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Expanding the Discourse on Learner Development: A reply to Anita Wenden
Abstract
L'A. examine la signification du concept de developpement de l'apprenant utilise en linguistique appliquee. Il examine la representation du changement dans l'enseignement des langues a travers deux approches qui ont fourni les idees de base au concept de developpement de l'apprenant: l'apprentissage auto-dirige de la langue et les strategies de l'apprenant dans l'apprentissage de la langue. Il examine ensuite la representation de l'apprenant et du contexte d'apprenant developpee par Anita Wenden (2002) : il s'agit d'une construction abstraite de l'individu : le concept d'apprenant ne correspond pas a un individu reel mais a une position discursive
... Due to the increasing popularity of sociocultural perspectives, the current debate on autonomy in the field has begun to expand its research horizon by incorporating these new perspectives and new concepts, such as identity and agency (Palfreyman, 2003;Ushioda, 2009). As indicated by Zungler and Miller (2006), there is some rising tension among researchers as to whether or not the two paradigms, namely, sociocultural and cognitive, should be regarded as two worlds parallel or complementary to each other. ...
... Likewise, in learner autonomy research, agency as a sociological/sociocultural construct and metacognition as a cognitive construct have often been viewed as two worlds apart. In a debate between Palfreyman (2003) and Wenden (2002), Wenden's (2002) ...
... In the chapter, we also see language learners' strategic learning or use of language learning strategies (LLSs) as one of the most important aspects of autonomous learning (e.g. Oxford, 2003Oxford, , 2008Palfreyman, 2003;Phakiti, 2003;Tseng et al., 2006). For this reason, we shall first discuss the connections among agency, metacognition and strategic language learning. ...
... Wenden 2002). Following the recent paradigm shift, the advent of a sociocultural approach in language learning research provides the theoretical underpinning for such an enquiry on parental involvement since it emphasizes the importance of historical, cultural, and social contexts of language learning in research (Wenden 1998;Norton and Toohey 2001;Palfreyman 2003aPalfreyman , 2003bWatson-Gegeo 2004;Gao 2006;Zungler and Miller 2006). Language learning research using other research approaches also values context, but context in sociocultural language learning enquiries refers to more than immediate environment of language learning; it is whatever is relevant to language learning whether they are in immediate settings or not (Norton and Toohey 2001). ...
... Wenden 2002). Following the recent paradigm shift, the advent of a sociocultural approach in language learning research provides the theoretical underpinning for such an enquiry on parental involvement since it emphasizes the importance of historical, cultural, and social contexts of language learning in research (Wenden 1998;Norton and Toohey 2001;Palfreyman 2003aPalfreyman , 2003bWatson-Gegeo 2004;Gao 2006;Zungler and Miller 2006). Language learning research using other research approaches also values context, but context in sociocultural language learning enquiries refers to more than immediate environment of language learning; it is whatever is relevant to language learning whether they are in immediate settings or not (Norton and Toohey 2001). ...
... Language learning research using other research approaches also values context, but context in sociocultural language learning enquiries refers to more than immediate environment of language learning; it is whatever is relevant to language learning whether they are in immediate settings or not (Norton and Toohey 2001). For sociocultural researchers, language learning and language learner development is a socialization process mediated by various social agents in contexts where language learning occurs (Norton and Toohey 2001;Palfreyman 2003b;Thorne 2005;Gao 2006). Language learning is ubiquitous and happens 'in family, community, workplace, and classroom' (Watson-Gegeo 2004: 340). ...
The paper reports on parental involvement in Chinese students’ language learning which has emerged as a major finding from an interpretative enquiry into their English-learning experiences. The data confirm that Chinese parents and other family members are closely involved in the study participants’ language learning, in particular, their development as competent English learners. They are indirectly involved the participants’ development as English learners as language learning advocates, language learning facilitators, and language teachers’ collaborators. Furthermore, they are directly involved in their children’s development as language learning advisors, language learning coercers, and language learning nurturers. The findings suggest language teachers to be more proactive in establishing a school-family/teacher-parent partnership in learner development programs. Further research is also needed to support such a partnership.
... In such research, LLSs are often defined as learners' efforts to enhance their own language learning and/or use (Cohen, 1998). As a theoretical alternative, a sociocultural perspective offers LLS researchers a complementary view in which learners' strategy use is not seen as simply cognitive choice but also as something emerging from a socialization process mediated by various social agents through language (discourses) and artifacts, for example, material tools (Donato & McCormick, 1994;Gao, 2006b;Gillette, 1994;Norton & Toohey, 2001;Oxford, 2003;Palfreyman, 2003a;Parks, 2000;Thorne, 2005). Sociocultural strategy researchers recognize the importance of exploring the social, cultural, and political contexts of language learning and "view real-world situations as fundamental, not ancillary, to learning" (Zuengler & Miller, 2006, p. 37). ...
... Sociocultural strategy researchers recognize the importance of exploring the social, cultural, and political contexts of language learning and "view real-world situations as fundamental, not ancillary, to learning" (Zuengler & Miller, 2006, p. 37). They see learning contexts as particular communities of learning in which language learners negotiate their relationships with themselves and other learners in the language-learning process (Lantolf & Pavlenko, 2001;Norton, 2000;Norton & Toohey, 2001;Palfreyman, 2003a). In such theorization, language learners' strategy use not only enhances their language learning and use, but also helps pursue their desired identities in particular learning contexts (e.g., Oxford, 2003). ...
... Apart from teachers, peers can be another important source of mediation in language learners' strategy use (e.g., Gao, 2006b;Palfreyman, 2003a). The data suggest that the peer relationships experienced by the participants were sometimes seriously undermined by the competitive learning process, leading to the participants' feelings of vulnerability, insecurity, anxiety, and frustration (e.g., Phelps, 2005;Turner & Acker, 2002). ...
This article reports on an interpretative inquiry into 14 tertiary vocational students' educational experiences on the Chinese mainland with a focus on their strategy use in learning English. Using sociocultural theory, the inquiry reveals the profound impact that the learning context had on the research participants' strategy use. The data reveal that the participants' exam-oriented learning strategies were at the core of their efforts to pursue desirable identities in a competitive academic environment. They also indicate that the participants' strategy use was closely associated with an internalized sociocultural discourse that conceived learning as the means to achieve social mobility. Pedagogic practices that often imposed markers on the participants and tense peer relationships that prevented the participants from adopting alternative strategies were found to be 2 important motivators for the participants' adoption of their exam-oriented learning strategies.
... A more qualitative and context-sensitive research approach has been recommended to generate a contextualised understanding about learners' strategic learning efforts in specific contexts (e.g. Gan et al, 2004;Gao, 2004;Gu, 2003;He, 2002;Palfreyman, 2003;Parks & Raymond, 2004). Such a methodological shift is particularly welcomed in light of the current 'social' turn in language learning research (e.g. ...
