosate application gained advantage in contrast with species of usual seed production after the glyphosate treatment. The abundance of species with different seed bank types changed according to the time of seed production.
The herbicide Metsulfuron (24 g/ha) was evaluated as control method to combat Pteridium aquilinum under field conditions in the Campo Elias County in Mérida, Venezuela. Its high efficiency in the control of the preexisting fern is verified, by virtue of its capacity to produce great foliar damage at 60 days from application (98%), a level which was achieved without significant variations in spite of the density (abundance degree) of the weed in the experimental pasture lots; and by the significant reduction (P<0.05) in the amount of sprouts after 180 days. In addition, the tolerance of the established pasture grasses (Pennisetum clandestinum, Brachiaria mutica and Pennisetum purpureum) to herbicide spraying is verified, while the susceptibility of white clover (Tripholium repens) was demonstrated as it was strongly affected. The need to implement a series of measures previous to the use of this herbicide is discussed in order to guarantee availability of green forage for bovines, leading to the establishment of multifactor strategies. An integral vision is thereby formed wherein the relation man - plant - animal - environmental is considered as a whole, and must be confronted. The results confirm that metsulfuron is an excellent tool for integrated control of the Bracken fern.
A comparative evaluation of six different methods in the control of Bovine Enzootic Hematuria (HEB) including strategies and experiences of technicians and producers, was made in Campo Elias County, Mérida State, Venezuela. The data from five experimental trials plus a control group, were analyzed after 3 years of research. The information used for the statistical study came from the results of the evaluation of urine samples of 575 animals older than fifteen months of age, from eleven farms. In relation to the control groups, values that demonstrate significant statistical differences (P<0.05) in comparison to the other methods evaluated were found, and in a similar manner the calculations of RR and OR demonstrate that the animals have a greater possibility (2.15 times) of suffering of HEB. The P Value (0.02) indicates that the differences observed were not accidental. The 'Elimination of bracken' technique also showed significant results with very low RR and OR, plus a P Value (P<0.05) that demonstrates that it is a protective factor. The analysis of the strategy 'confined growth"' showed low risk values, but the difference was not significant. Other treatments did not show significant differences that could validate their efficiency in the control of the disease. It was concluded that a unique method of control is not satisfactory and that the best results are obtained based on the application of a multiple program that includes several productive and educational strategies based on elements directed towards weed eradication.
Bracken Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn is one of the most common plant species and far the most common fern species in the world. Bracken has a deep strong water- and nutrient-rich rhizome, it produces enormous amounts of spores, it is poisonous, it is favoured by the changing agriculture, it is favoured by fire, it has a allelopatic effect on other plants etc. These factors make the plant a winner in the landscape of today, and it has become a pest plant for both commercial and conservational agriculture worldwide. Numerous programmes have been described as to how to fight the bracken, mostly involving combinations of herbicides (Asulam), cutting and grazing over several seasons. An al terative method is described; sustainable, low cost, non-poisonous and apparently efficient. Simply whip the young fronds off just before they unfold and leave the stipes standing to impoverish the rhizome.
We describe six experiments set up at four regional locations in Great Britain, in 1993 and 1994, to examine the impact of control treatments on bracken and associated vegetation. Present discussion is limited to the effects of treatments on bracken frond variables (density, length and dry mass). These variables would be used by a land manager to judge the extent of infestation and the efficacy of control methods. Results of statistical analyses are reported for the period 1994 to 1998, inclusive. The treatments showed great variability in effectiveness between both sites and years. Great inter-regional differences were seen, but stands at sites within a short distance of each other also varied in their response to treatment. Meso- and micro-climatic differences are suggested as possible causes, together with stand growth phase and genetic effects. The most effective treatments in the short-term were found to be combinations of cutting and herbicide spraying, applied once. Annual cutting usually gave a better result in the longer term. All treatments had greatly improved effects when combined with a follow-up application of herbicide several years after commencement. A number of recommendations are given for management, such as best methods for short- and long-term results. Systematic monitoring is urged as changes in frond density, for example, may reveal the extent of the problem for control at a particular site.
Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) is a major weed of considerable economic concern in upland pastures in Bulgaria and elsewhere in Europe. Between 1993 and 1998, a field experiment was carried out to test methods for restoring productive meadows. Initially, spraying asulam (4·8 kg a.i. ha−1) was used to control the bracken on the site; this was achieved in terms of reduced frond densities and a higher level of grassland establishment. This grassland was dominated by Vicia cassubica and the perennial grasses Agrostis vulgaris, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca rubra, Holcus lanatus and Poa pratensis.
After 2 years, a fertilizer addition experiment was started with four treatments (no fertilizer; addition of phosphorus; addition of nitrogen and phosphorus; addition of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The phosphorus and potassium fertilizers were applied annually in the early spring at 80 kg of P ha−1 year−1 and 50 kg of K ha−1 year−1, and nitrogen was added at the start of grass growth at 60 kg of N ha−1 year−1. At the same time, a twice-yearly hay-cutting regime was implemented. Fertilizer addition increased both the quantity and the quality of the resulting grassland. The herbage dry matter was increased by at least a factor of two depending on fertilizer combination, and there was an increase in grass and legume cover and a decrease in both weed cover and bracken recovery. However, although bracken recovery was inversely related to grassland production, there was a consistent increase in bracken density across all treatments between 1997 and 1998, suggesting that increasing herbage biomass merely delays bracken recovery. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Upland heather moors are high priority biotopes for conservation in Britain, but are under threat from a number of sources. One such threat is a change from a vegetation dominated by dwarf shrubs, mainly Calluna vulgaris, to a grassland dominated by Molinia caerulea. Restoration of a dwarf shrub community has proved problematic with studies showing that herbicide use may be necessary to control Molinia. Previously the non-selective herbicide, glyphosate, has been recommended, but this herbicide may damage Calluna and other moorland species severely. Here, we tested a range of selective herbicides (graminicides) for use in an herbicide-based conservation strategy under field conditions. Two selective herbicides, propaquizafop and quizalofop-ethyl, gave a short-term check to Molinia and another, cycloxydim, provided a reduction for at least 1 year, but this effect disappeared after 3 years. Damage to Calluna was less than that caused by glyphosate, and the selective herbicides had little effect on other moorland species present. Our findings suggest that selective herbicides have a potential role in reducing Molinia during moorland restoration, although follow-up applications, and appropriate moorland management, will also be needed.
Effect of metsulfuron-metil and glyphosate on control of weeds associated to coffee plantations in Venezuela With the objective of evaluating weed control in coffee plantations (Coffea arabica L.) with emphasis in the bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum L. Kuhn) and the effect of the continued use of the herbicides glyphosate and metsulfuron-metil on the flora associated to the crop, two tests were conduced in a plantation located in Bruzual County, Yaracuy State, Venezuela. A randomized block design was used with four repetitions and the following five treatments: control, hand weeding, glyphosate (1920 g·ha-1), metsulfuron-metil (9 g·ha-1), and glyphosate+metsulfuron-metil. In test I total cover of weeds (TCW) in four groups (broadleaf, grassweed, cyperaceae and ferns) and fresh biomass of weeds were evaluated. In test II the number of plants of bracken fern by square meter was evaluated. There were significant differences in TCW for the herbicides, with reductions of 25, 35 and 66 % for glyphosate, metsulfuron-metil and the mixture, respectively. Besides, a differential effect among the groups of present weeds, occurred, which indicates the property that have those herbicides in continuous form during a period of relatively short time (374 days) to modify the composition of the weed populations associated to the coffee plantation. With the mixture of herbicide the smallest values of weed biomass was obteined, followed by the treatments of glyphosate and metsulfuron-metil. The treatments with glyphosate, metsulfuron-metil, and the mixture reduced the populations of bracken fern in 56, 87, 73 % respectively with respect to the initial values.
