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Operating Environments in Schools of Open and Traditional Design
Abstract
The label "open school" can refer to design (a school with few interior walls) or to program (a school providing much pupil choice of learning goals and activities). This double use of the word "open" has confused research planning and reporting. However, it has gradually become clear that the design versus program distinction must be maintained. Although the labels have distinct meanings, inhabitants of schools live in units which have both architectural and programmatic features. The pupil in a spelling test is coupled to and surrounded by a physical milieu (desks, papers, blackboard) and a "way-of
... As further sources about school planning we recommend the following surveys: Ahrentzen, Jue, Skorpanich, and Evans (1982) ;Brubaker, Bordwell, and Christopher (1998), , , Gump (1974Gump ( , 1978Gump ( , 1991; Hellbrück & Fischer (1999); Linneweber (1996); Rivlin & Weinstein (1984); Ströhlein (1998). ...
... Special studies are concerned with special topics, for example large and small schools , open versus traditional schools (Gump, 1974), "soft classroom" (Sommer & Olsen, 1980), the school and classroom climate (Anderson, 1982;Arbinger & von Saldern, 1982;von Saldern, 1992), and the lab school Bielefeld (Schmittmann, 1985). ...
The School of the Future “will possibly never be achieved, because something will always be amiss: Sometimes it may be the architecture, sometimes the teachers, at other times it may be the principal, or the students” (Ernst Kasper, architect, Aachen, Germany, personal communication, July 24, 1999). Is this a fair assessment?.
... Ecological researchers (e.g., Barker, 1968;Gump, 1974Gump, , 1982Ross, 1984) have used the term synomorphy to refer to the compatibility between the program of action in an activity and the physical aspects of the setting. From the perspective of order, one can easily imagine how furniture arrangements (e.g., circles, U-shapes, straight rows), types of desks and chairs (e.g., tables or booths in art and laboratory rooms vs. conventional desks), and room dividers (e.g., bookcases, file cabinets) could affect the density of students, opportunities for interaction, and the visibility of behavior. ...
... Gump (1975) reviewed data concerning noise in open-space schools and concluded that noise bothered teachers more than it did students (see also Denscombe, 1980) and that the effects of noise on attention depended upon the nature of the activity, the content of the message, and the density of the setting. Gump (1974) studied primary (first and second) and intermediate (fifth and sixth) grades in two open-space and two traditional school buildings. Differences between buildings were more consistent at the primary than at the intermediate levels, and the differences suggested that open-school students at the primary level occupied a greater variety of sites than primary students in the traditional schools (2.75 and 3.00 vs. 1.00 and 1.75). ...
... Estudos, tanto recentemente como em décadas anteriores (Gump, 1974;Trussell, 2008; (Alves et al., 2015). Este ambiente de aprendizagem desafia os utilizadores a repensar o papel da pedagogia, tecnologia e design nas suas salas de aula mediante a organização de diferentes zonas de aprendizagem, em que através das mesmas, se torna possível explorar os elementos essenciais para a aprendizagem do século XXI, nomeadamente, as capacidades e papéis dos alunos e professores, estilos de aprendizagem, design de ambientes de aprendizagem, tecnologias atuais e emergentes, bem como as tendências sociais que afetam a educação (Future Classroom Lab, 2016a). ...
No seguimento da iniciativa ‘Future Classroom Lab’, desenvolvida em 2012 pela European Schoolnet (EUN), têm vindo a ser criados no contexto educativo nacional, ‘Salas de aula do futuro’ (SAF), que se apresentam como ambientes educativos inovadores (AEI’s) (ERTE, 2017) de estrutura modelar, reconfigurável e multifunções. Mediante a proliferação destes novos espaços educativos nas escolas básicas e secundárias nacionais e de modo a analisar como os mesmos se encontram a ser utilizados, pretende-se desenvolver um projeto de investigação cujo enfoque incide nas práticas educativas, especificamente nas metodologias de ensino-aprendizagem atualmente utilizadas nesses espaços. Em particular, pretende-se analisar as suas características, projetos subjacentes e práticas efetivas que nos mesmos se têm vindo a organizar. Será efetuado um levantamento sobre o design e configuração destas salas de aula e adicionalmente serão analisadas as metodologias desenvolvidas em tais espaços sob a perspetiva de professores e alunos. Inscrito no paradigma paradigmático, o estudo combinará métodos quantitativos e qualitativos de recolha e análise de dados e adotará um formato longitudinal de modo a analisar a realidade eleita com o objeto de estudo com vista a identificar e caracterizar os elementos que conferem sustentabilidade às práticas pedagógicas adotadas nesses AEI’s/SAF. Como participantes do estudo, foram selecionados três casos cujos espaços se assumem como ambientes educativos inovadores e que respeitam os critérios de seleção, previamente estabelecidos. Os momentos de recolha de dados irão ocorrer em dois anos letivos, nomeadamente em 2016/17 e 2017/2018. Os resultados serão posteriormente cruzados, de modo a possibilitar a produção de um relatório descritivo das práticas documentadas e dos produtos resultantes das mesmas.