... The paper reports on the language learning experiences of one mainland Chinese undergraduate student in an English-medium university in Hong Kong, with an attempt to interpret her strategic learning efforts from a sociocultural perspective (Donato & McCormick, 1994;Gao, 2006;Thome, 2005). In comparison with LLS research using other theoretical approaches, the strength of sociocultural LLS enquiries lies in using a holistic approach to explore why language learners adopt and display particular patterns of strategic efforts or behaviour in particular settings and broader learning contexts (Norton & Toohey, 2001;Palfreyman, 2003;Parks & Raymond, 2004;Toohey & Norton, 2003). In the following sections, I will first situate my enquiry in the context of shifting language learning and LLS research paradigms. ...
... 'Context' or 'real world situations' are considered 'fundamental, not ancillary, to learning', while in cognitive theories they are often treated as a variable modifying the internal acquisition process occurring in individual minds in previous research (Zuengler & Miller, 2006: 37;and also Block, 2003;Norton & Toohey, 2001;Sealey & Carter, 2004;Thome, 2005;Watson-Gegeo, 2004). Taking this sociocultural stance, researchers conceptualise language learning not only as metacognitive and cognitive activities in individual brains but also as social acts that are meaningfully related to learners' identity formation (Donato & McCormick, 1994;Norton & Toohey, 2001;Oxford, 2003;Palfreyman, 2003;Thome, 2005;Watson-Gegeo, 2004). The notion of community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991;also Wenger, 1998) is used to describe the language learning context in which language learners find themselves. ...
The two-year longitudinal case study reported in this paper documents a Putonghuaspeaking mainland Chinese undergraduate student's language learning experiences and strategy use in an English-medium university in Hong Kong. Using a sociocultural approach, this paper focuses on three biographical episodes, which recount how the student attempted to create alternative ways of learning and seek new learning opportunities within the learning context, how she came to realise the limitations of her efforts and withdrew from her early active pursuits, and how she followed other mainland Chinese students in memorising words and attached her own meanings to her memorisation efforts. The paper highlights the social, cultural and political aspects of her strategy use and argues that learners' biographical experiences are an important avenue for us to understand learners' strategy use as a complicated phenomenon revealing the interplay between learners' agency and context.
... Of important note here is that all of the studies in the above review have been conducted in western countries that have similar educational systems and social environments. However, self-directedness in learning is socio-cultural reflection (Kasworm, and Bing, 1992), and so actual learning and teaching situations gain meaning in their social contexts (Palfreyman, 2003). Harmer (2003, p.288) To counter this anglo-centricity, this section reviews the studies conducted in eastern cultures where significantly different approaches are adopted to teaching and learning. ...
... points out that "the social context in which learning takes place is of vital importance to the success of the educational endeavour".Holliday (1996 and2003 in Palfreyman and Smith Eds.) further explains the tension between the need for a greater social awareness of local forms of autonomy -termed as "social autonomy" (2003) -and a desire for culture-free professionalism in international English language education while suggesting that all English language educators need to be constantly critical and aware of the social influences and implications of what they do. Dogancay-Aktuna (2005) also outlines how information about intercultural communication that is integrated with methodology training can foster greater awareness of sociocultural relativity in teacher trainees. ...
This paper describes a cross-cultural online writing project in which three English-as-a foreign language (EFL) college instructors in Ukraine, Russia and Saudi Arabia and their undergraduate students participated. The aim of the project was to develop students’ writing skills in EFL, to develop their awareness of local and global cultural issues and events, and to develop their ability to communicate and interact with students from other cultures. Thirteen discussion threads, twenty external links, nine documents, three assignments, a photo gallery and Powerpoint presentations were posted in the Nicenet course-site. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of the students’ messages and reactions are reported.
... That is, the ecological perspective puts emphasis on the various human and contextual factors which influence the use and effectiveness of the procedures taking place during the language learning process. Holliday (1994), Norton and Toohey (2003) and Palfreyman (2003) (as cited in Palfreyman, 2006) point out that "conceptualization of language learning in Applied Linguistics and ELT have tended to portray the language learner as a relatively decontextualized cognitive being (p. 34)." ...
... In a seminal study, Heath (1983) compares two working class communities and examines how children are socialized into a community of language practice through everyday interaction with text and their family members. Within SLA research, it is revealed that social parameters can also influence the motivation (Lamb, 2004) and learner autonomy (Palfreyman, 2003), although these concepts are considered as variables independent of social context (Palfreyman, 2006). ...
It has long been known that teaching and learning a language in an ESL context is by far easier than teaching and learning it in an EFL context and that learning a language must take place in a social context. Foreign language contexts are those in which students do not have enough opportunities for communication in the target language beyond their classroom settings whereas in second language contexts, the target language is readily available out there (Brown, 2001). Given the important role that language learning resources could potentially play in EFL contexts, in the present study an attempt is made to shed light on the resources which Iranian language learners rely on and to explore the possible resources which exist around them and of which not all of them are necessarily aware. To this end, a group of students studying in Iran Language Institute in Shiraz was chosen. The data of the study were gathered through a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview. The findings suggested that they rely on very few resources outside the classroom setting. In addition, it was revealed that in an EFL context, such as Iran, there is a range of resources which foreign language learners could rely on and which could present them with opportunities in all four language skills.
... In the discourse of language education, ''resource-based'' learning usually refers to learners' ''independent interaction with learning materials'' (Benson, 2001: 111) such as books or videos. However, in this paper I aim to relate the concept of language learning resources to ''ecological'' (Tudor, 2003) issues of social context and mediation in language learning (Palfreyman, 2003), through a study of a particular group of language learners, ...
... Within SLA research, social parameters play an increasingly important role in re-conceptualising established constructs such as motivation (Lamb, 2004), and learner autonomy (Palfreyman, 2003). The individual can be seen as actively taking up a particular stance with respect to material and social resources, and learner autonomy as a developing awareness of these resources and of one's own use of them (Wertsch et al., 1993). ...
Until recently, research in applied linguistics has tended to treat learners in relative isolation from their context, and to study primarily classroom and other educational contexts. This paper in contrast focuses on the contexts which frame learning, and in particular the resources which these contexts provide. A model is outlined which includes both material and social resources for language learning, and the interactions between them. This model is then applied to the learning resources used by a group of female university students in the United Arab Emirates. Students were found to make use of various opportunities in their life outside the university, to practise English and to clarify problems in using the language. Social networks were found to influence the accessibility and use of these resources, with gender and perceived expertise in English affecting students’ use of resources. In addition, students were found to act as sources of English expertise for other members of their family, in ways that contribute to their social identity within the family.
