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‘Scary … but I like it!’ Young tourists' perceptions of fear on holiday
Abstract
This paper explores young tourists' perceptions of fear on holiday. The work on which this paper is based is important because it sheds light on tourists' emotional experiences on holiday, which are central to increase our understanding of tourist behaviour. The importance of investigating perceptions of fear has been recognized within a number of different disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, criminology, and marketing. Indeed, it has been argued that fear may provide significant information concerning an individual's motivations, preferences, and patterns of behaviour. Despite this, perceptions of fear within the tourism experience have remained relatively unexplored. It is often assumed that perceptions of safety and security may influence individuals' destination choice. However, there is a paucity of studies concerning tourists' perceptions of fear during the tourism experience. This paper is based on three months of qualitative fieldwork conducted on the island of Ios, Greece in the summer of 2007. More specifically, participant observation and semi-structured interviews were methods employed for data collection to explore young tourists' perceptions of fear. The possibility to develop a rapport and build a relationship with young tourists on Ios was crucial to collect valuable information concerning tourists' background, their emotions, expectations, perceptions, and the context in which perceptions of fear were experienced and expressed. The study found that most holidaymakers on Ios participated in activities perceived as risky in order to experience fear. In this respect, young tourists deliberately sought fear and thrill to increase their levels of pleasure and enjoyment during the tourism experience. The results suggest that fear may play a positive role in the tourism experience of young tourists, which should no longer be ignored by tourism scholars.
... Sublime A notion of greatness that involves "a feeling of mortal danger with a certainty of being safe" Crime museums, volcanos, nature tourism, disaster tourism Benediktsson, Lund, and Huijbens (2011, 81), Bell and Lyall (2002), Huey (2011), Skinner (2018) Thrilling fear or disgust Tourists may seek out fear and disgust for (thrilling) pleasure "Scary food" tourism, "fright tourism," dark tourism, hitchhiking, adventure tourism Cater (2006), Gyimóthy and Mykletun (2009), Bristow and Newman (2005), Ivanova and Light (2018), Mura (2010) Transformation Pleasure and pain co-exist and can lead to tourist transformation Working holidays, hiking, backpacking, Kirillova, Lehto, and Cai (2017) (Andrade and Cohen 2007;Hemenover and Schimmack 2007). Second, this co-activation is experienced as enjoyable because the individual feels a psychological distance to the "threat" (Rozin et al. 2013). ...
... Gyimóthy and Mykletun (2009, 259) and Mykletun and Gyimóthy (2010), for example, link disgust, fear, playfulness, and thrill to consuming Norwegian sheep head as a type of "scary food" tourism. Ivanova and Light (2018) find that some tourists visit the London Dungeon to experience fear and thrill in a safe context; and Mura (2010) finds that some young tourists seek enjoyment through risk and fear when on holiday in Greece. Bristow and Newman (2005) further coined the term of "fright tourism" to reflect how some tourists seek pleasure through being scared. ...
... People may pursue activities that are physically painful (e.g., river rafting), sad (e.g., visiting a holocaust memorial), scary (e.g., visiting a haunted house), disgusting (e.g., eating "strange" foods), or anger-inducing (e.g., visiting a slavery museum) due to the same underlying motivation to embrace and seek pleasure through pain. This observation also highlights why literature streams that separately have investigated specific forms of pain, such as physical pain in BDSM, sadness during sad movies, or fear during holidays, have pointed to similar mechanisms for enjoyment (Dunkley et al. 2020;Mura 2010;Rozin et al., 2013;Schramm and Wirth 2010). As such, we argue for the utility of a holistic view where different pains are studied together, rather than making a sharp distinction between different physical and psychological pains. ...
Paradoxical at first sight, some tourists engage in activities involving negative emotions and even physical pain. Tourism scholars have begun investigating this phenomenon and have called for more of such research. Against this background, the authors introduce to tourism the notion of benign masochism, defining it as a trait describing a person’s tendency to embrace and seek pleasure through safely playing with a stimulating level of physical pain and negative emotions. In doing so, the authors root benign masochism in the notion of play from evolutionary psychology and develop a benign masochism scale that is able to predict various tourism outcomes, including willingness to visit a haunted house, to go on a challenging adventure holiday, and to visit a nuclear disaster site. The authors conclude by discussing theoretical and managerial implications as well as limitations and future opportunities for research.
... Likewise, Bell (2008) emphasises the increasing recurrence of forms of 'alcotourism', namely types of tourist experiences that involve the use of alcohol. Previous studies have documented the alcoholic experiences of certain segments of the tourist market, such as the young tourists (Carr, 1998;Mura, 2010Mura, , 2012, backpackers (Uriely et al., 2011) and students on spring break (Josiam, Hobson, Dietrich, & Smeaton, 1998;Maticka-Tyndale et al., 1998;Sönmez et al., 2006). Within this body of knowledge, some tourism scholars (e.g. ...
... Within this body of knowledge, some tourism scholars (e.g. Briggs, 2013;Mura, 2010) have pointed out that certain tourist destinations, such as Ibiza in Spain and Ios in Greece, are socially constructed and promoted by the tourism industry as 'drinkscapes' in which not only is drunkenness accepted but also encouraged. This stance has been supported by the assumption that certain social practices, such as beach-oriented holidays, represent liminal experiences in which tourists perceive levels of freedom higher than in the home environment (Shields, 1992). ...
... While studies discussing the relationship between alcohol and tourism have been conducted (Carr, 2002;Maticka-Tyndale et al., 1998;Mura, 2010), overall they have been centred on specific contexts and experiences (e.g. spring break vacations, party islands/ spaces) and patterns of alcohol consumption of specific segments of the tourist market (e.g. ...
On the 24th of August 2014 the state of Kerala announced that alcohol will be progressively banned through different phases, with a plan of implementing a complete ban by 2025. The ban was eased in July 2017; yet, it sparked heated debates about its impacts on the tourism industry, which highlighted the strong nexus between alcohol and tourism. Despite animated discussions continued online for months after the announcement of the ban, there have not been studies assessing the impact of the ban on tourism/tourists. Through a thematic analysis of online texts published on TripAdvisor, this paper explores tourists' perceptions and opinions of the implementation of the 'Dry Law' in Kerala. Moreover, this work also investigates whether the ban discouraged potential tourists to visit Kerala. Overall, our analysis reveals that the ban did not discourage potential tourists to visit Kerala, although many regarded the possibility of having moderate amounts of alcohol on holiday as pleasant. Importantly, our study also contends that the narratives about the 'Dry Law' produced and propagated online were often representative of political structures of power, which linked tourism to alcohol irrespective of the real impact of the ban on tourism.
... Even though perceived risk tends to vary among different tourist segments, the general impact of perceived risk in tourism has been negative on destinations (Fuchs & Reichel, 2006). Even though perceived risk can be conceptualised in a negative and hence viewed as a travel constraint, it can equally be conceptualised in the positive for others and thus serve as a travel motivator (Mura, 2010;Mura & Cohen, 2011). The issue of perceived risk is therefore a subjective one and can assume different constructions. ...