... The purpose of a transitional activity is to get somewhere else. Some researchers who have examined transitions tend to see them as "non-substance time" (Gump 1974: pp. 586-588), or as moments necessitating good managerial techniques for subsequent time-on-task ( Kounin and Doyle 1975;Arlin 1979). ...
In a study I conducted on Waldorf education, I found that teachers practiced a number of activities that were seemingly important but nameless. While some may consider the kinds of activities I explore in this paper as time-off-task or as incidental, I suggest that activities like shaking hands with students each morning and afternoon, or singing attendance, have important educational ramifications. I call exercises such as these and others focal activities or conditions, and I suggest that they are used specifically to create occasions where teachers can establish, confirm, or discontinue contact between themselves and students. The implications of focal conditions are several. In this paper I argue that focal conditions provide routine contact between teacher and students, can be used as a diagnostic tool, personalize teacher-student relations, create classroom feelings or moods, and, at times, prepare students for the next activity by capturing in an expressive form its essential character. The term focal condition is foreign to Waldorf education, but I believe the concept captures Waldorf teacher practice. I end this article by encouraging researchers, administrators, and teachers to take these activities seriously and not relegate them to a subordinate educational category.
... Rearrange teacher's desk (Proshansky & Wolfe, 1974;Zifferblatt, 1972). Place barriers and/or partitions in the classroom (Evans & Lovell, 1979;Gump, 1974;Proshansky & Wolfe, 1974). Address acoustic quality in the classroom by eliminating objects that produce background noise. ...
In this article the authors discuss how the classroom environment can increase academic engagement and decrease disruptive behavior. The article suggests that teachers collect data with regard to students' engagement during instruction, disruptive behaviors, and teacher observations to identify physical improvements in the classroom that will contribute to improvements in attention and behavior. The article also discusses classroom management strategies that take a proactive approach to preventing disruptions and are easy to implement.
... Created barriers from preexisting furniture (Evans & Lovell, 1979;Gump, 1974;Proshansky & Wolfe, 1974) Children did not have clearly defined boundaries and roamed from place to place 2 1 Sufficient space for group & large group activities (Fullerton & Guardino, in press) Children were hitting one another because the work spaces were too small 1 1 ...
High levels of aggressive behaviors were observed during the transition times in two self-contained special education classrooms: a kindergarten and pre-kindergarten. The present case studies examine how modifying the classroom infrastructure impacts students' aggressive behavior. Teachers were assisted on the usage of select modifications (visual cues and carrels). Data were collected during pre-experimental, baseline, intervention 1, and intervention 2. Results indicate that modifying the classroom environment decreased aggressive behaviors during transition times by as much as 12% from the beginning of the study. The change in aggressive behavior was moderate and teachers perceived the intervention as having a positive impact on students' learning and their ability to teach. Implications for practitioners are discussed.
... A report by the National Union of Teachers ( NUT England, 1974) and the detailed survey of Bennett et al. (1980) note some of the problems, including noise levels, teachers lacking specific training for this environment and worries that for some children open-plan spaces might be inappropriate, producing behaviour problems and lack of involvement. There is now a considerable body of research, from the UK and US, which examines how open-plan schools are actually used and a major conclusion is that the design does not determine the teacher's practice, with wide variations in how open-plan space is used (Gump, 1975;Rivlin and Rothenberg, 1976;McMillan, 1983). ...
School buildings come to be seen as iconic for various reasons. Sometimes it might be because a school is quite distinctive, but alternatively it might be because it is a particularly good example of a certain, well-used style. For example, Woodlea School, Hampshire, built in the 1990s, was envisaged as a local solution for a particular site by Local Authority (LA) architects who are noted for designing schools which differ from each other. In apparent contrast, Eveline Lowe School, London, opened 1966, looks superficially very similar to many schools built by LA architects and consortia across the UK during the 1960s and '70s. Yet, at the time of building, Eveline Lowe was considered revolutionary, while, with hindsight and future developments, Woodlea may come to be seen as more archetypal than distinctive. Clearly a major factor in how a school goes on to be perceived, both in its own right, and, inevitably, in comparison to others, is how it fits into the historic development of school buildings. The nature of this development will be influenced by educational and architectural reactions to and interactions with the school building, but also by more general influences, such as political, economic and cultural change. 2
... Desde esta perspectiva amplia se han realizado estudios (Husen, 1967;Inspección Básica del Estado, 1979;Anderson, 1982), que ponen de manifiesto las relaciones existentes entre las dimensiones de los centros y el rendimiento instructivo de los alumnos. Otra línea de investigación se ha interesado por relacionar ciertas características del edificio escolar (espacio abierto-cerrado, antigüedad) con otras variables; en este sentido, concluyen que en las escuelas de espacios abiertos: a) Los profesores gozan de un mayor grado de satisfacción y autonomía, registrándose un mayor nivel de integración entre ellos (Meyer, 1971), es más habitual su intervención con grupos de alumnos de tamaño variable (Warner, 1971) y el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje se torna menos rutinario (Ellison, Gilbert y Ratsoy, 1969), b) Los alumnos muestran en más alto grado su sociabilidad (Downing y Bothell, 1979), son más autónomos y persistentes en las tareas (Myers, 1971) y es más rica su relación con distintos profesores (Gump, 1974). En lo referente a la antigüedad del edificio, esta variable no parece estar relacionada con el rendimiento discente (Rutter y cois., 1979, en Alvarez y Zabalza, 1989). ...