... The advent of a sociocultural approach in language learning research provides the theoretical underpinning for such an enquiry on parental involvement since it emphasizes the importance of historical, cultural, and social contexts of language learning in research (Wenden, 1998;Palfreyman, 2003a;Gao, 2006a). For sociocultural researchers, language learning and language learner development is a socialization process mediated by various social agents in contexts where language learning occurs (Palfreyman, 2003b;Thorne, 2005;Gao, 2006a). Language learning happens 'in family, community, workplace, and classroom' (Watson-Gegeo, 2004, p. 340). ...
... The biographical method, where language learners' retrospective accounts of their experiences are collected and analyzed, has been gaining currency in language learning research. Many researchers (Johnson & Golombek, 2002;Palfreyman, 2003b;Benson, 2005) have found this method helpful in capturing learners' voices and enhancing our understanding of what they really experience. The questionnaire consists of ten statements defining some direct and indirect strategy use. ...
The paper discusses the relationship between parental involvement in English language teacher trainees’ learning German as a second foreign language and trainees’ academic success in German. To this end, a questionnaire, which examines the types of direct (language learning advisors and coercers) and indirect parental strategies (language learning advocates and facilitators), is applied to 21 trainees. Following the biographical method in data collection process, the participants are asked to elaborate more on the types of strategies. The findings about the types of parental strategies are interrelated to the participants’ overall term grades in German language that they have achieved in three academic semesters.
... Bundan dolay›, yabanc› dil ö¤retim programlar›n›n ö¤renci geliflimine etkisi okul ve s›n›f ortamlar›nda tart›fl›l›r (Wenden, 2002). Fakat, dil ö¤renme araflt›rmalar›nda tarihi, kültürel ve toplumsal ö¤elerin önemini vurgulayan toplumsal-kültürel kuram›n benimsenmesiyle aile katk›s›n›n sorgu-lanmas› için gereken kuramsal donan›ma kavuflulmufltur (Wenden, 1998;Norton ve Toohey, 2001;Palfreyman, 2003aPalfreyman, , 2003bWatson-Gegeo, 2004;Gao, 2006;Zungler ve Miller, 2006). Dil ö¤renme araflt›rmalar›nda kullan›lan di¤er yaklafl›mlar da ba¤lam› vurgularlar, fakat toplumsal-kültürel kuramdaki ba¤lam, dil ö¤renme ile ilgili olsun ya da olmas›n dil ö¤renme ortam›ndaki tüm ö¤eleri de¤erlendirmeye al›r (Norton ve Toohey, 2001). ...
... Dil ö¤renme araflt›rmalar›nda kullan›lan di¤er yaklafl›mlar da ba¤lam› vurgularlar, fakat toplumsal-kültürel kuramdaki ba¤lam, dil ö¤renme ile ilgili olsun ya da olmas›n dil ö¤renme ortam›ndaki tüm ö¤eleri de¤erlendirmeye al›r (Norton ve Toohey, 2001). Toplumsal-kültürel kuram› benimseyen araflt›rmac›lar için dil ö¤renme ve dil ö¤rencisinin geliflimi, dil ö¤renme ortam›ndaki birçok toplumsal ö¤enin etkile-di¤i toplumsal bir süreçtir (Norton ve Toohey, 2001;Palfreyman, 2003b;Thorne, 2005;Gao, 2006). Dil ö¤renme, "aile, topluluk, iflyeri ya da s›n›f gibi de¤iflik yerlerde" gerçekleflebilir (Watson-Gegeo, 2004, 340). ...
... They argue that individual learners, as social agents, are "dynamic and changing over historical time and social space" (ibid). Socio-cultural perspectives, researchers further see language learning as learners' socio-political acts contributing to their identity construction and mediating their social relationships in particular contexts, apart from the metacognitive and cognitive activities taking place in their brains (Lantolf & Pavlenko, 2001;Norton & Toohey, 2001;Oxford, 2003;Palfreyman, 2003;Pavlenko & Norton, 2007;Watson-Gegeo, 2004). In other words, language learning combines "personal transformation with the evolution of social structures" (Wenger, 2000, p. 227); it is also "both a kind of action and a form of belonging" (Wenger, 1998, p.4). ...
... The participants' attendance at the event not only facilitated the participants' English learning but also helped them to acquire membership access to an emerging community of multilingual, highly educated, professional Chinese. Therefore, their participation in the weekly club can only be captured by a broader conception of learning strategy, one that draws on sociocultural, political and critical perspectives on language learning (Norton & Toohey, 2001;Oxford, 2003;Palfreyman, 2003) ...
This paper reports on a study into the motives underlying the formation of a weekly English discussion group organized by mainland Chinese research students in Hong Kong as a strategic effort to improve their English. Adopting a sociocultural approach, we compared our interpretations of semi-structured interview transcripts and other data, focusing in particular the participants' strong English learning motivation. It was found that their motives were very complex and could best be explained by the notion of investment (Norton, 1995). These motives also became the primary forces that transformed the weekly event from a learning event into a variety of activities that moved beyond improving their English speaking skills for individual participants. The paper argues that a more sociocultural or sociopolitical perspective on learning strategy should be adopted to deepen our understanding of language learners' strategic learning behaviour.
... recent article has its antecedents in Wenden's (1998Wenden's ( , 2002 calls for an increased focus on metacognitive knowledge in developing strategic language learners and Palfreyman's (2003) response to Wenden. Palfreyman cautioned against walling in the view of autonomous, cognitively developing individuals (as opposed to social beings) and walling out "other conceptions of learning and development which are closer to the lived experience of learners in real-life contexts" (p. ...
In the field of educational psychology, self-regulation is part of a well-established research paradigm that has been extensively applied to learning contexts. However, despite proposals highlighting its benefits, some researchers claim that its cross-pollination into applied linguistics has been slow. In their recent Applied Linguistics' Forum article, Teng and Zhang (2022) discuss some of the reasons why this may be the case. They also further repeated calls for the importance of self-regulated learning in second/foreign language learning and teaching. In this response article, we wish to add to their proposal by focusing on the role that language plays in language learning. Specifically, to maximize the benefits of second/foreign language learning and teaching centered on regulatory training (whether it is self-, co-, or otherwise derived), then alongside the how (learning process), we need to more fully consider the what (aspect of language being learned), and how the two are, in essence, mutually constitutive and reciprocally conditioned. This entails broadening our perspective on self-regulated learning to encompass the multi-functional nature of language use.
... Until recently, studies in second language learning have not paid due attention to the learners as a social being (Holliday, 1994;Norton & Toohey, 2003;Palfreyman, 2003). A significant body of literature has developed concerning learners individually, focusing on the strategies they use to learn language both inside and outside the classroom, with less attention to the context of their learning Dickinson, 1992;. ...