1. This paper examines the effectiveness of a range of bracken control and heathland restoration treatments on bracken performance and the redevelopment of heath vegetation over a 10-year period on a Calluna- and a grass-heath in Breckland. Initial treatments were a combination of cutting and spraying with asulam, with and without sowing seeds of heathland species. After 6 years a further two treatments were added, with the bracken control treatments being either continued/reapplied or discontinued. 2. No treatment eradicated bracken completely, although all had some control. Asulam was the most effective treatment in the 2 years after treatment, but bracken recovered rapidly thereafter. Yearly cutting reduced bracken fronds by 70%, and cutting twice yearly by >90%. 3. After cutting was stopped, bracken recovered rapidly on plots cut yearly, but more slowly where it was cut twice-yearly. Reapplication of asulam produced a similar response to the initial application, with a rapid decrease followed by recovery. 4. Heathland at the Calluna site took 6 years to reach maximum biomass levels, and seeding had no effect on biomass. On the grass heath, vegetation developed much faster on the seeded plots where bracken was also controlled. At both sites cutting appeared to accelerate vegetation establishment probably because of litter disturbance. 5. At the grass heath, vegetation development suppressed bracken recovery 5-6 years after treatment started, when there was a maximum difference in grass biomass between unseeded and seeded plots. 6. The relevance of these results to both conservation management and the assessment of bracken distribution and encroachment are discussed.
1. This paper investigates the effects of disturbing the bracken-litter layer on the re-establishment of heathland vegetation after spraying with asulam at a grass and a Calluna heath in Breckland. Three litter disturbance treatments were applied: (i) raking and removal of the litter; (ii) incorporating the litter by rotovation; (iii) burning. All treatments were done with and without sowing seed of heathland species. 2. At both sites, litter disturbance increased the speed of colonization and subsequent development of the sown heathland species. At the Calluna site, litter removal was the most effective treatment. 3. At both sites the rapid establishment of the sown species reduced natural colonization of other species. 4. After 11 years, bracken reinvasion was reduced 15-20 m away from surrounding dense bracken edges at the grass heath. 5. The implications of these results for conservation management and heathland restoration are discussed.
The spatial and temporal relations between Calluna vulgaris and Pteridium aquilinum on a podsolized sand in an area liable to much frost have been examined. The area bears Pteridietum flanked on one side by Callunetum without bracken and on the other by Callunetum with sparse bracken. The relations between the Pteridietum and its flanking Calluneta along their lines of contact are the subject of particular inquiry. On the one side bracken moves into and replaces the Callunetum killing it out by the wave of advance. Bracken is able to do so because of its marginal vigour and the massing of the fronds at their most competitive along a continuous front. But it is not definitely established that this can happen in the absence of grazing by rabbits. On the other flank there is a fairly abrupt change from dominant bracken to dominant heather (with some bracken) without a corresponding change in soil or microclimate. Several lines of evidence show that Calluna is advancing and replacing the bracken. On removing the advancing heather the bracken comes back. The structure of the Callunetum has been described in terms of four phases, pioneer, building, mature, degenerate, as was the Pteridietum with an additional grass-heath phase (Watt, 1947a). Examination of the relations between bracken and heather in the Callunetum show that the bracken is over-dispersed, that this over-dispersion manifests itself in the greater number of fronds in the pioneer and degenerate phases and a smaller number in the building and mature, than if at random, and that there is phasic interdigitation of the two dominants, that is, that the two are in phase. Finally, the interpretation of the phenomena is based upon knowledge of the life history of the plants and of the structure of the communities they form.