RESUMEN: En este trabajo exponemos la investigación desarrollada en un conjunto de centros de Educación General Básica. El objetivo de la misma es conocer la relación existente entre diversas variables organizativas y el rendimiento académico de su alumnado, coadyuvando así a enriquecer las aportaciones científicas realizadas en esta línea. Con esta finalidad, comenzamos por plantear la problemática que nos ocupa en unas coordenadas de optimización técnica y de rentabilidad económica, entendiendo que ellas justifican suficientemente una intervención de esta naturaleza. Hemos considerado conveniente, asimismo, reflejar una muestra representativa de los estudios que, en los últimos veinte años, se han venido realizando en el campo específico que nos ocupa y así poder, de una parte, constatar sus conclusiones con las nuestras, y, por otra, dejar patente el interés de la comunidad científica mundial por las cuestiones que abordamos. En otros apartados de nuestro artículo nos ocupamos, respectivamente, de presentar las variables estudiadas, definir la muestra sobre la que intervinimos, reflejar las hipótesis concretas que aspiramos a ratificar, dar cuenta de la metodología correlacional que fundamenta las conclusiones habidas y exponer, finalmente, dichas conclusiones.ABSTRACT: This paper sets forth the research developed in a group of schools of Educación General Básica (E.G.B.*). The aim of this research was to find out what relationship there is between the diverse organizational variables and the academic performance of the students, thus helping to enrich the scientific contributions made along this line. With this aim, we began by posing the problem which concerns us in coordinates of technical optimization and economic rentability, with the understanding that these sufficiently justifiy and intervention of this nature. We also considered it convenient to reflect a representative sample of the studies which have been carried out over the last twenty years in the specific field we are dealing with and thus be able to contrast their conclusions with ours and also show the interest of the world scientific community in the questions approached. In other sections of our article we present the variables studied, define the sample used, reflect the concrete hypotheses which we aspired to verify, give an account of the correlational methodology which is the base of the conclusions reached and finally, describe these conclusions. *E.G.B. compases the first eight years of formal schooling in the current Spanish system (ages 6-13).RÉSUMÉ: Dans ce travail nous présentons la recherche menee dans un ensemble de Centres d'Educación General Básica (école primaire). Son objectif est de connaitre le rapport existant entre diverses variables organisatrices et la performance académique de ses eleves, contribuant ainsi a 1'enrichissement des contributions scientifiques reális'és dans ce sens. Dans ce but, nous présentons cette problématique dans des coordonnées d'optimisation technique et de rentabilité économique, considérant que celles-ci justifient largement une intervention de ce genre. Nous avons cru également convenable présenter un échantillon représentatif des études qui ont été menees dans ce domaine depuis une vingtaine d'années, á fin de pouvoir comparer —d'une part— leurs conclusions aux nótres et —d'autre part— signaler l'intérét porté par la communuaté scientifique internationale sur ce sujet. Nous y présentons aussi les variables étudiées, nous définissons l'échantillon avec lequel nous travaillons, nous exposons les hypotheses que nous souhaitons vérifier, nous décrivons la méthodologie de corrélation sur laquelle se centrent les conclusions posees et, finalement, nous exposons ees conclusions.
... There is now a considerable body of research, from the UK and USA, which examines how open-plan schools are actually used. A major conclusion is that the design does not determine the teacher's practice, with wide variations in how openplan space is used (Gump, 1975; McMillan, 1983; Rivlin and Rothenberg, 1976). Bennett et al. (1980) include a case study of a comparison of practice in two identically designed units, containing the same number of students, with dramatically different teaching styles and organization. ...
This article first investigates historical trends in both the practice and the understanding of consultation, considering the often contrasting perspectives of architects and designers, compared to teachers and educationalists. Differing assumptions held by these two broad groups of professionals can lead to conflicting aims and objectives for school buildings, even where there is determination to communicate effectively and find common ground. Our exploration of this issue will centre on the potential contribution of users of the educational environment and, in particular, what happens to the student perspective. Consultation over school buildings has tended in the past to centre on educators, and so miss out direct involvement of students (Woolner et al., 2005). However, there is increasing conviction that children should participate in decision-making (Burke and Grosvenor, 2003; Clark et al., 2003), including about school-design (DfES, 2002), and methods are being developed to do this (Wall and Higgins, 2006). The historical analysis will bring us to a point where, using the example of one school, the consultation procedure in practice can be reflected on. This will form the second element of the article, exploring consultation within the modern context of participatory school design and student voice. The experiences of a school undergoing redesign of a classroom space will be discussed in light of the dichotomy previously established, the perspective of architecture in contrast to that of education. The role of the child's view in influencing design solutions will be considered, together with the consequences for teaching and learning, consultation procedures and the re-design of school buildings.
... It is very important not to assume, however, that the space determines the educational practices. The clearest example of this was seen in the open-plan school environments created during the 1960s and 1970s, which, as later research in both the UK and U.S. showed, were often not used for the child-centered, discovery learning for which they were intended (Gump 1975; Rivlin and Rothenberg 1976; Bennett et al. 1980; McMillan 1983). In their detailed exploration of the contemporary experience of open-plan primary schools, Bennett and colleagues include a comparison of practice in two identically designed units, containing the same number of pupils, with dramatically different teaching styles and organization. ...