The present study investigated how people may evaluate others’ personality by noticing their names in an Iranian
community. Before initiating the study, the effective facets based on which names are chosen in Iran including
religious belief, historical tendencies and newly fashionable names, were sought. Two hundred students in Ilam
University filled out the questionnaire in which 30 names, and 30 attributes, from the three above-mentioned groups
were represented. Having analyzed the data, the researchers found out that the participants’ attitudes towards each
category were so close to each other. They proposed approximately the same attributes to each group in general and
each name in particular. Analysis of the data suggests that people in the given context often shape mental attitudes
towards one’s personality by considering his/her name. It was also revealed that stereotypical characters significantly
affect the participants’ attitude toward others names.
KEY WORDS: Personal Names, Religious Names, Historical Names, Newly Fashionable Names, Iranian Names.
... The concept of agency became popular as a construct tied to sociological perspectives during the debate internal to the field of SLA, taken into consideration in the second chapter and known with the expression of "paradigm wars" (paragrafo 2.3.4), juxtaposed and initially in competition (Palfreyman 2003) with the cognitivist construct of metacognition, that is the mechanism through which a learner monitors, regulates, and orients his or her own learning process (Wenden 1998(Wenden , 2002Zimmerman 2001;Azvedo et al 2004;Zhang 2008). To put it another way, metacognition can be defined as awareness of the dynamics underlying one's own language development, that therefore need to be made explicit and shared with the learners. ...
Since the end of World War II, linguistics has been primarily informed by one single dominating theoretical model of language, which is cognitivist at its core. As a trickle-down effect, the same happened for fields such as Second Language Acquisition and L2 Education. Within these fields, however, many problems and practical implementation issues have gradually emerged: while in SLA research, for example, Larsen-Freeman (2007) pointed out the limitations imposed by what she calls a “narrow perspective […] adopted thus far in the field”, in second language education the Communicative Language Teaching paradigm — that has imposed itself in the last decades — is still recognized as “only partially implemented” (Jacobs and Farrel 2003). These issues all root back and can be attributed to the ontological perspective that has been so far adopted over the concepts of language, learning, and cognition, and they ultimately reverberate on teaching practices and learners’ results.
In order to overcome this impasse, second language education needs a full reboot, which passes through a reconceptualization of what learning a language actually means, educating learners to an holistic approach that goes well beyond grammar and communicative tasks: power, agency, identity, and metacognition are the new focus upon which to concentrate.
Sociocognitive linguistics offers an excellent alternative theoretical basis to Chomskyan linguistics in terms of theory of language. A consequential alternative theory of learning is therefore proposed here, finally providing these two theoretical pillars (theory of language and of learning) necessary to language pedagogy to set itself free from the doldrums in which it has become stranded.
Hacker ethics and open source software development dynamics, finally, offer a viable model to follow in order to operate this reboot, indicating the right direction to take and offering a concrete roadmap to the language learners and educators of the twenty-first century.
... In the 1990s, autonomy was more closely allied with learning strategies than it was with any other language education concept, although it has often been argued that learner autonomy involves more than use of learning strategies and that training should not be limited to training in strategy use (Little, 2000c;Palfreyman, 2003a). ...
This work was meant to be a PhD thesis to acquire the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics from the University of Essex in England. However, due to situations beyond my control, I was unable to complete it at the university of Essex. Unfortunately, I was in Libya during the uprising against Qaddafi in 2011 to renew my UK visa, but the UK embassy in Tripoli refused my visa application. I could have applied for an administrative review of this decision, but what made things worse, the war intensified and foreign embassies left the country. At that time the first draft of my dissertation was ready and needs the implementation of my supervisors'' comments. I revised the first draft but I had no way of defending it in the UK even via video conferencing as the internet connection was intentionally cut by the regime. After the claimed liberation of Libya at the end of 2011, I contacted several universities in other countries, but they required that I start all over again (even those delivering distance learning). I was disappointed, and I had to abandon my four year work on a dusty shelf (and in a USB, of course). Fortunately, In 2016, while I was surfing the net, I found the self-publishing service on the createspace.com website. I have almost completed my first book on applied linguistics then. So I completed it and immediately got it published via their service. I published a second one in 2017 and began redrafting my PhD work so that I can publish it as book, and here it is published and has seen life after nearly six years of neglect. Thanks to Technology and those advancing it.
... Promoting learner autonomy always happens in a cultural context. No matter whether we understand culture as national, institutional or a shared way of life (Palfreyman, 2003), efforts aimed at proposing, developing, and sustaining learner independence and self-regulation will need to take into account the specificity of this context. ...
The article looks at language learner autonomy as a social construct in relation to the context and its user based on the example of Italki, a social networking site for tandem language learning. Considering the two foci - the context and the learner - the study is divided into two parts, both carried out from the perspective of online ethnography, each utilising different techniques and tools. Part 1, based on participatory observation and user experience of the author, was aimed at investigating the context of Italki as a language learning environment. Its affordances, noted in the course of the study, are analysed against the three aspects of social learner autonomy (Murray 2014): Emotional, political, and spatial, in order to investigate the potential of Italki for interdependent learning. In Part 2 of the study, with its focus on the learner, the data were gathered by means of semi-structured open-ended interviews with Italki users (N=10). One of these interviews evolved into a case study, in which elements of social network analysis (SNA) were utilized to look at learner autonomy of an individual user. The results of the study indicate that learner autonomy in the digital age can be both self- and other-regulated; characterized by learner independence as well as interdependence. All this is very much promoted by new tendencies in language learning and affordances offered by the new media. At the same time, though, the nature of the autonomy exercised will, to a large extent, be determined by individual learner agendas, motives and attitudes.
... The shift towards the 'ideal self' in motivation research has been related to recent efforts to problematise the conceptualisation of learner attributes such as motivation and beliefs as 'static' features. As advanced by Ushioda (2011), such problematisation has led to a shift from a theoretical abstraction of learner attributes towards a focus on the agency of the individual person [ ... ] with an identity, a personality, [ ... ]; a person with goals, motives and intentions; a focus on the interaction between this self-reflective agent, and the fluid and complex web of social relations, activities, experiences and multiple micro-and macro-contexts ... (Ushioda, 2011: 12-13) Recent studies, especially those endorsing socio-cultural perspectives that highlight the mediation of contextual conditions on language learning, have also supported this shift with views that perceive language learners' emerging motivation as associated with an interactive process between shifting contextual conditions and learners themselves (e.g., Gao, 2008;2010;Lamb, 2007;Palfreyman, 2003). Socio-cultural perspectives on language learning 'view real-world situations as fundamental, not ancillary, to learning' (Zuengler & Miller, 2006: 37) and, as a result, language learning should be regarded not only as metacognitive and cognitive activities in individual brains but also as social acts that are meaningfully related to learners' identity formation. ...