... The issue of perceived risk is therefore a subjective one and can assume different constructions. In the case of backpackers, their travel behaviour and characteristics have suggested that risk plays a positive role in the construction of their travel narratives or experiences (Mura, 2010;Mura & Cohen, 2011). However, the concept of risk used in this study is based on the negative conceptualisation of risk. ...
... The backpacker segment is one of the tourist segments that have been associated with risk taking due to their travel characteristics (Hunter-Jones, Jeffs, & Smith, 2007;Mura, 2010). Contemporary backpackers are often likened to Cohen's (1972) drifters. ...
... Prayag and Soscia (2016) defined and expounded the guilt emotion in the Chinese context, and studied the impact of tourism festival advertisements on the guilt of tourists. Mura (2010) surveyed young tourists' fear of vacation. The author points out that fear may provide important information about personal motivation, preferences, and behavior patterns. ...
... In this regard, young tourists deliberately seek fear and excitement to increase their level of pleasure and enjoyment during the travel experience. Mura, 2010 examined the hikers' views on the risks and deaths associated with alpine adventure tourism. The results show that hikers are aware of the differences in risks associated with climbing and hiking, and celebrate the risks that climbers take. ...
As an important component of the travel experience, tourists’ emotional experience plays a key role in tourists’ satisfaction and behavioral intentions. This research starts from two perspectives of on-site emotional experience and memory emotional experience and combines the emotional profile with the individual’s spatial and temporal activities to understand the individual’s travel experience more deeply. This study takes the Emperor Qinshihuang’s Mausoleum Site Museum as a case study, obtains multi-source research data through offline field investigation and online web crawlers, and explores tourists’ emotional experiences from two perspectives of on-site emotion and memory emotion. This study draws the emotional map of tourists in the scenic area based on the characteristics of the types of emotional experience and the law of time and space in the scenic area.
... On one hand, TANI may increase fascination with the country, leading to a higher willingness to visit and to recommend the country for tourism experiences. In the experience economy, customers are commonly attracted to scary, sad, provocative, and other negatively valenced experiences (Menninghaus et al. 2017;Mura 2010). For example, Mura (2010, p. 43) investigated the role of fear in tourism and concluded that "fear was perceived by the young tourists on Ios as a positive component of the tourism experience." ...
... This finding differs from findings in the marketing literature (e.g., Klein, Ettenson, and Morris 1998) on products. However, the results are in line with research on experiences and attractions for which negative emotions are often considered attractive (Mura 2010). Negatively valenced emotions may not have a negative effect on tourists' willingness to visit and recommend when a tourist is interested in/fascinated with the place. ...
Anecdotal evidence suggests that tourists do not only choose tourism destinations based on objective quality criteria. Rather, tourists may be drawn to certain destinations for reasons such as feelings of connection or affinity. This article provides a first examination of tourism affinity (TAFF) and its effects on tourism behavior. Tourists who are high on TAFF feel sympathy, admiration, or attachment toward a given country. In addition to examining TAFF, we also test the impact of tourism animosity (TANI) on a variety of resident and tourism behaviors. The results show that TAFF is a positive driver of several tourism-related outcomes, such as word of mouth and resident hospitality, while TANI drives general intention to visit and provide word of mouth but is a barrier to closer interactions. In addition, goal compatibility, relative power, and moral obligation drive TAFF while relative power drives TANI.
... From the demand-side, tourism is known to be an extremely sensitive consumption item and is understandably the first to be struck off in times of danger. Safety and security issues remain the most significant consideration by tourists in the trip decisionmaking process (Enz, 2009;Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005;Maslow, 1943;Mura, 2010) for obvious reasons From the supply-end, destinations which are perceived as unsafe have been known to immediately lose their touristic appeal and subsequently, patronage (Cohen, 2019;Lisowska, 2017;Mawby, 2014). ...
... Michelberger and Labodi (2012) defined safety as the minimization of threats/risks factors to protect tourists from injury or death. Safety has increasingly emerged as the basic need of human beings although there are a few who seek thrill and fear (Mura, 2010). Scholars such as Pizam and Mansfeld (2006) have identified a range of tourism activities that are exposed to safety risks. ...
Although Safety and Security (SnS) is a popular theme in the existing literature, the narrative has mostly focused on the broader destination and relatively, little is known of the SnS situation at the level of the individual components. This paper sought to appraise the safety and security situation at Ghana's most visited attraction-the Kakum National Park, using a heuristic adaptation of the World Tourism Organization's safety and security checklist. Through observations and interviews with management, an assessment of the safety and security situation at KNP was undertaken. It was found that even though safety and security measures at the park are generally inadequate, management does not consider the park to be under any real threat. The study also found that the Park management had a deliberative assessment of the security situation which reflected in three mindsets of collective security, passiveness and cautious security. The study recommends a change in philosophical outlook from passiveness to proactivity as an important first step towards making the KNP safer. Along with this philosophy, change would be the specific interventions in the areas of documentation, equipment and training.
... Backpackers have a reputation of being low budget travellers, patronising budget accommodation and are usually young (Luo, Brown, & Huang, 2015). They are known for their search for novelty and have been described as being synonymous with Cohen's (1972) drifters (Cohen, 2004) and hence have high risk tolerance level (Mura, 2010;Mura & Cohen, 2011). ...
... Younger tourists are perceived to be inexperienced and also naïve of the environments they visit (Schiebler, Crotts, & Hollinger, 1996). Being at night clubs, engaging in night out drinks, and even patronising some prohibited substances are lifestyles commonly associated with younger travellers than their older counterparts (Mura, 2010). In essence, the young traveller views the travel opportunity as a means to escape from the routines of his or her usual environment and also engages in some activities that help "discover him or herself" (Baker, Page & Meyer, 2002;Scheyvens, 2002). ...
Even though the literature unequivocally posits a relationship between tourism and crime, tourism
research has not explored this relationship within specific tourist segments such as backpackers despite
its growing importance. Using the tenets of the Routine Activities Theory (RAT), this study explored the
crimes that were perpetrated against backpackers during their stay in Ghana. The study relied on a
sample of 603 backpackers who visited Ghana from January to May 2013. The results showed that
backpackers suffered four types of crimes in Ghana namely physical assault, larceny, fraud and verbal
assault. Using a combination of chi-square test of independence and binary logistic regression, the study
showed that backpackers' background and travel characteristics influenced the type of crime they suffered
in Ghana. The implications of the findings in the context of improving destination safety and security
were put forward
... In this paper, following Haan et al. [22], risk taking is defined as the intentional or unintentional exposure to the possibility of injury or loss. So far, the risk-taking behaviour or risk propensity of people of different ages and attitudes towards the level of safety in tourism have been investigated [23][24][25], but whether the level of risk taking (and risk aversion) can determine the propensity of young Generation Z tourists to green travel has not been analysed. By answering this question, this article fills a research gap. ...