Physical settings in schools have a complex relationship to teaching and learning practices. Uncomfortable tensions can result when the intentions of learners and teachers conflict with each other or with the affordances of the environment. Yet, change may be difficult to achieve and stressful for those involved. This paper considers a case where there has been minimal involvement of staff or students in the design of a new school, but there is a desire to prepare them for the changed environment. Changes will include an integrated curriculum and an "enquiry approach," which it is hoped will be facilitated by large, shared spaces in the new premises. We discuss an "experimental week" of enquiry learning that took place in the middle of the 2010-11 school year with half of the Year 8 group (12-13 years old) in an existing large space (a school hall). The alteration to the learning environment included changes to both the use of space and the organization of learning time. We concentrate here on the student experience of learning in this new way, rather than the views of the teachers. An enquiry-based approach was enabled by the more fluid, flexible use of school space and time. Overall, students enjoyed the experimental week, but they understood it to be a limited experience. If these changed practices are to be successful they will need to be accepted as more permanent. The challenge for those managing the change process is to remain mindful of the differing needs of students, and continue to develop a shared understanding among staff and students of what learning is or could be.
... There is now a considerable body of research, from the UK and USA, which examines how open-plan schools are actually used. A major conclusion is that the design does not determine the teacher's practice, with wide variations in how open-plan space is used (Gump, 1975;Rivlin and Rothenberg, 1976;McMillan, 1983). Bennett et al. (1980) include a case study of a comparison of practice in two identically designed units, containing the same number of pupils, with dramatically different teaching styles and organisation. ...
... As open-plan designs for schools became more common in the 1970s, there developed a considerable body of research, from the UK and USA, which examined how such schools are used. A major conclusion is that the design does not determine the teacher's practice, with wide variations in how open-plan space is used (Gump, 1975; McMillan, 1983; Rivlin & Rothenberg, 1976). For example, studying schools in the US, Rivlin and Rothenberg (1976) found that despite being encouraged by the policies of the school and the layout of the classroom to be more flexible and less traditional, many of the teachers they studied stayed in one place, essentially 'taught from the front' and did not move the furniture. ...
School premises make a difference to learning, but it is important to understand the relationship between setting and educational activities. Physical space has been found to entrench practice, making it harder to reflect and make changes. Yet changes made to the physical environment may not lead to changes in teaching or learning. This may be understood theoretically in terms of levels of participation, and many school design practitioners advocate active participation of school communities in the processes of change. This article considers two case studies of teachers and learners engaging with their physical school learning environment. The overview of responses and outcomes generated by these two studies enables the identification of central issues for effective participatory approaches to the learning environment.
... Organization of materials. Students in classrooms where materials are organized and accessible have fewer disruptive behaviors than those in classrooms where materials are disorganized and in disarray (Goodman & Pendergrass, 2001;Gump, 1974;Trussell, 2008;Weinstein, 1977). Weinstein (1977) found that when materials and class supplies were organized and visible within centers, children increased their appropriate use of these centers. ...
The goal of this study was to examine the effect of physical modifications on the academic engagement and disruptive behavior
of Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing students in self-contained classrooms. Three classrooms at a school for the Deaf were modified
after consultation with the classroom teachers. The modifications of the classroom environment included changes in seating
arrangements, classroom organization, visual stimulation, and acoustic quality. A multiple-baseline design was used to examine
the effects of the intervention on the frequency of student academic engagement and disruptive behaviors. Results show a functional
relationship between the physical environment and both an increase in levels of academic engagement and a decrease in levels
of disruptive behavior. Teachers maintained the majority of modifications after the study ceased. Social validity ratings
by the teachers indicated high acceptability of the intervention. Limitations and practical implications for future research
are discussed.
... It is very important not to assume, however, that the space determines the educational practices. The clearest example of this was seen in the open-plan school environments created during the 1960s and 1970s, which, as later research in both the UK and U.S. showed, were often not used for the child-centered, discovery learning for which they were intended (Gump 1975; Rivlin and Rothenberg 1976; Bennett et al. 1980; McMillan 1983). In their detailed exploration of the contemporary experience of open-plan primary schools, Bennett and colleagues include a comparison of practice in two identically designed units, containing the same number of pupils, with dramatically different teaching styles and organization. ...
Britain is in the early stages of a wave of school building which many hope will be much more participatory than previous programmes. This is centred on the Building Schools for the Future (BSF) initiative, through which the government intends to rebuild or refurbish every secondary school in England over the next ten to fifteen years. An important part of the BSF scheme is the consultation of users (DfES 2002, p.63), with the participation of users in the design process being recommended by many in the field of school architecture (e.g. Curtis 2003, p.27). This parallels a movement within education more generally for the student voice to be heard and considered. Ideas about pupil consultation and pupil voice are driving many initiatives and policies, as well as the process of school development and evaluation (Flutter and Rudduck 2004). Putting these ideas about participation into practice within the design process, however, may not be straightforward. A fundamental decision is over who gets included in the process (see Woolner et at. 2007), since excluding certain people may well make the resulting participatory process inherently flawed (Richardson & Connelly 2005). Within a school, it seems important to involve teaching and non-teaching staff, students, parents and the wider community. However, the involvement of such a wide range of individuals, with their differing relationships to the school, may raise further problems in deciding how to proceed.