The rise of English as an international language has always been a controversial issue. Its critics condemn the global dominance of English as a form of linguistic imperialism, in which hegemonic powers like Great Britain and the United States extend their influence and interests by promoting the teaching and learning of English (e.g., Phillipson, 1992). In contrast, others have observed that the ascension of English as an international language has been supported by individuals in various contexts who appropriate the language as a means to pursue their localised interests and agenda (e.g., Canagarajah, 2007). Research has also documented various ways in which individuals in many contexts are empowered by their English competence and see the language as an integral part of their identity (e.g., Lamb, 2007). These individuals’ experiences raise intriguing questions for further research on the interplay between the individual creativity and contextual conditions under which English has spread as an international language. Such research helps reveal how individual learners motivate themselves and sustain their motivation in their autonomous efforts to develop English competence in particular contexts.
... According to Palfreyman (2003), the 'social turn' in education "offers a new dimension to the study of learning strategies" (p. 245), through depicting learners' strategy use as something emerging from the mediational processes of particular learning communities. ...
The paper reports on the involvement of 'significant others' (e.g. parents and friends) as experienced by a group of learners learning English at university in their Arab homelands. Underpinned by a sociocultural standpoint, the data collected from a written narrative and four subsequent semi-structured interviews suggest that 'significant others' directly and indirectly fostered or hindered the participants' English language development and identity formation by prompting different strategies. Further research into the cooperation between actors inside and outside the classroom is believed to generate essential findings for the language learner development programmes.
... He then proposed an alternative conceptual framework that included the notion of learners' exercising control over the learning process, resources, and language. Other critical theorists raised similar issues against the mainstream thinking about L2 learner autonomy (e.g., Palfreyman, 2003;Pennycook,1997;Schmenk, 2005). ...
There is not enough conceptual work done on autonomy relating it to other individual difference variables. Some researchers have investigated the characteristics of L2 English learners in terms of motivation and learning strategy constructs, but they did not include variables associated with learners’ perceived L2 learning competence/anxiety. Some other researchers investigated the characteristics of L2 English learners in terms of strategy use and confidence constructs, but did not include motivational constructs. Motivational, affective, and strategy use have been hypothesized to be important in fostering L2 learner autonomy (Benson, 2011), but conceptual work linking these constructs to L2 learner autonomy is needed. The present study aims to identify the links among L2 learner motivation, confidence/anxiety, and strategy use with L2 English learners with varying degrees of L2 learner autonomy, measured with the Self-Determination Theory-based motivational continuum. The results will help to illuminate how autonomy is related to other variables and thereby provide a clearer understanding of L2 English learner autonomy. The second purpose is to investigate which of the above-mentioned constructs can be changed through a specific educational intervention. This is important given that positive changes in such variables are hypothesized to result in more positive educational outcomes. The study also aims to investigate how the participants perceive a set of learner autonomy fostering activities that aims at transferring learning responsibility from teacher to learner.
... In accordance with Bourdieu (1986), the fragmented nature of the University required the participants to reconstruct the site through negotiating and exchanging valuable resources and expertise, so that they could sustain their access to opportunities for learning and using English (also see Norton, 2000;Norton & Toohey, 2001;Palfreyman, 2003). By reconstructing the site to support their language-learning efforts, they could then``[combine] personal transformation with the evolution of social structures'' through their participation in it (Wenger, 2000, p. 227). ...
This article reports on a longitudinal inquiry into mainland Chinese students' language learning experiences with a focus on their efforts to improve their English competence in a leading English medium University in Hong Kong. The inquiry problematizes an uncritical assumption of a shared pursuit of linguistic competence among different students in an English medium university. Using individual participants' narratives, the article illustrates how contextual complexities mediate their efforts to learn and use English. The findings suggest that successful language learning emerges from an interactive process of the participants' critical understanding of the context and their efforts in extending social networks, such as investing in social exchanges. These findings also raise questions as to how language learners can make such investments and whether or not they are willing to do so. doi: 10.5054/tg.2010.219944
... Theorized as such, language learners' agency entails their motives and intent in language learning and encompasses more than metacognitive beliefs about and capacity for language learning. Consequently, language learners' strategy use can no longer be regarded as metacognitive and cognitive processes only "pertaining to individual will and knowledge" (Parks & Raymond, 2004, p. 375; also see Norton & Toohey, 2001;Palfreyman, 2003). It also needs to be considered an emergent phenomenon "directly connected to the practices of cultural groups" (Donato & McCormick, 1994, p. 453; also see Gao, 2012). ...
This paper reports on a mixed method inquiry into the use of vocabulary learning strategies
and their development as strategic vocabulary learners in a key middle school on the Chinese
mainland. In the inquiry, 475 first year junior secondary school pupils (247 boys and 228
girls) were surveyed about their strategy use in learning English vocabulary. Sixteen pupils (8
boys and 8 girls) participated in paired semi-structured interviews about their experiences of
learning English vocabulary. Drawing on socio-cultural perspectives on language learning, the
inquiry established the interconnections between the participants’ strategy use and beliefs and
identified the roles that agency played in their vocabulary learning. The analysis of interview
data further revealed that the participants’ strategy use emerged from interaction between
their agency and the mediation of contextual resources and social agents including parents and
teachers. These findings suggest that it is important for language teachers to collaborate with
social agents such as parents in their efforts to support young learners’ strategic vocabulary
learning.
... The results of this study are important in the following aspects: First, they partly indicate that critical thinking is not emphasized in the Turkish educational system. Since language learning is regarded as part of a memorization-based system of education in Turkey and learners are not independent enough (Palfreyman, 2003;Tekışık, 2005, pp. 12-13;Sert, 2006), EFL students fail in expressing their own ideas with their own words and thinking critically in content-based courses. ...
With an awakening of interest in gender, a wide array of potentials has emerged for research, theory and practice in SLA. The present study examined the monologic oral performance of 20 male vs. 20 female Iranian EFL learners on a participant -rated LCIT ( least culturally inhibiting topic) vs. a participant-rated MCIT ( most culturally inhibiting topic), addressed to a male vs. a female teacher. Performance was rated in terms of fluency, complexity, and accuracy. 2´2´2 Repeated Measure Mixed Factorial ANOVA revealed the following results: a) fluency varied significantly due to gender, and topic separately, b) complexity significantly varied due to topic, and c) accuracy demonstrated significant statistical difference regarding teacher gender, participant gender, and the interaction of the two. Topic also influenced variability, and finally the interaction of all the three variables, i.e. teacher gender, participant gender, and topic significantly influenced accuracy of participants’ speech. Implications of the study are discussed.
... In recent years, many language teaching and learning researchers have recognized the importance of exploring the social, cultural, and political contexts of language learning and adopted research approaches that 'view real-world situations as fundamental, not ancillary, to learning' (Zuengler andMiller, 2006, p. 37, andalso Lantolf, 2000;Block, 2003;Sealey and Carter, 2004;Watson-Gegeo, 2004;Thorne, 2005). Taking such sociocultural stances, researchers conceptualize language learning not only as meta-cognitive and cognitive activities in individual brains but also as social acts that are meaningfully related to learners' identity-formation (Donato and McCormick, 1994;Norton and Toohey, 2001;Oxford, 2003;Palfreyman, 2003;Watson-Gegeo, 2004;Thorne, 2005). The notion of community of practise (Lave and Wenger, 1991;also Wenger, 1998also Wenger, , 2000 is used in these works to describe the language learning contexts in which language learners find themselves. ...