The concept of sustainable mobility and related green travel will play an increasingly important role in the development of tourism and climate policy in the European Union. Initiated by the European Commission, Erasmus+ green travel is a new initiative and not yet researched by EU institutions or in the literature. However, it fits in with the literature research on green mobility. The aim of this paper was to assess whether young tourists are interested in green mobility, whether they are willing to use means of low-emission transport when making trips, what factors play a role in their means of transport choices, and whether risk aversion influences their choices. For the purpose of this work, the authors conducted a survey in Poland among 36 Polish and foreign people from Generation Z studying in Poland and taking advantage of the green travel program in the Erasmus+ program and an economic experiment regarding their level of risk taking. Based on these data, it was examined whether young tourists are interested in green mobility, what factors play an important role when choosing a low-emission means of transport, and whether the level of risk taking influences their choices. The results of the survey indicated that young tourists tend to choose means of high-emission transport or a mix of high- and low-emission transport. However, if they receive a financial incentive, they are willing to use means of low-emission transport when travelling. The results of this study also indicated that environmental factors do not influence the propensity of young tourists towards specific means of transport, including low-emission transport, and economic and cognitive factors play an important role. It was also found that there is some positive relationship between the level of risk taking of the traveller and the propensity to green travel.
... According to some authors, in 2020, this generation will account for about half of the demand for tourism sector services (Moisă, 2010;Buff a, 2015;Morrison et al., 2016). Th ey are quite diff erent from the earlier generations, as regards sociological characteristics, tourist motivations and way of travelling (Mura, 2010;Machado, 2014;Nagaj & Žuromskaitė, 2018a). Th ey are ready to accept higher risks, including those involved in tourist travel. ...
The aim of the paper is to assess the level of Millennial travellers' from Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) safety estimated by the importance of the security measures implemented in tourism infrastructure (accommodation facilities and tourist attractions) as a way to provide a safer leisure environment. In addition, the paper examines whether tourists'
gender and economic stimulus in the form of reduced travel costs are among the factors which influence the evaluation of the significance of safety measures and the perception of risk. The objective is accomplished through a critical analysis of literature and the survey conducted by the authors among Millennials from Poland, Lithuania and Slovakia. The findings indicate that security measures improve the safety and quality of the tourist experience in respondents from the countries focused on in the survey; however, there are differences in the type of security measures accepted by tourists from individual countries. To have lower travel expenses, they are more willing to accept a lower level of safety during an outbound trip. The research has also revealed that the assessment of security measures varies depending on tourists' gender.
... The concept of protection motivation as an essential element in many contexts of health information (Fry and Prentice-Dunn, 2005) can make people produce protection motivation (Rogers, 1975, p. 1) through a variety of coping strategies (Folkman and Lazarus, 1980); since avoiding fear can raise individual's threshold, helping them to moderate their perceived losses and adapt to post-crisis period (Rodriguez-Llanes et al., 2013). According to previous studies, fear caused by threats can affect people's choice of tourism destinations (Kang et al., 2012;Mura, 2010). Nevertheless, what is main reason for tourists' efforts to adapt to unstable conditions created by Covid-19 crisis while benefitting from vaccination? ...
Abstract
Purpose
This paper aims to examine tourists' behavioral changes in response to health crises, this study examines the individual's uncertainty and adaptability to the challenges using behavioral coping strategies.
Design/methodology/approach
The study combines the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and protection motivation theory. Using the PLS-SEM technique, this study examines the relationship between the destination's competitive profits and travel intention of Iranian tourists in the post-Covid-19 pandemic.
Findings
The social-support coping (Instrumental) does not incorporate tourists' adaptive behaviors. Vulnerable vaccination significantly affects the extremeness of an individual's problem-focused coping, which affects tourist's adaptive behaviors in crisis time, indicating the effectiveness of the Covid-19 vaccination on travel intention.
Research limitations/implications
The findings may assist tourism authorities and planners develop unique tourism products and services based on tourist behavior following the health crises.
Originality/value
This study contributes to development of the TPB method, indicating that visa exemption and competitive profits of a destination would motivate travel intention existing inefficacy of local government and its negative background, reshaping and thus influencing changing behavior.
... Here it is important to emphasize that emotions have not been neglected by tourism scholars. Indeed, within the tourism literature, studies focusing on the emotional experiences of tourists (see Mura, 2010;Prayag, Hosany, & Odeh, 2013), residents (Prayag, 2016) and researchers (Tucker, 2009) abound. Some commentators, such as Mura (2010), Nawijn and Biran (2019) and Tucker (2009), have investigated the role of negative emotions (e.g., fear, shame, guilt) in tourism. ...
Situated within the emerging social science literature contesting the diffusion of neoliberal ideologies into academia, this study explores the effects of neoliberalism (in the face of Covid-19 as well) on doctoral students. It employs a qualitative arts-based approach amalgamating aspects of autoethnography, ethnography, ethnodrama, and qualitative interviews to co-construct empirical material on Ph.D. students' experiences and emotions. In general, the discussions with the doctoral students portray a rather hostile tourism academy, characterized by unhealthy levels of competition, questionable supervisory practices, and quantitative measurements of output that discourage intellectual engagement and creativity. As such, tourism doctoral students often experience negative emotional experiences, such as fear and anxiety, which in some instances also lead to high levels of stress and depression. Overall, this work contributes to our understanding of the effects of neoliberalism on tourism academia by unveiling the multiple power structures tourism doctoral students have to face throughout their Ph.D. journeys.
... We add by further suggesting bravery as a potential mediator of this effect. Also, while existing literature identified pleasure augmentation (i.e., hedonia pursuit) as a drive for tourists to pursue riskier activities (Mura, 2010), we hereby supplement by revealing eudaimonia pursuit, manifested as seeking ideal self-identity, as another drive for such risk-seeking behaviors. ...
In response to the challenges yet importance to promote the eudaimonic benefits of general tourism experiences, cultivating character strengths in tourism experiences emerges as a promising solution. This study adopts a mixed-methods approach to examine the potential of general tourism experiences for eudaimonia promotion through strengths cultivation. With online survey data collected from 389 US adults, McNemar’s tests first quantitatively identify the unique advantage of tourism in the tendency of cultivating each of 24 strengths for its rare users in daily life, and the weakness of tourism in the likelihood cultivating 11 strengths for their regular users. Qualitative thematic analyses then develop a more nuanced understanding by revealing the approaches and five contextual catalysts of strengths cultivation in tourism. The connected interpretation of quantitative and qualitative findings further sheds light on the generative mechanisms shaping the strength-cultivating potential of tourism. Besides being the first attempt investigating strengths cultivation patterns in general tourism experiences, this study identifies tourism as a unique strengths incubator complementing the daily strengths cultivation, which introduces a novel angle to examine the eudaimonic benefits of tourism. Practical implications further guide the strength-based tourism experience design to boost eudaimonia.
... Searching for travel information on social media during COVID-19 has no significant effect on travel avoidance. This may be due to young consumers who like challenges and try new things (Mura, 2010) even though they are still in a pandemic condition. ...