... In this paper we use the metaphor of ''space'' to examine participation and technology access in the software design project. Here we draw on existing research which has documented how students use the physical space of their classroom while engaged in different kinds of collaborative and individual tasks (Getzels, 1974;Gump, 1974), and how the arrangement of artifacts in physical space impacts students' participation in classroom activities (Roth, 1995;Roth and Bowen, 1995). Other studies on spaces in design have looked at externalized creative spaces in architecture, such as computer-aided design programs or pencil and paper designs, and examined participant interactions around each (Hall and Stevens, 1995;Schon, 1988). ...
Equitable computer collaborations in mixed-gender teams have been a pressing issue for many years. While some have argued for creating single-gender teams or girls-only computer activities, our approach was different. The current study examines a three-month software design activity in which mixed teams of girls and boys (10–12 year olds) designed and implemented multimedia astronomy resources for younger students. In this context we assessed gender differences in students' levels of access to technology and how these participation patterns changed throughout the project duration. We found through our qualitative analyses that the configuration of social, physical and cognitive spaces in the project environment contributed to a positive change in girls' levels of access. We discuss the implications of these results in regard to issues surrounding the development and maintenance of gender equity in computer use and further research.
... In other words, the environment should cue appropriate behavior (Davis, 1984; Rothman, 1987), provide stimulation, reduce ambiguity (Rothman, 1987), and support and promote the intended activities, which is achieved with the correct design (Becker, 1981). Because open schools are more 'active', they provide more stimulation, often decreasing on-task behavior and increasing nonsubstance activity (Gump, 1974). Although open schools often have no partitions, an open-plan study environment could be landscaped or partitioned. ...
The study setting (private or open-plan), environmental color (blue, red, or white), and study material (reading or math comprehension) were manipulated in a simulated study environment to determine their effects on adult students' mood, satisfaction, motivation, and performance. Students rated the reading task as more demanding and less enjoyable than the math task. Negative mood was slightly greater for students given the reading task. Positive mood was slightly higher when students studied in a blue carrel compared to a red carrel in the open-plan setting. Satisfaction with performance and motivation were not affected. Performance was significantly lower on the reading task in the red environment. Implications of these findings and suggestions for research are discussed.
... One advantage of ecological research is that analyses are done based on the actual behavior at the time and not on some a priori categories that are always coded one way regardless of the naturally occurring, ongoing context of the behavior at the time it occurs. This has been done quite reliably in previous studies (Barker andWright, 1955/1971;Dumke, 1986;Gump, 1969;1974;1975;1978;1987;Hatfield, 1982;Rager, 1986;Ruble, 1997;Scott and Hatfield, 1985;Wright, 1967). It is a matter of looking at behavior at the molar level (molecular behaviors do not have this level of reliability in ecological research), having enough familiarity with the overall behavior patterns of the boy (from reading the entire record before beginning the segmenting of AUs), and looking astutely for actual behavioral cues of the boy's intent. ...
Research suggests that impairments in executive functions play a role in the cognitive deficit in autism. Possible autism- specific impairments include an inability to engage in goal-directed behaviors and adjust behaviors given environmental demands. What has been described as executive functions is based largely on observations of performance in the laboratory rather than in natural settings. An ecological method first described by Barker and Wright and adapted by Scott was used to assess the patterns of goal-directed behaviors of eight children with autism and eight chronological and mental age comparable children with Down syndrome. Quantitative and qualitative features of naturalistic behaviors were collected, and coded using previously described categories of children’s behavior. Results indicated that children with autism exhibited shorter and less overlapping goal- directed behaviors. These data suggest a cognitive difference rather than developmental delay, and lend support for impaired executive functions in autism. Practical implications for educators and caregivers are discussed.
In recent years approaches to children’s school progress are one step removed from the proximal processes which directly affect learning. Yet educational initiatives are unlikely to work well if there is not a prior understanding of the everyday contextual and relational dimensions of classrooms. On the basis of a review of our long-standing research programmes at the Institute of Education (IOE), and building in particular on ecological psychology, I propose a new eco-relational approach that has three dimensions: first, the influence of the immediate classroom context, in terms of, for axample, organisation into groups and interactional contexts; second, relationships in the classroom between teachers and pupils and between pupils; and third, ways contextual and relational elements are aligned or not in the complex interconnected and dynamic nature of the classroom system. I use our SPRinG project to show how an eco-relational approach can help realise the pedagogical potential of group work and benefit learning.
The present educational paradigm, fundamentally unchanged since the 19th century, does not meet 21st-century educational needs. This paradigm shift must be accompanied by a strong educational architecture that fosters the skills needed for 21st-century success including creativity and cultural awareness. The present study investigates the primary school architecture of post-socialist Poland, tracing its evolution and asking whether its issues apply universally. A comparative review of representative primary school buildings illustrates that their developmental progress has been superficial, as only external forms have been adjusted. The standard spatial arrangement of the traditional corridor and classroom layout has remained stagnant. This layout is oversimplified, inflexible in design, and works against learner-centred pedagogies that stress diversity and multiplicity. This article highlights the inadequacy of Polish primary school spaces for 21st-century educational needs. The results indicate that this is a universal problem since corridor and classroom layouts are widely applied in all Western countries.