The main objective of this paper is to explore the strategic learning efforts and future vision of a group of Arab postgraduate students studying in a British University while writing a dissertation in English (about 15,000– 20,000 words). It is guided by AQ1 ¶ Dörnyei's [2009. " The L2 Motivational Self System. " In Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self, Chapter 2, edited by Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda, 9–42. Bristol: Multilingual Matters] concept of 'possible selves', and Hajar's [2016. " Motivated by Visions: A.] distinction between compulsory (i.e. largely regulated by cultural beliefs) and voluntary (i.e. basically internalised within the self) strategies. Semi-structured interviews with each participant were used to collect data. In order to do the data analysis [Clarke, V., and V. Braun. 2013. Successful Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide for Beginners. London: Sage.], systematic guidelines for conducting thematic analysis were adopted to identify and interpret themes in rich detail. The data suggest that the participants' language learning goals and associated strategy use for writing a dissertation were essentially influenced by the practices of their dissertation supervisors, who seemed to adopt a 'dynamic assessment' approach. The adoption of dynamic assessment by most supervisors helped the participants to strengthen the vision of their ideal L2 self, and make their goals clearer and more specific. On the basis of this qualitative study, practical recommendations to develop the effectiveness (quality) of Masters dissertation supervision at UK universities were made, and areas for ongoing research were suggested. AQ2 ¶ ARTICLE HISTORY
This paper reports on a longitudinal phenomenographic inquiry into understanding how two postgraduate Syrian students' ways of approaching English language learning in their homelands influenced the shape of their personal study abroad goals, language strategy use and L2 identity. It is guided by Norton's [(2013). Identity and language learning: Extending the conversation (2nd ed.). Bristol: Multilingual Matters] AQ1 ¶ conceptualisation of motivation as investment in learning a new language, and Hajar's [(2016). Motivated by visions: A tale of a rural learner of English.] distinction between compulsory and voluntary strategies. The qualitative data suggest that the two participants acted agentively to accomplish their academic qualifications in the UK. However, the adjustments of the participant raised by a well-off, well-educated family and educated at outstanding private establishments to the new context appeared to be less taxing than the case of the other participant who came from a disadvantaged background in Syria. The former's positive prior language learning experiences along with the assessment methods of his MA programme helped him to build a positive linguistic self-concept in the UK, using diverse voluntary language strategies. This study reveals how strategy use and L2 identity development of learners in similar contexts might be influenced by educational policy and distribution of resources. From this qualitative longitudinal study, pedagogical implications and areas for ongoing research are suggested. ARTICLE HISTORY
English language materials writers now incorporate strategy instructions into their language learning textbooks in order to raise learners’ strategy awareness, proficiency and self-regulation. This chapter investigates the arguments surrounding the feasibility of integrating language learning strategies (LLSs) into English learning textbooks, given that textbooks are the most convenient form of providing the learner with ‘security, system, progress and revision’ (Tomlinson, 2012, p.158). More precisely, the debate between the cognitive psychology and sociocultural perspectives, in relation to the issue of strategy-based instruction into language learning textbooks is examined. The chapter concludes by attempting to suggest a compromise between the two perspectives through highlighting the need to design ‘strategy-rich L2 textbooks’ by local course writers, who are most familiar with local expectations regarding the linguistic difficulties that encounter language learners studying in a specific situated learning context.
This paper aims to explore the strategic learning efforts and future vision of a group of Arab postgraduate students studying in a British University while writing a dissertation in English (about 15,000–20,000 words). It is guided by Dörnyei’s (2009) concept of ‘possible selves’, and Hajar’s (2016) distinction between compulsory
and voluntary strategies. Semi-structured interviews with each participant were used to collect data. The data suggest that the participants’ language learning goals and associated strategy use for writing a dissertation were essentially influenced by the practices of their dissertation supervisors, who seemed to adopt a ‘dynamic assessment’ approach. The adoption of dynamic assessment by most supervisors helped the participants to strengthen the vision of their ideal L2 self, and make their goals clearer and more specific. From this qualitative study, practical recommendations to develop the effectiveness (quality) of Masters dissertation supervision at UK universities were made, and areas for ongoing research were suggested.
Since the mid-1970s a great deal of research has explored the language learning strategies (LLSs) that learners deploy to improve their language skills. Such research has studied LLS types and correlations between
strategy use and successful language learning, yet very few papers have traced the history and development of
LLS research by anchoring it to different approaches to learning language. In the present paper, we will examine
developments in three major directions of LLS research and suggests some areas that deserve further investigation in future research.
The paper reports on parental involvement in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) freshman students' language learning at the Department of English Language Teacher Training, Faculty of Education, Muǧla University. To this end, a questionnaire, which examines the types of direct strategies that parents use as language learning advisors and language learning nurturers and the types of indirect strategies used as language learning advocates and language learning facilitators, is applied. The participants are allowed to add more strategies that they have experienced from their parents to the strategies already written at the questionnaire. The _ndings about the types of parental strategies are interrelated to the participants' English language test scores that they achieved from the university entrance exam in 2006.
This study examined the writing strategies that ESL Seychellois learners use when given a joint writing task in a group work situation in class. There has been an increase in research on second language writing strategies that second language learners engage in while writing however, writing strategy research from a sociocultural perspective is limited and is often based on self reported data. This research contributes to the literature by using a sociocultural theory framework and examined writing strategies of Seychellois ESL students by making use of observation, field notes, and audio-recording of group interactions. Evidence suggests that students made use of five types of strategies: brainstorming, use of the mother tongue, peer-scaffolding, use of background knowledge, and use of humor. While three of the five strategies (brainstorming, use of mother tongue, peer-scaffolding) have been discussed in earlier studies, using background knowledge, in particular, use of film knowledge and humor are additional strategies evident in this particular study. The study adds important evidence to the reconceptualization of writing strategies from a sociocultural perspective. For example, students' "cognition did not only exist within the confines of their bodies, but also in the sociocultural context" (Lei, 2008 p. 230).
Purpose
– The paper is based on a doctoral action research project in which three ESL teachers and the author in one secondary school in the Seychelles focused on strategy instruction in the process approach to writing instruction with the aim of helping students become effective writers. The project enabled the author to establish relationships with the participating teachers as educator, facilitator and collaborator. To ensure the trustworthiness of the research, the author needed to clarify and explore the complex relationships to the setting and participants being studied. The paper aims to discuss these issues.