Tourism is one of the sectors hardest hit by the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on BPS data (2021), there was a significant decrease in the number of tourists. This study aims to find out how consumers face the fear of the Covid-19 pandemic when they are going to travel through online applications. The research indicators are measures of health, personal, financial stressors, use of travel research and applications and intentions, social media, travel avoidance. The population of this study is potential tourists during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research sample was 105 respondents with a minimum sample size of 5 times the estimated parameters. This research uses the convenience sampling method. The measurement scale used is a Likert scale of 1-5. The data analysis technique used multiple linear regressions. The results of this study revealed that health stressors have a significant effect on the use of research and travel applications. Personal stressors variable and financial stress have no effect on consumers in the use of research and travel applications. The effect of health and personal stress on social media searches is not proven. The use of research and travel applications had no effect on the intention for future book research. While the searches for tourist information on social media affect the intention to book the next search the use of travel research and applications has a significant effect on travel avoidance. This study provides insight into the role of stressors and their influence on tourist information seeking during the pandemic.
... Badu-Baiden, Boakye and Otoo (2016) Much of the literature within tourism studies has viewed and regarded fear as a negative emotion, particularly an emotion that tourists want to avoid. However, a study conducted by Mura (2010) showed that some tourists view fear as a positive component of the tourism experience and deliberately seek fear and thrill by engaging in activities perceived as risky. ...
The trepidation over the effects of crime on tourism has emerged as a key concern globally. Johannesburg, South Africa’s leading city and a major tourist destination has long been perceived both as an unsafe place to visit and a breeding ground for crime. The prevalence of crime in Johannesburg and the associated negative public perceptions of crime impact on tourism and the travel behaviour of visitors. This study aimed to investigate international visitors’ safety and their perceptions of Johannesburg using a selection of three tourism destinations in the city; namely, Vilakazi precinct in Soweto township, Maboneng precinct in the inner city and Sandton City, the new central business district. A questionnaire survey was used to collect data; moreover, purposive sampling was used at the three selected destinations. The findings suggest that international tourists’ safety and security perceptions improved during and after their visit and they felt that Johannesburg is a relatively safe destination to visit. It was also observed that perceptions of safety and security are influenced by and vary across socio-demographic variables such as age, gender, place of origin/nationality, awareness, travel party type and travel experience. The study’s findings contribute to knowledge by offering insights on international visitors’ safety and security perceptions, attitudes towards crime-risk and their impact on tourist behaviour. To satisfy the safety and security needs of visitors, crime prevention strategies are recommended for the tourism industry, tourism stakeholders and law enforcement. Suggestions for future research are provided.
Key-words: Crime; Johannesburg; Maboneng precinct; Perceptions; Safety; Sandton City; Security; Vilakazi precinct
... Travellers consider safety and security as basic needs when making travel decisions and selecting their destinations (Lepp & Gibson, 2003;Mura, 2010;Yang & Nair, 2014). Making visitors feel safe and secure both before and during their trip is crucial for any destination aiming for a competitive advantage (Kozak et al., 2007). ...
It is a common stigma surrounding many Muslim dominated rural tourism areas that women have limited participation and empowerment to contribute to the sustainable tourism development of surrounding areas. This is mainly due to the religious or cultural beliefs that women’s contribution to these communities is more likely to be associated with being the homemakers. However, in recent years, more evidence has pointed out that women in these areas have more capabilities and skills to contribute to sustainable development in relation to tourism. This paper discusses other prominent factors at play surrounding challenges in relation to women empowerment, particularly in Malay Muslim rural areas. The preliminary research was conducted to explore the challenges of women’s participation and empowerment in ecotourism. Through content analysis from interviews that were conducted in seven villages adjacent to three ecotourism areas in Kelantan, Malaysia, we present a discussion on the challenges relating to culture and religion surrounding women empowerment, as well as emerging themes on social, economic and political factors that affects women empowerment.
... Natural disasters and environmental risks, health problems, and threats to security have provoked a wide range of research studies, focusing particularly on the impact of heightened risk on travel decisions and the consequences of this for demand, specifically negative impacts on tourist resorts and the tourist industry. Although it is accepted that some subgroups of tourists might be attracted by the thrill of risky activities in high risk environments (Lepp and Gibson, 2008;Mura, 2010), generally risk is viewed as a cost, inhibitor or constraint, to be balanced against the perceived benefits, or facilitators, of travel. How precisely risk is categorised, however, varies between researchers. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to address four questions: Firstly, how do tourists perceive safety from crime, specifically from robbery or violence, alongside other safety concerns? Secondly, are those who are concerned about crime also concerned about other threats to their well-being? Thirdly, how are their perceptions of safety affected by their perceptions of the local community? Finally, how are their perceptions affected by their personal and touristic characteristics?
Design/methodology/approach
Findings
Firstly, tourists did not generally see crime, specifically robbery or violence, as a problem; secondly, there was only a weak relationship between concern about crime and concern about other threats to their well-being; thirdly, in contrast, their perceptions of safety were strongly affected by their perceptions of the local community; and finally, their perceptions were affected by their personal and touristic characteristics, but not necessarily in the ways suggested by earlier research.
Research limitations/implications
The research sample was small and the questionnaire short. Only English-speaking visitors were included.
Practical implications
The tourism sector needs to appreciate role of local people in engendering feelings of safety.
Social implications
The attitude of the local community and their relationship with tourists is fundamental to helping visitors feel safe.
Originality/value
This is the first criminological paper to compare fear of crime with the other safety issues confronting tourists and to relate these concerns to relationships with host community.
... As a primitive emotional response to a threat, fear is more incalculable and unpredictable than risk (Fennell, 2017). Instead of assessing the perceived risks in tourism, literature found that fear can significantly impact tourists' choices in destinations and activities (e.g., dark tourism, adventure tourism) (e.g., Cater, 2006;Kang, Scott, Lee, & Ballantyne, 2012;Mura, 2010). Although the role of emotions in tourists' behaviors has been highlighted in recent studies (e. g., Prayag, Hosany, Muskat, & Del Chiappa, 2017;Yan, Zhou, & Wu, 2018), what cause 'travel fear' and how tourists psychologically recover from a global pandemic outbreak, such as COVID-19 is unknown, yet vital. ...
COVID-19 has generated an unprecedented level of public fear, likely impeding tourism industry recovery after the pandemic is over. This study explores what trigger the public's pandemic 'travel fear' and how people impose self-protection, coping and resilience related to travel. The study integrates theories including protection motivation theory, coping and resilience theories to address the research aim. Using a quota sampling, an online survey of 1208 respondents across mainland China was conducted. Results found that threat severity and susceptibility can cause 'travel fear', which leads to protection motivation and protective travel behaviors after the pandemic outbreak. Findings also revealed that 'travel fear' can evoke different coping strategies, which increases people's psychological resilience and adoption of cautious travel behaviors. Several strategies are provided on how to mitigate people's 'travel fear' and encourage travel in a post-COVID-19 world.