An attempt is made to provide an interpretive framework for the findings of recent research on teaching at the primary-school level. A model of teaching/learning processes is outlined prior to an investigation of the empirical linkages between the elements of the model. Following this, the implications of the model for teaching skills are explored.
The field of post-occupancy evaluation (POE) has provided direction on how evidence can be gathered about the performance of educational facilities for over 40 years (Cooper, 2001). However, such work has generally overlooked the evaluation of learning spaces for pedagogical effectiveness, i.e. the suitability of the physical environment in supporting desired teaching and learning practices, activities and behaviours.
The ecological approach to the study of behavior focuses upon analyses of behavior in terms of situational context and the distribution of specific behaviors over different locales. Such work has been primarily identified with the school of behavioral ecology developed by Roger Barker and Herbert Wright at the University of Kansas, who, with the aid of a small army of devoted disciples, have been carrying on a vigorous program of research on relationships between “behavior settings” and human activities. While these behavioral ecologists have been inclined to define behavioral settings in institutional rather than physical terms, the approach nevertheless occupies an important place on the environment-behavior scene, especially the work that has dealt with community and institutional size, and the concept of under-versus over-manned settings.
From kindergarten through the twelfth grade, the average young person will spend about 14,000 hours in schools; if preschool and college are added, this can rise to 20,000. This is an awesome amount of time and it is important to recognize that it is not devoted exclusively, some would say not even primarily, to learning of a curriculum. This large portion of young lives goes into living in schools—and we would assume that the quality of this living is an important matter. In the discussion to follow, it is assumed that the quality of child life is very much affected by the quality of the environments they inhabit. We are interested in studies that can tell us something about environmental characteristics and their behavioral and experiential effects.
According to projections given in the Federal Register, 9 out of 10 households in the United States with children under 4 years of age will use some form of day care in the 1980s. The figure of 1.2 million children in day care in 1976 may rise to more than 111/2 million children by 1990. At the beginning of the decade, about 35% of children in day care were in in-home care, over 45% in family day care, and less than 20% in center-based day care (these figures are based on 1978 HEW statistics). If these trends continue, we might expect over 4 million children in in-home care, over 5 million in family day care, and around 21/2 million in more formal child-care centers by the end of the decade.
What is the nature of children's social life in school?. How do their relationships and interactions with peers, teachers and other school staff influence their development and experience of school? This book, written by leading researchers in educational and developmental psychology, provides answers to these questions by offering an integrated perspective on children's social interactions and relationships with their peers and teachers in school. Peer interactions in school have tended to be underestimated by educationalists, and this book redresses the balance by giving them equal weight to teacher-child interactions. In this second edition, the authors extensively revise the text on the basis of many years of research and teaching experience. They highlight common misconceptions about children, their social lives, and school achievement which have often resulted in ineffective school policy. The book includes a number of important topics, including: The significance of peer-friendships at school The nature and importance of play and break-times Aggression and bullying at school Peer relations and learning at school The classroom environment and teacher-pupil interaction The influence of gender in how children learn at school. Advantages and disadvantages of different methodological approaches for studying children in school settings Policy implications of current research findings. The Child at School will be essential reading for all students of child development and educational psychology. It will also be an invaluable source for both trainee and practicing teachers and teaching assistants, as well as clinical psychologists and policy makers in this area. © 2016 Peter Blatchford, Anthony D. Pellegrini and Ed Baines. All rights reserved.
In a study I conducted on Waldorf education, I found that teachers practiced a number of activities that were seemingly important but nameless. While some may consider the kinds of activities I explore in this paper as time-off-task or as incidental, I suggest that activities like shaking hands with students each morning and afternoon, or singing attendance, have important educational ramifications. I call exercises such as these and others focal activities or conditions, and I suggest that they are used specifically to create occasions where teachers can establish, confirm, or discontinue contact between themselves and students.The implications of focal conditions are several. In this paper I argue that focal conditions provide routine contact between teacher and students, can be used as a diagnostic tool, personalize teacher-student relations, create classroom feelings or moods, and, at times, prepare students for the next activity by capturing in an expressive form its essential character. The term focal condition is foreign to Waldorf education, but I believe the concept captures Waldorf teacher practice. I end this article by encouraging researchers, administrators, and teachers to take these activities seriously and not relegate them to a subordinate educational category.
What Americans Build and Why examines five areas of Americans' built environment: houses, healthcare facilities, schools, workplaces, and shopping environments. Synthesizing information from both academic journals and the popular press, the book looks at the relationships of size and scale to the way Americans live their lives and how their way of life is fundamentally shaped by the highway system, cheap land, and incentives. This book is timely because although Americans say they crave community, they continue to construct buildings, such as McMansions and big box stores, that make creating community a challenge. Furthermore, in many ways the movement toward teleworking, discussed in the chapter on office environments, also challenges the traditional place-based formation of community. Although focused on the United States, the book also includes reference to other parts of the world, especially regarding the retail environment.