Design/methodology/approach
– In this paper, the author reflexively discusses the development nature of my research: language learning strategies (LLS) and draw upon my experience of working with three ESL Seychellois teachers in the reflection and planning stage of the Core Action Research project to critically reflect on the negotiation of my position in practice.
Findings
– Reflecting on the author’s positionality in relation to how the teacher participants constructed the identity has helped the author to be more reflexive and engage with the research process in a more meaningful way.
Originality/value
– The author’s experience suggests that one’s positionality is never fixed and stable, but rather may be characterized as changing and fluctuating according to the context, content, feelings and ideas expressed.
The unsatisfactory results from a focus on the products of language teaching led some language learning researchers since the mid 1970s to place the learner at the heart of the learning process and hinge upon the language learning strategies (LLSs) that advanced multilingual speakers often deploy to improve their language skills. This growing interest on LLS research was based on the grounds that language learners 'may be empowered to manage their own learning' if they are taught 'to work out the answers for themselves' through using effective LLSs (Griffiths 2013, 1). Although LLS research is very prolific and much has been written and discussed the LLS types and the correlation between strategy use and successful language learning across different learning contexts, very few published papers traced the history and development of LLS research by anchoring it from different approaches to learning language. No empirical data was collected for this paper; instead, the paper aims to examine the controversy and developments of each of the three major directions on LLS research drawing on both cognitive and sociocultural language learning research perspectives. This paper also suggests some areas that deserve further investigation in LLS research in the coming years. Introduction One of the prominent challenges in the field of second language teaching and learning is the noticeable variations in L2 learners' linguistic accomplishments although they might receive similar amounts and quality of exposure to the target language. Therefore, some language learning researchers' concern has essentially paid to learners' individuality factors, in particular the study of LLS use, as an avenue to capture how language learners contribute to their own language learning. LLSs can be either unobservable mental operations such as selective attention, or observable behaviour such as seeking out a conversation partner or both. Besides, LLSs need to involve some degree of consciousness or awareness on the part of the learner because 'the element of choice... is what gives a strategy its special character' (Cohen 2011, 7, author's italics). The following discussion will review and describe separately the three main directions pertaining to the field of LLS research. Review of the Fundamental directions on language learning strategy (LLS) research
Against a background where language learning/learner strategy (LLS) research was criticized, we would like to bring to the fore a key concept, metacognition, which has not been fully understood in the way that criticisms were levelled against LLS research. We argue that despite the justification for some points, such criticisms are not based on a complete understanding of the theoretical foundations of LLS research, nor on what metacognition entails, especially when these two constructs are related to both the cognitive and sociocultural domains of learning. Exactly because metacognition is undergirded by both cognitive and sociocultural underpinnings, it cannot be treated purely as a cognitive enterprise; instead, it should be conceptualized as a set of complex dynamic systems. Simply dichotomizing metacognition within a cognitive framework may not be as productive as is usually assumed to be. We argue that some of the criticisms of LLS research are problematic because of the critics’ limited understanding of LLS research. These critics have not pointed close relationships between LLS research to metacognition. To disperse the confusion caused by such criticisms and to advance the field, we elaborate on a dynamic metacognitive systems perspective on second and foreign language learning, teaching and research. We maintain that thinking metacognitively about metacognition with dual or multiple perspectives is necessary. Doing so will enable us to see the contribution of the dynamic metacognitive systems perspective to enhancing our understanding of second and foreign learning, teaching, and research.
In this volume researchers from Asia, Europe, the Middle East and North and South America employ a variety of theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches in their exploration of the links between identity, motivation, and autonomy in language learning. On a conceptual level the authors explore issues related to agency, metacognition, imagination, beliefs, and self. The book also addresses practice in classroom, self-access, and distance education contexts, considering topics such as teachers’ views on motivation, plurilingual learning, sustaining motivation in distance education, pop culture and gaming, study abroad, and the role of agency and identity in the motivation of pre-service teachers. The book concludes with a discussion of how an approach which sees identity, motivation, and autonomy as interrelated constructs has the potential to inform theory, practice and future research directions in the field of language teaching and learning.
There has been a remarkable growth of interest in the theory and practice of autonomy in language teaching and learning in recent years. Focusing on work published since the turn of the 20th century, this review examines major trends in the recent literature on autonomy related to the emergence of alternative views of autonomy, new contexts of practice and interaction with concepts such as self-regulation, motivation, sociocultural theory and teacher development. The review also covers relevant developments in the philosophy of autonomy and the role of autonomy in global educational policy and reform. It concludes by discussing possible directions for future research in the field.
The study analyzes a strand of online discussion messages entitled ‘a Tale of Blue Rain Café’ from an online community of English learners on the Chinese mainland. The strand of messages was part of the collective reflection made by members of an English learning club on their participation. Using sociocultural learning theory, the paper explores how individual learners collaborated to create images of their own English learning community, enhance their feelings of belonging to this learning community, and effect subtle changes in their self-identities, all of which potentially help maintain their participatory learning in the community. Similar inquiries into learners’ construction processes of their learning communities will inform language teachers’ pedagogical endeavours to organize and sustain learners’ autonomous language learning efforts beyond the classroom.
Conceptualizing learners’ individuality as dynamic and contextually situated, this paper reports on an inquiry that examined the genesis of a disabled learner’s success in learning foreign languages on the Chinese mainland. Using source texts such as the learner’s published diaries, letters and her autobiography, the inquiry revealed that language learning success could be explained by her unwavering will, unyielding beliefs and tenacious efforts in learning languages. Her narratives further unveiled the role that contextual conditions and the learner’s agency played in shaping and reshaping her motivational discourses, learning beliefs and strategic efforts. These findings help illustrate how these crucial individual difference factors interact with each other in the language learning process. They also provide further food for thought for language learners and teachers in their efforts to identify means that sustain autonomous language learning efforts in difficult conditions.
Workplace democracy. Empowerment. Team leaders. Knowledge workers. This is the language of the new work order promoted by todays management, which promises more meaningful and satisfying work, greater respect for diversity, and more democratic distribution of knowledge.But Gee, Hull, and Lankshear find startling contradictions in this brave new workplaceescalating inequality between individuals, nations, and even continents. They show how newly created alliances between business, educators, and psychologists may point to a hidden capitalist agenda more interested in preserving the status quo than establishing a new work order. This book offers a compelling and controversial account of global capitalism in the information age and the ways it affects language, literacy, learning, and life chances. It will be of particular interest to students in education, business, sociology, sociolinguistics, and communication studies.
Autonomy in language learning is a desirable goal for philosophical, pedagogical, and practical reasons. However, although many language programmes claim to be learner-centred and supportive of learner initiative, much classroom practice appears to subvert this goal. This paper discusses ways in which mechanisms for promoting learner autonomy have been incorporated into one English language programme. It also discusses the crucial role played by teacher/learner dialogue about learning in the classroom, and considers the implications for materials, task design, and time management.