... The existing literature has examined a variety of stressors associated with leisure trips and the extent of resulting stress states such as fear, anxiety, worry, and anger (Larsen, Brun, & Øgaard, 2009;Ma, Ooi, & Hardy, 2018;Mura, 2010). Specifically, the stressors that most commonly stimulate air-travel stress are: the possible or actual occurrence of adverse events (e.g., delayed/cancelled flights, missing a flight, health and safety concerns, and long waiting periods for taking off), the irritating behaviors of other passengers (e.g., bringing aboard too much luggage, loud talking, crying baby, and demanding special treatment), and the unreliable/uncomfortable services delivered by airlines/airports (e.g., low problem-solving efforts, unclear information, and unpredictable security measures) (Bricker, 2005;McIntosh, 2017). ...
Effective air-travel stress management is increasingly crucial in determining tourist satisfaction and travel
choices, particularly in a time of intensive fear about virus, terrorism, and plane crashes. However, research
about air-travel stress, particularly what and how various influential forces shape passenger stress levels, is still in
its infancy. The current research proposes the adoption of Conservation of Resources (COR) theory as a holistic
schema to identify through resource dynamics the potential influential forces for air-travel stress across leisure
travel stages. The findings, based on surveying passengers at the gate of multi-country international and domestic
airports, demonstrates the capability of COR schema to predict and explain the influences on air-travel stress
from an array of personal and situational/trip-specific factors. The theoretical advances from COR-based crossstage
stress analyses, and the guidance for customized airline/airport stress-soothing service strategies are
discussed.
... The idea that Pulai is sustained by 'natural travellers' was therefore also something that was captured by the 'students' gaze'. The presence of two rustic suspension bridges across the Galas river ( Fig. 3.4) separating the community from their historical gold-mine (now a lake supporting aquaculture) was another favourite with students, as much for the imagined danger of using them as any sense of cultural expression or beauty, reinforcing the idea that danger (even only the feeling of danger in a situation which is inherently safe) is itself a psychological attraction for a certain class of (especially young) travelers (Mura 2010). ...
As more and more universities move away from traditional examinations as the primary tool for measuring student performance, artwork produced by students as a means of grade attainment in programmes outside the traditional scope of graphic and/or fine art courses are beginning to emerge worldwide. When students are tasked with capturing the essence of unique places on the cusp of tourism development via hand-drawn artwork, the resultant creations are both a by-product of academic tourism that arises from organised student field trips and also a potentially new, personalized and contemporary form of art that captures the spirit of emerging tourist destinations that would otherwise continue to languish outside the ‘tourist gaze’. This chapter describes how a contrasting, ‘students’ gaze’ captured the essence of a centuries-old former gold-mining village in rural Malaysia. Via artwork originally produced for academic submissions, it translates the contemporary narrative of a unique community into tangible form, showing that tourists can in fact create souvenirs to represent historically-significant communities, thus helping their identity evolve into heritage.
... The idea that Pulai is sustained by 'natural travellers' was therefore also something that was captured by the 'students' gaze'. The presence of two rustic suspension bridges across the Galas river ( Fig. 3.4) separating the community from their historical gold-mine (now a lake supporting aquaculture) was another favourite with students, as much for the imagined danger of using them as any sense of cultural expression or beauty, reinforcing the idea that danger (even only the feeling of danger in a situation which is inherently safe) is itself a psychological attraction for a certain class of (especially young) travelers (Mura 2010). ...
Traditionally, art tourism involves tourists whose mobilities were determined by their motivation to see and enjoy art, often consumed within confined spaces such as exhibition halls, galleries, museums, etc. However, with the digitalisation of art and space, and evolving visitor demands, mobility patterns have significantly changed for both the artist and the admirer of art. Digitisation (conversion of physical into virtual content), digitalisation (processing of digitized content), and now virtual art, have transferred the traditional physical art space to that of a virtual space. In this process, art-based mobilities that were previously determined by space, time, money, or location barriers have been redefined, showcasing significant implications for travel and tourism. This issue is especially applicable in the context of Asia, where travel restrictions bind many in the neo-colonial political era. Consumption of art is no longer defined by a traditional perception of ‘elite spaces,’ and exclusivity, but breaks boundaries previously defined by the inside-outside dichotomy. In the virtual space, one can cross all boundaries previously defined by politics, including national, ethnic, or class boundaries. Thus, in this chapter, we discuss the implications of the digital art technology in democratizing consumption and engagement patterns of artists and art consumers. Taking an Asian perspective, we discuss how the implementation of digital art technology, may enhance the visibility, engagement, and access to Asian art consumers, challenging traditional boundaries, and dominant dichotomies.
... According to some authors, in 2020, this generation will account for about half of the demand for tourism sector services (Moisă, 2010;Buff a, 2015;Morrison et al., 2016). Th ey are quite diff erent from the earlier generations, as regards sociological characteristics, tourist motivations and way of travelling (Mura, 2010;Machado, 2014;Nagaj & Žuromskaitė, 2018a). Th ey are ready to accept higher risks, including those involved in tourist travel. ...
The aim of the paper is to assess the level of Millennial travellers' from Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) safety estimated by the importance of the security measures implemented in tourism infrastructure (accommodation facilities and tourist attractions) as a way to provide a safer leisure environment. The authors also endeavoured to present how safety affects tourism choices made in the world of increasing terrorist threats. In addition, the paper examines whether tourists' gender and economic stimulus in the form of reduced travel costs are among the factors which influence the evaluation of the significance of safety measures and the perception of risk in the era of war on terrorism. The objective is accomplished through a critical analysis of literature and the survey conducted by the authors among Millennials from Poland, Lithuania and Slovakia. The findings indicate that security measures improve the safety and quality of the tourist experience in respondents from the countries focused on in the survey; however, there are differences in the type of security measures accepted by tourists from individual countries. To have lower travel expenses, they are more willing to accept a lower level of safety during an outbound trip. The research has also revealed that the assessment of security measures varies depending on tourists' gender.
... While the dimensional approach is more popular in the advertising literature (Li et al., 2018a), previous tourism scholars have applied both approaches which provide a better understanding of the type, intensity and valence of emotions experienced (e.g. Brodien Hapairai et al., 2018;Hadinejad et al., 2019;Hetland et al., 2016;Mura, 2010;Tucker, 2009). ...
There is strong growth in research on tourist emotion, with a substantial scholarly debate emerging, surrounding approaches to measurement. Recently objective physiological methods for measurement of emotion have been applied in the tourism field. However, there are few studies which explore the benefits and limitations of applying physiological and self-report methods to measure emotions. This research aims to compare and contrast physiological and self-report methods to assess emotional responses to tourism marketing stimuli where music was manipulated. This research assessed emotional responses from 37 participants to three tourism advertisements of Iran using four key methods; specifically, FaceReader™, skin conductance, self-report surveys and post hoc interviews. This research found that the light rhythmic music tends to evoke positive emotions and a higher level of emotional arousal in participants than does the traditional Iranian music or a video without music. Physiological and self-report measures of emotional arousal were inconsistent, but both techniques found similar results for assessing the valence of emotions. Thus, results highlight the importance of applying physiological techniques in combination with self-report surveys and post hoc interviews to provide a better and more accurate understanding of emotional experiences.