Aerial spraying with asulam is commonly used to control bracken in upland Britain, and there is a possibility that drift from these applications may reach sites containing other sensitive species. Here a field-based bioassay experiment is reported where a sensitive species (Rumex acetosa) was exposed downwind of an area being sprayed commercially with asulam (4·4 kg A.i. ha−1 in 44 litres spray ha−1) by helicopter in the North Peak Environmentally Sensitive Area in Derbyshire. Although drift of large droplets decreased rapidly, with most deposition within 35 m downwind, damage to the test plants was detected at distances of greater than 100 m. We predicted that the no-effect distance was 161 m and that a minimum buffer zone of > 160 m was, therefore, required to protect sensitive sites.
Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) is native to this country, but has become a major weed of marginal and hill land throughout western and northern Britain. Estimates suggest that the plant now occupies 3000-6700 km^2 and is spreading at 1-3% per annum. It is a serious weed for several reasons. It causes direct loss of grazing land, is poisonous to stock, and makes shepherding very difficult. It also acts as a reservoir for sheep ticks, causing problems for farmers and managers of grouse moors (ticks transmit louping ill to grouse chicks). The plant is carcinogenic, and has been implicated in higher than average incidences of cancers in people living in brackeninfested areas. Finally, invasion by the plant leads to a loss of plant and animal communities that conservationists regard as more desirable than dense stands of bracken, for example heather moorland. Total costs to agriculture caused by bracken invasion are unknown, but probably run into several million pounds a year. The plant can be controlled by herbicides, or by cutting and rolling, but these methods are often too expensive or too labour intensive for use in many upland areas. One solution may therefore be biological control, although this has rarely been attempted against native plants anywhere in the world. This paper explains why biological control of bracken by using exotic insects from the Southern Hemisphere has a reasonable chance of success. Several potential control agents have now been found on bracken growing in temperate parts of South Africa. They include two moths: Conservula cinisigna, a folivorous noctuid, and one or more species of Panotima, pyralids that first mine the pinnae, and then bore into the rachis. Both appear to be bracken-specific. Their biologies, and those of other possible control agents are described, and constraints and problems encountered in trying to rear them under quarantine conditions are outlined. Over and above the biological and technical problems that have been encountered, and now largely overcome, are a host of political, legal, environmental and socio-economic problems that must be confronted before biological control of bracken in Britain can be attempted. The ecological and economic consequences of controlling bracken biologically need to be carefully weighed against the effects of its continuing spread, and against alternative solutions, for example, harvesting for biomass or control via markedly increased use of herbicides in upland areas.
The imperfect fungus Ascochtya pteridis, causal agent of curl-tip disease, is considered as the potential active ingredient of a mycoherbicide for the control of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kühn) Results of experimental attempts to improve pathogenicity by the addition to the spore inoculum of one or more adjuvants are reviewed. The importance of protecting spores and germ tubes from desiccation in the pre-penetration phase is emphasised and results of experiments demonstrating the potential for water retention by invert (water-in-oil) emulsions discussed. Provisional results of field trials using an invert emulsion of water in soybean oil are summarised. Infection was achieved, but it is though that the low level of mycoherbicidal activity was due to application when the host was beyond its most susceptible stage.
Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) is an invasive native weed in the UK causing problems in upland agriculture and in land of amenity and conservation value; it may represent a risk to human health. Existing control methods such as cutting or herbicide use are subject to practical, economic or environmental constraints in many areas of the UK. Classical biological control of bracken would involve the introduction of specialist bracken-feeding herbivores from other parts of the world. Classical biological weed control has a reasonable record of success in other parts of the world and an exemplary safety record, but remains untried in the UK. The typical development of a classical weed biocontrol programme is presented using the UK bracken programme as an example. Finally the current position of this classical biocontrol programme is reviewed with an assessment of the prospects for the future. With appropriate funding, a full field release of at least one species of South African bracken-feeding moth should be achieved during the mid-1990s.
Response of bracken plants from different sites to potential new herbicide treatments
- Tm West
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Responses of bracken and its understorey flora to some sulfonylurea herbicides and asulam
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Bracken control. a review of progress, 1974-1979. West of Scotland Agriculture College Research and Development Publication No 12
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