Language and culture are no longer scripts to be acquired, as much as they are conversations in which people can participate. The question of who is learning what and how much is essentially a question of what conversations they are part of, and this question is a subset of the more powerful question of what conversations are around to be had in a given culture. (McDermott, 1993, p. 295)
This paper argues that reframing the concept of self-direction as an inherently political idea comprises an important strategic opening in building a critical practice of adult education. Instead of being equated with atomistic self-gratification, self-direction can be interpreted as part of a cultural tradition that emphasizes the individual's standing against repressive interests. As such, the concept has some powerful political underpinnings which, if made explicit, could play a significant role in awakening the critical spirit in American adult education. Two inherently political dimensions of the idea are discussed: first, the recognition that at the intellectual heart of self-direction are issues of control and power that are inescapably political; second, the claim that any authentic exercise of self-directedness requires that certain political conditions be in place.
The notion of learner-centred instruction in foreign arid second languages grew out of the recognition that language learners, are diverse, in their reasons for learning another language, their approach to learning, and their abilities. This article is about learner development, a learner-centred innovation in FL/SL instruction that responds to learner diversity by aiming to improve the language learner's ability to learn a language. First, in overview of concepts and practices that defined learner-centred language teaching are provided. Then, the foundational ideas that shaped early practice in learner development and the changes in the field that resulted as these ideas were implemented in language programmes in various world regions are described. An evaluation of the theory and practice in learner development from the perspective of selected theories in SLA follows. The conclusion provides Suggestions for future development.
Strategies enhance learning. However, children and adults often fail to invoke strategic behaviors. In this article, five reasons for failure to use strategies are discussed: (a) poor cognitive monitoring, (b) primitive routines that yield a product, (c) a meager knowledge base, (d) attributions and classroom goals that do not support strategy use, and (e) minimal transfer. I argue that use and failure to use strategies are not fruitfully studied without consideration of setting. A theory of settings reminds us that, when context varies, the nature of strategic activity often varies as well.
Strategies enhance learning. However, children and adults often fail to invoke strategic behaviors. In this article, five reasons for failure to use strategies are discussed: (a) poor cognitive monitoring, (b) primitive routines that yield a product, (c) a meager knowledge base, (d) attributions and classroom goals that do not support strategy use, and (e) minimal transfer. I argue that use and failure to use strategies are not fruitfully studied without consideration of setting. A theory of settings reminds us that, when context varies, the nature of strategic activity often varies as well.
L'A. s'insurge contre une methode d'analyse critique du discours utilisee par Beaugrande et appliquee a un precedant article de l'A. (Applied Linguistics 21/1). Le programme de Beaugrande (WordPilot) consiste a analyser le texte par extraction d'un certain nombre de mots-clefs en calculant le nombre de leurs occurrences. Plus fondamentalement, l'A. rejette ici le type de procedures employees dans le cadre de l'analyse critique du discours
It is a premise of this Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) yearbook, that staff development will become a human Curriculum Development (ASCD) yearbook, that staff development will become a human resource development system designed to change the nature of schooling, the status of its personnel, and their relations with each other. The structure of staff development is the volume's main focus. Part I deals with the research base as it bears on the design of culture-oriented staff development programs. Part II deals with the principalship, school structure, district personnel relations, staff development organization, and the university and its relationship to the schools. Part III describes current developments in Australia, England, and Wales. Part IV describes staff development intitiatives in two very large school systems (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and Los Angeles, California) and two medium-sized districts (Lincoln, Nebraska, and Anchorage, Alaska). Each of these programs was chosen because each can significantly affect the workplace itself as well as deliver services. An epilogue discusses the "curious complexities of cultural change." The ASCD Board of Directors and other staff are listed. Each chapter includes a list of references. (MLH)
Soviet psychologists' views of the relationship between psychology and Pavlovian psychophysiology (or the study of higher nervous activity, as it is referred to in the Soviet literature) has long been a matter of curiosity and concern in the United States. Not accidentally, it has also been a matter of concern and dispute within the USSR. The following is an excerpt from a work by one of the Soviet Union's most seminal psychological theorists on this issue. Written in the late 1920s, this essay remains a classic statement of Soviet psychology's commitment to both a historical, materialistic science of the mind and the study of the unique characteristics of human psychological processes.
Introduction Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality and the Self in Western Thought
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Heller, T. C. and D. E. Wellbery. 1986. `Introduction' in T. C. Heller, M. Sosna, and D. E. Wellbery (eds): Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality and the Self in Western Thought. Stanford University Press.
Cultural alternatives and autonomy Autonomy and Independence in Language Learn-ing
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Pennycook, A. 1997. `Cultural alternatives and autonomy' in P. Benson and P. Voller (eds): Autonomy and Independence in Language Learn-ing. London: Longman.
The Adult's Learning Projects. A fresh approach to theory and practice in adult learning. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
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Tough, A. M. 1979. The Adult's Learning
Projects. A fresh approach to theory and practice
in adult learning. Toronto: Ontario Institute
for Studies in Education.
The Social World of Pupil Career
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Pollard, A. and A. Filer. 1999. The Social World
of Pupil Career. London: Continuum.
The soul of the citizen: Max Weber and Michel Foucault on rationality and government
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Gordon, C. 1987.`The soul of the citizen: Max
Weber and Michel Foucault on rationality
and government' in S. Whimster and S. Lash.
(eds): Max Weber: Rationality and Modernity.
London: Allen and Unwin.
Looking around: The institutional and psychological context of learner autonomy
- N Aoki
Aoki, N. 1999. Looking around: The institutional and psychological context of learner
autonomy. Paper presented in Learner Autonomy Symposium, AILA '99, Tokyo, 5th
August 1999.
Self-directed learning or an emancipatory practice of adult education: rethinking the role of the adult educator
- M Collins
Collins, M. 1988.`Self-directed learning or an
emancipatory practice of adult education:
rethinking the role of the adult educator.'
Proceedings of the 29th Annual Adult Education
Research Conference. Calgary: Faculty of Continuing Education, University of Calgary,
pp. 61±6.
Practical Epistemologies: Mapping the Borders of Our Work. Paper presented at the 34 th International IATEFL Annual Conference
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Freeman, D. 2000. Practical Epistemologies:
Mapping the Borders of Our Work. Paper
presented at the 34 th International IATEFL
Annual Conference, Dublin.
Appropriate Methodology and Social Context. Cambridge
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Holliday, A. 1994. Appropriate Methodology and
Social Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Changing Culture Through Staff Development
- B Joyce
Joyce, B. (ed.) 1990. Changing Culture Through
Staff Development. Alexandria (VA): Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
From Here to Autonomy. Helsinki: Yliopistopaino
- L Karlsson
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Karlsson, L., F. Kjisik, and J. Nordlund. 1997.
From Here to Autonomy. Helsinki: Yliopistopaino.