... Similarly, Kozak et al. (2007) and Sirakaya et al. (1997) point out that destinations perceived as risky are less likely to be visited than those regarded by tourists as safe. In contrast, other studies have challenged the negative role of risk by acknowledging its positive role in attracting certain segments of the market to specific destinations (Cater 2006;Mura 2010). ...
Through an experiment, this paper investigates the impact of online page popularity and message valences of user-generated content in social media on pro-Iran visiting attitudes and behavioural intention as well as perceptions of destination risk. Moreover, the mediating role of perceived risk and visiting attitudes in the effect of page popularity and message valences on visiting intention is examined. Six different versions of pro-Iran visiting community Facebook pages with three different message valences and two levels of popularity were created. One hundred twenty participants were randomly exposed to one of the six Facebook pages and then asked to complete a questionnaire that assessed demographic data; visiting attitude; visiting intention; travel risk type; and perceived risk index. The perceived risk index was developed by this study through conducting online open-ended interviews. The findings show that success stories and high popularity lead to more positive attitude, higher level of intention to visit, and lower perceptions of destination risk than failure stories and low popularity. Popularity dampens the negative effect of failure stories on users’ visiting attitudes. Moreover, perceived risk underlies the pathway of page popularity and message valences to individuals’ visiting attitude and intention.
... While the dimensional approach is more popular in the advertising literature (Li et al., 2018a), previous tourism scholars have applied both approaches which provide a better understanding of the type, intensity and valence of emotions experienced (e.g. Brodien Hapairai et al., 2018;Hadinejad et al., 2019;Hetland et al., 2016;Mura, 2010;Tucker, 2009). ...
Traditionally, tourists’ emotional responses to advertising and associated stimuli have been assessed using self-report questionnaires. Image recognition software, such as FaceReader™ provides a means to analyse emotional responses to stimuli, specifically the type of emotion, valence (positive/negative) and arousal (intensity) via facial expressions. This research note reports on the benefits and drawbacks of FaceReader™. Respondents from Iran (5) and Australia (5) were invited to a laboratory to watch a tourism advertisement (ski resort in Iran). A video camera was used to record the facial expressions of respondents while viewing the advertisement. Results provide an indication that participants had overall low arousal and positive emotions while watching the tourism video. FaceReader™ proved useful for collecting and analysing real time data concerning seven discrete emotions plus valence and arousal. Since FaceReader™ is sensitive to light and participants with thick frame glasses, it is recommended that future studies apply this software with additional physiological and self-report measures to advance understanding of the measurement of emotions in the tourism field.
... While the dimensional approach is more popular in the advertising literature (Li et al., 2018a), previous tourism scholars have applied both approaches which provide a better understanding of the type, intensity and valence of emotions experienced (e.g. Brodien Hapairai et al., 2018;Hadinejad et al., 2019;Hetland et al., 2016;Mura, 2010;Tucker, 2009). ...
While scholars have reflected on the roles played by psychology in tourism studies, there has been only limited exploration of the contributions of this discipline to tourism doctoral research. The aim of this study is to examine how psychology features in tourism-focused doctoral dissertations completed in the United States (US), Canada, Australia and New Zealand from 1974 to 2013. A content analysis was conducted on the 359 tourism doctoral theses identified during that four-decade period as drawing directly on theory informed by psychology and/or employing psychological concepts. The results indicate that motivation/destination choice, tourist behaviour/experiences, and attitudes/satisfaction are the most prevalent conceptual themes studied and expectancy-value theory the most frequently-invoked theory by psychology-informed doctoral research in tourism. Although collectively drawing on a wide range of methods throughout this period, an increase in the use of mixed and qualitative methodologies in recent decades was evident. This paper adds to a suite of studies exploring the scholarly contributions and trends in the application of psychology to the study of tourism. It serves to highlight gaps and avenues for further research, including the need for a more strategic and documented approach to the selection and application of psychology-informed theory, theoretical frameworks and models.
... This responds to calls from some tourism researchers who argue that "[t]he omission of studies and narratives which locate … 'emotion' in tourism, whether that of the tourist or the host, is a problem which has been noted and addressed by very few scholars" (Jamal and Hollinshead, 2001 p. 67). Some accounts of emotions of pride and shame (Johnston, 2007;Tucker, 2009;Waitt, Figueroa and Mcgee, 2007), fear (Buda, 2015b;Mura, 2010), and desire (Buda and Shim, 2014) in tourism have been recently published. ...
This chapter explores the proposition that the act of ‘souveniring’ recent and/or ancient places of death, disaster, or atrocities is a more emotionally immersive experience—and thus less cognitively controlled—than in other tourism contexts. We introduce and explore the notion of ‘dark souvenirs’ which encompass unlikely forms, redolent of darkness, emotions, and affective experiences in the dark tourism context of places connected to death, disaster, or atrocities.
... The impact of perceived risks on tourist behavior has been researched extensively (Adam, 2015;Moutinho et al., 2011;Sharifpour, Walters, Ritchie, & Winter, 2014) as it plays a role in the marketing of a destination (Mlozi & Pesämaa, 2013), having the power to sway tourists' decisions regarding destination choice (Fuchs & Reichel, 2006). While the majority of perceived risks are categorized as having a negative impact on destination visitation, some authors contend that it may also act as a motivator for travel (Mura, 2010;Mura & Cohen, 2011). The degree to which a tourist accepts or rejects risk varies among different tourist segments with each segment having a threshold against which risk becomes intolerable (Hunter-Jones, Jeffs, & Smith, 2007). ...
Though regarded as a “soft” adventure activity, the growing popularity of hiking has led to increased documentation of associated risks and unfortunate incidents. Various systems are being used to facilitate adequate trail management to prevent risks, and information provision through accreditation systems provides a means to manage risk perceptions. However, little research has been done on the influence of accreditation systems on consumers’ decision-making and buying behaviour within the adventure tourism context. This study took a quantitative approach to measure the importance of and future intended response towards trail accreditation among a sample of 926 hiking tourists in South Africa. A hypothetical country-wide implementation of a case study accreditation system was presented to respondents. The study indicates safety-related information as one of the key components of an accreditation system. It also demonstrates a link between trustworthy information, accreditation, and future hiking participation through addressing perceptions of risk.
... In the event of negative incidents, society frequently holds women responsible for crossing into the "unsafe" spatial and temporal territory (Wilson, Holdsworth, and Witsel 2009). This understanding of the gendered tourism space where women's mobility is restricted contests other common interpretations of tourism space as a heterotopia (Foucault 1984), a potential site for empowerment where gender norms can be transgressed (Small 2016;Zhang and Hitchcock 2014), or a liminoid space (Turner 1969), where social expectations, including gender norms, are temporarily vacated (Aitchison 2005;Graburn 2004;Mura 2010). As far as Asian women are concerned, this perspective adds further ramifications to the conceptualization of tourism space because until recently, tourism has been dominated by Western travel traditions and consciousness (Chambers 2010;Teo and Leong 2006). ...