The study observed the spatial distribution of activity in a second-third-grade open classroom before and after a change in the physical design. It tested the general hypothesis that minor changes in the physical setting could produce predictable, desirable changes in student behavior. The experimenter observed for two weeks, using a time-sampling-by-child instrument. The activities and locations of the students were recorded on a floor plan of the room. Design changes were then made with specific behavioral goals in mind, and a two-week post-change observation period was begun. In most cases, the desired behavior changes were produced. Time-series analysis indicated that these changes were statistically significant.
Thirty-five studies relating to D. E. Hunt's notion of matching environments to learners were reviewed. The studies were grouped according to their outcome measures into affective, behavioral, and achievement outcomes. Empirical support for the matching principle was found for all three outcomes, but varied from strong support for affective and behavioral criteria to moderate support for achievement. The article discusses these differences, and advocates that future research studies give greater attention to the conceptualization and measurement of teaching environments. It concludes that there is empirical validation for the matching principle, and that matching is a meaningful way of describing the process of adapting instructional approaches to student differences.
This study explored the effects of having Japanese classes in an outdoor environment on foreign language anxiety. A total of 28 students learning Japanese as a foreign language in the two third-semester Japanese courses offered in the fall semester of 2007 in an American university in the Southeast. The teacher of the two courses participated as well. In order to measure the change in levels of anxiety over the semester, all participants were asked to complete the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale at the beginning and near the end of the semester. Also, in order for researchers to understand the change in anxiety, they were asked to write three journals and six participants were interviewed. In addition, the researcher observed a total of 12 class sessions to record anxious behaviors. The participants in the first section (the regular classroom group) had all classes in their regular classroom, while those in the second section (the green outdoor group) had a total of five classes in an outdoor location on campus with a tree and grass. Results show that the students who had five classes in the green outdoor environment experienced a decrease in anxiety, while the students who had all classes in the regular classroom experienced an increase in anxiety. The outdoor setting may have additionally enhanced students’ attention, concentration, and participation. The teacher also acknowledged that the green outdoor group appeared to be relaxed and started to utilize the elements in the outdoor location for teaching. Potential benefits of teaching languages in the outdoor location are discussed.
This study used student diaries of events at the point of entry into junior high school to identify three categories of anxiety, which were analyzed in terms of the differences in student personality (conceptual level) and in school design (open plan or conventional). In addition, follow-up observations were made of student and teacher behavior in class. The study found that students in open plan schools had lower levels of normlessness, and higher levels of schoolwork anxiety, than their counterparts in conventional design schools. For the anxiety category, threat from others, low conceptual level (CL) students experienced greater anxiety than high CL students. Results of the observations of teachers suggested that those in open plan schools experienced more tension and anxiety than those in conventional schools. In the open plan classrooms, transitions to new activities were more frequently needed and were more prolonged, and student off-task behavior was greater. Results were interpreted in terms of the effects of environmental load on information processing.
This paper reviews research on the impact of classroom environments on student behavior, attitudes, and achievement. The first section examines studies of six environmental variables: seating position, classroom design, density, privacy, noise, and the presence or absence of windows. In the second part of the paper, research conducted from an “ecological” perspective is considered. A third section focuses on the effects of open space school designs. Finally, some future directions for research are discussed, and the advantages and limitations of various research designs are summarized.
The author notes a shift in educational research from teachers' behaviors as related to student achievement gains to other factors affecting such gain. A review of studies published since 1973, and an exploration of some of their concepts, is undertaken. Major changes are summarized as (1) increased focus on student variables, (2) a convergance of results supporting "direct instruction," and (3) information on the relation between seatwork and discussion to gain in achievement. The literature review is limited to basic skills (reading and mathematics) in grades one through five. Major concepts examined are "academic engaged time" (time students spend in moderately difficult, academically related material) and "direct instruction" (activities directly related to making progress in reading and mathematics,) and to settings promoting those activities. Seven variables reflecting management and organization of the classroom, and thus affecting achievement gain, are discussed: teacher role, student choice of activity, grouping, class management, seatwork, discussion, and atmosphere. Research has indicated that it is the formal model of instruction, with its behavior-analytic, detail-specific, teacher-directed, large group, narrow-questioning technique, which is most effective for promoting gains in reading and mathematics. A discussion of the relative value of this dydactic approach to more heuristic models is presented. Major projects remaining in dydactic instruction research are noted for the seven variables listed. (MJB)
In issue 3.1 of the BJTE (January 1977) Ned Flanders discussed the question of knowledge about teacher effectiveness. He did this by examining what he saw to be the weaknesses of the analyses in the book by Rosenshine on the same subject. In the article which follows Rosenshine and Berliner take up the discussion of important teacher activities. In reply to Flanders Rosenshine writes:’Ned has never forgiven me for an article I wrote in Phi Delta Kappan in 1970, and his attack in BJTE is his response to that article. Although the issue ‐‐ whether teacher “indirectness” is a positive significant correlate of student achievement gain and student attitudes ‐‐ was a burning issue in the early 1970s, it doesn't seem worth debating today. Much of my 1971 book is now out of date, and if I were ever to rewrite it, I'd do it a lot differently. The article which follows represents a summary of current thinking on teaching and the results of recent research?