In response to the increasingly risk-conscious environment in contemporary society, a growing body of literature has been dedicated to tourist risk perception. While risk is widely assumed to be a negative element in tourism, this perspective overlooks the fact that risk and tourist experience are intrinsically connected. This study takes a different approach by focusing on tourist risk-taking behavior, specifically, the risk perception and risk management of Asian solo female travelers, with an aim to contribute theoretical insights to the partial, conventional understanding of tourism risk. Located within a feminist framework, this study reveals how existing tourism space remains gendered and Western-dominated, how Asian women grapple with risks through various gendered spatial and bodily practices, and how negotiating risk is also a way to negotiate gender identities. A number of recommendations are provided for future research and for the tourism industry to foster a friendlier space for the Others.
... Despite these limitations, certain hedonistic patterns of behavior common among the young tourists on holiday, such as drinking alcohol and having sexual intercourse (Mura, 2010), are not allowed in Islam and consequently forbidden in Iran, despite being sought after by many young female domestic tourists (Hafezi, 2014). According to the Islamic law, drinking alcohol is forbidden for all Muslims. ...
This study takes the meaning of travel to be a profound and transforming experience, providing the feelings of freedom and personal satisfaction, as assumptions of the leisure experience. In this sense, we will analyse ‘travel’ under the gaze of the uniqueness of female gender, trying to identify which elements influence the motivation and performance of a group of fifteen Brazilian women in independent travels abroad. We also investigate the meaning and perceptions of the ‘leisure experience’, in its wider sense. An in-depth study of a female independent travel groups in particular, aims to contribute to a better understanding of gender issues related to the leisure experience, by observing the uniqueness of that group in particular.
... As with other emotions, thrill is influenced both by genetics (Dmitrieva et al., 2010;Thomson et al., 2013) and neurology (Zald et al., 2008;Kruschwitz et al., 2012). Suggestions of links between thrill and fear are longstanding (Kendrick, 1991;Mura, 2010) but previously untested. In valence-arousal classifications of emotions, fear is considered a negative emotion, and thrill positive. ...
People can speak, and this provides opportunities to analyze human emotions using perceived experiences communicated via language, as well as through measurement and imaging techniques that are also applicable to other higher animal species. Here I compare four qualitative methodological approaches to test if, and how, thrill depends on fear. I use eight high-risk, high-skill, real-life outdoor adventure recreation activities to provide the test circumstances. I present data from: >4000 person-days of participant observation; interviews with 40 expert practitioners; retrospective autoethnography of 50 critical incidents over 4 decades; and experimental autoethnography of 60 events. Results from different methods are congruent, but different approaches yield different insights. The principal findings are as follows. Individuals differ in their fear and thrill responses. The same individual may have different responses on different occasions. Fear boosts performance, but panic causes paralysis. Anxiety or apprehension prior to a risky action or event differs from fear experienced during the event itself. The intensity of pre-event fear generally increases with the immediacy of risk to life, and time to contemplate that risk. Fear must be faced, assessed and overcome in order to act. Thrill can occur either during or after a high-risk event. Thrill can occur without fear, and fear without thrill. Below a lower threshold of perceived risk, thrill can occur without fear. Between a lower and upper threshold, thrill increases with fear. Beyond the upper threshold, thrill vanishes but fear remains. This there is a sawtooth relation between fear and thrill. Perceived danger generates intense focus and awareness. Fear and other emotions can disappear during intense concentration and focus. Under high risk, the usual emotional sequence is fear before the action or event, then focus during the action or event, then thrill, relief, or triumph afterward. The emotionless state persists only during the most intense concentration. For events long enough to differentiate time within the events, fear and thrill can arise and fade in different fine-scale sequences.
... Clearly, there is a wealth of literature on the statistical relationship between tourism and illegal activities in general (see e.g. Barker et al. 2002; Brunt et al. 2000; Pelfrey 1998; Walker and Page 2008), but another strand of literature, i.e. the attractiveness to visitors of places offering a sense of criminality, scariness or illegality, is much less developed (see e.g., Meschkank 2011; Mura 2010; Thurnell-Read 2009; Zerva 2013). This phenomenon is sometimes called gang tourism, slum tourism, gaze tourism (Maoz 2006) or even—in a mild way— adventure tourism. ...
Tourists are not only regular visitors of important distinct places of interest. In making their decisions what or where to visit, they are also influenced by the (expected or realized) observed behaviour of others. A particularly interesting case of such social externalities is formed by so-called ‘voyeurism’, the phenomenon that visitors are visibly interested in—and attracted by—the preservice and spatial motives and behaviours of other visitors. Essentially, voyeurists derive their visitor utility from the observable behaviour of others, e.g. by watching them or speculating on their motives when they pass by. The present paper offers a novel empirical approach to these issues; it focuses on tourist voyeurism in the Red Light District of Amsterdam, with an emphasis on two well-known characteristic phenomena in this area, viz. prostitution and soft drugs. On the basis of existing literature that has demonstrated the importance of tours as an educative tool for tourists, we analyse if and how the perceptions of visitors have changed, through a panel study of 29 foreign students, and identify changes in their perceptions, after they have been exposed to real-world and site-specific factual information on this area, inter alia through a professionally guided field tour. Tools used in the present paper to analyse the voyeurism phenomenon—based on a before and after experiment—are multivariate analysis and regression techniques, while as a start a content cloud analysis is employed as an introductory exploratory tool. It turns out that information provision by a tour may change the site perceptions of voyeurists, but less so their value systems on the objects or people observed.
... Tourists with high incomes or those traveling with families prefer to cancel travel plans (Zheng & Zhang, 2002). There are tourists who deliberately seek thrill and perceive fear, a common expression attached to safety and security, as a positive emotion (Mura, 2010). They prefer off-beaten routes and actively participate in adventure tourism activities (Lepp & Gibson, 2008). ...
This paper sheds light on tourist’s emotional experiences on holiday, which are central to increase our understanding of tourist
behaviour. Tourists usually travel to cities with good impression. Choosing a travel destination is definitely a complicated decision-making
process for tourists. For safety concerns, some tourists intentionally visit somewhere familiar and nearby, but avoid nations or areas with high
crime rates or political instability. A wide range of perceptions governs the desirability and appeal of a destination to the potential traveler.
The importance of investigating perceptions of travel risks has been recognized with in a number of different disciplines, such as psychology,
sociology, criminology and marketing. It is often assumed that perceptions of safety and security may influence individuals’ destination choice.
Consumers use information gathered from various sources like word of mouth, different forms of media, guidebooks, talking to friends and
relatives, to form a perception of a particular destination.This is a quantitative study conducted in Malaysia. The respondents who participated
in this research were the nationals of Malaysia, India, China, Indonesia, Australia, and France, etc. The study found that most holidaymakers
perceive earthquake, tsunami, SARS, terrorist activities, swine flu as risk. The results of the study suggest that safety, peace and stability are
major concerns for tourists’ while choosing their travel destination.