Open plan schools have added much to the mythology and folklore of primary education. As this article illustrates, shattering such myths may be less romantic than creating them but is valuable nonetheless if it promotes less uni-dimensional thinking and more careful planning, implementation and evaluation of the primary curriculum.
EnglishIt is generally assumed that better facilities will affect the quality of education in schools, but evidence concerning this assumption is often not considered or even known. In this article, the author reviews some important studies examining the influence of facilities on science teaching. He concludes that, while the provision of good facilities may not change educational practices dramatically, they help to foster science teaching activities which involve students in a variety of stimulating activities. In general terms, the evidence reviewed in relation to science teaching is consistent with the notion that the students’ physical environment affects their study behaviour. It may be argued, therefore, that attention must be paid to the provision of good teaching facilities if active forms of learning are to be encouraged.
Abstract This study investigated the relative effects of different combinations of feedback on the behaviours of two subjects labelled ‘behaviour disordered’. In addition, the relationship between academic engaged behaviour and performance (assessed by measures of amount completed and accuracy) was also analysed. The results revealed that there was a positive relationship between the amount of time a subject spends on task and the number of tasks completed. In addition, the results showed that there was not a positive relationship between the amount of time a student spends on a task and accuracy on that task. The relative effectiveness of the feedback procedures was substantiated. The implications of these results were that the provision of feedback when a subject is off‐task will be most effective in terms of increasing the subject's on‐task behaviour and the amount of tasks that the subject completed. This research demonstrated that increased on‐task behaviour has positive effects on productivity.
OBJECTIVE: The importance of spatial design and its psychological and physical impact on people is receiving increasing recognition and attention among researchers, educators, health-care providers, and businesses. As increasingly more children are in preschools at a younger age, more research is needed to help determine the impact of the physical environment on children's development.
RESEARCH DESIGN: In this investigation two intimate spaces or boxes of contrasting designs were installed in an open plan preschool. One box was a “cozy” space and the other a “slick” space as defined by the use of specific interior textures and materials.
ANALYSIS: An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine whether there was any relationship between subject age (3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds) and box type (cozy versus slick) in terms of the average relative time spent in each box type.
KEY FINDINGS: Results from this study showed that preschool children used the intimate spaces frequently and stayed in them for varying lengths of time. When both boxes were present in the preschool, a significant interaction at P<0.06 between box type and subject age was observed.
CONCLUSION: These results support the importance of incorporating intimate spaces into the design of open plan preschools.
This study explored person-environment fit relationships between age and gender characteristics of adolescents and their usage of leisure places within an unusual leisure environment, World Expo '88, and the extent to which adolescent territories emerged as a result of concentrated usage of some places by adolescents. Data from a survey of 465 young people and from interviews with a subsample of these, revealed distinct concentrations of adolescents in entertainment-related places, and in pavilions which adopted ‘dynamic’ rather than static displays. Interview data further suggest that the places preferred by adolescent visitors had a distinctive atmosphere associated with fun, excitement and relaxation, and allowed them room for personal expression. This cognition of particular leisure places as having a distinctive personal ‘feel’ seems to contribute, along with frequent usage, to the development of adolescent territories.
Teachers spend a considerable amount of classroom time talking to students. Much of this talk revolves around expository presentations of information. Teachers claim the reason for the quantity of teacher talk is to clarify instruction to students. However, discrepancies can exist between what teachers assume are the benefits of their talk and how students learn from such talk. To match students' abilities to learn, teachers must produce clearer instructional presentations. This article proposes the importance of structure in developing sound teacher expository presentations. Nine instructional behaviors based on correlational and experimental research during the past two decades are presented in the form of teacher guidelines to maximise precision and structure in teacher talk in order to facilitate student achievement.
A setting is a segment of the external context with a structure: a physical environment and behavioural norms (or programme). The relation between environment and programme is called synomorph. The authors propose studying school environments as synomorphic groups. At times, an environment and programme are not in tune, in these cases they should evolve until they adopted certain similarity. How this change takes place will depend on the flexibility of the environment and the programme�s priorities. Some examples of adjusting the milieu to the programme and viceversa in American schools are reported. Un escenario es un segmento del contexto externo que tiene una estructura: un medio físico y una pauta de conducta (o programa). A la relación que existe entre el medio y el programa se le denomina sinomorfia. Los autores proponen estudiar los entornos escolares como agrupamientos de sinomorfias. A veces medio y programa no están bien conformados entre sí y en este caso deberían cambiar hasta adoptar cierta similaridad. Cómo se produzca este cambio dependerá de la flexibilidad del medio y de las prioridades del programa. Se citan algunos ejemplos de ajustes del medio al programa y del programa al medio en algunas escuelas americanas.
Classroom and patient education research both support the premise that allocated instructional time and active learner involvement influence relevant outcomes. Unfortunately, these two common sense variables have not often been applied in either classrooms or health care settings. In this paper, the educational literature supporting the importance of instructional time and active involvement will be briefly reviewed. The application and significance of time-related variables in patient education will then be discussed and suggestions for improving patient education programs offered.
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