Keywords: Destination, Safety, Risks, Decision Making, Perception
... Despite the relevance of emotions in tourism, empirical studies to determine emotional associations or meaning visitors attach to destinations remain limited (Yuksel, Yuksel, & Bilim, 2010). Disparate accounts of emotions of pride and shame (Johnston, 2005a(Johnston, , 2005b(Johnston, , 2007Lin, Kerstetter, Nawijn, & Mitas, 2014;Prayaga, Hosany, & Odeh, 2013;Tucker, 2007Tucker, , 2009Waitt, Figueroa, & McGee, 2007), and fear (Mura, 2010) in tourism have been recently published. Johnston (2007, p. 29) investigates the "construction and performance of lesbian tourism geographies" and argues that pride and shame are productive and lived through gendered and sexualized bodies. ...
This paper is about Grūtas, a Lithuanian park museum near Druskininkai featuring recovered Soviet-era artifacts. This study fills the gap in literature on people's emotions and reactions dealing with an unwanted past, and an undesirable heritage. Visits to sites associated with occupation, death and suffering are considered emotionally laden. Data were collected from visitor comment books employing a qualitative content analysis as well as quantitative data analysis techniques such as word frequency and semantic network analysis. Few studies empirically investigated visitor emotions to “unwanted” heritage sites. This research provides insights into the interpretive complex by discussing the content of visitor comment books. Three hundred and seventy-nine visitor comments from Lithuanians to the Grūtas park museum were examined. Results reveal that visitors experience both negative and positive emotions after visiting the site, such as unpleasantness, discomfort, surprise, admiration and delight. This is the first study to examine visitor's emotions and reactions to the Grūtas park museum, a site related to difficult heritage.
... The typologies of tourists at marine destinations are different from mass tourism. There are tourists who deliberately seek thrill and perceive fear, a common expression attached to risk, as a positive emotion (Mura, 2010). They prefer off-beaten routes and actively participate in adventure tourism activities (Lepp & Gibson, 2008). ...
In 2011, Malaysia received nearly 25 million tourist arrivals of which 43.6% of them visited beaches and/or involved in diving or snorkelling. Tourists favour the coastal area in Malaysia for the pristine marine environment and long-stretched beaches which attract both dive and non-dive tourist. Nevertheless, the number of injuries and fatal incidents at marine destinations in the past few years have raised the safety concerns among tourists. The main objective of this study is to investigate the concerns of tourists when travelling to marine destinations in Malaysia.This study also identifies which marine destinations in Malaysia are considered unsafe for travel.
... While current research (e.g., Kim and Richardson, 2003) acknowledges the impact a film location has on people's attitude and intention to visit the location, the majority of studies lack an empirically tested framework. Additionally, key factors such as familiarity (Tasci and Knutson, 2004), empathy (Beeton, 2005), nostalgia (Boym, 2001) and perceived risk (Mura, 2010) that shape a location's image (Gallarza, Saura and Garcia, 2002) and predict attitude and intention to visit the location, have been considered separately, resulting in a fragmented approach in the research area. The objective of this paper is to introduce a conceptual framework that explains how films impact on people's travel destination choices. ...
Films are unique vehicles that give exposure to and communicate an image of travel destinations. While current research acknowledges the impact a film location has on people's travel destination choices, the majority of studies lack an empirically tested framework, resulting in a fragmented approach in the research area. Clearly, a decision-making framework is required that can integrate key factors such as familiarity, place exposure, empathy, nostalgia and perceived risk that shape a location's image and explain their effects on attitude and intention to visit it. Developing such a framework is relevant to the tourism and leisure sector and provides theoretical underpinning for future empirical studies that can help destination marketers and film producers in delivering consistent messages about a film and its location.
... In contrast to previous investigations on the negative relation between tourism flows and crime (Barker, Page, & Meyer, 2002;Pelfrey, 1998), it appears that today a niche tourism market is not alarming but rather indifferent (Brunt, Mawby, & Hambly, 2000;Dimanche & Lepetic, 1999;Walker & Page, 2008) or even attracted by destinations that have a significant history or fame in crime and violence (Mura, 2010;Thurnell-Read, 2009). Bray and Dalton (2009) have supported the argument that crime scenes by nature receive people's attention and satisfy human curiosity. ...
Existing investigation on tourism and crime has indicated a negative relation between these two concepts where crime appears as an influential factor in limiting tourist flows. Albeit tourists have repeatedly reported the importance of safety in their travels, this paper presents a paradoxically positive relation between tourism and present crime, where gang culture is the main attraction of the visit. This case study is focused on LA Gang Tours', a non-profit organization and its use of social marketing in the re-interpretation of an organization threat to an opportunity in Los Angeles, the gang capital of the world'. For this purpose, I have applied conceptual content analysis of online data referring to this touristic attraction.
Accommodation and lodging together with attraction management have a significant role in ensuring that tourists are offered quality experiences. In the world of contemporary tourism, it is well-known globally that tourism markets are neither relying on products nor services but rather experiences to make tourists loyal prescribers. Therefore, experience is an important aspect of tourism development and evaluation. This means that providing safe experiences is of the greatest value for the attractiveness and competitive advantage of the tourism fraternity. The purpose of this paper is to determine if there is a relationship between tourist safety and tourist experiences supported by the literature, specifically to investigate the gap between these concepts at accommodation establishments and attractions in Lesotho. To achieve the objective of this paper, the researchers followed the qualitative directed-summative content analysis technique to interpret meaning from the content of text data published in 62 research reports from Scopus. This method adhered to the interpretive and applied content analysis as an analytical approach to produce results and put them into context. The literature shows that the relationship between tourist safety and tourist experience can be supported especially to investigate the gap between these concepts at accommodation establishments and attractions in Lesotho.KeywordsTourist safetyTourist experienceAccommodation establishmentTourist attractionJEL ClassificationsL83 SportsGamblingRestaurantsRecreationTourism
In the travel industry, safety and security are imperative and any attraction sites which ignore these tasks stand to lose out on the intense competition for tourists. One way to ensure that safety and security are satisfactorily provided is to regularly assess and seek the perceptions of stakeholders. Studies that make such an attempt, particularly in a Nigerian Geopark are relatively underrepresented in the literature. This study therefore evaluates safety and security situations at a large geopark and one of the most visited tourist destinations in Nigeria. Through direct observation, an on-site assessment of safety and security measures was undertaken by experts. The assessment instrument was designed using an empirical adaptation of standards which have been suggested in the literature. In addition, members of the site management were interviewed on various outcomes of the field study. Generally, the safety and security architecture in the study area appeared to be insufficient as the management seemed restrained to be too proactive for fear of scaring wildlife and visitors. Besides, the management did not consider the site to be under any serious threat as no major accident and/or crime has been recorded in the last decade. The study concludes that safety and security approaches in the study area do not reflect standard measures but rather cautious approach and an overly dependence on a supposed good past record. The result of this study can facilitate standard practice for safety and security in tourist destinations. This study fills the knowledge gap by providing information on the Nigerian experience regarding safety and security of Geopark in the Global South.
In this qualitative research note, we focus on two aspects of virtual reality tourism that haven't been talked about much: the risk of addiction and the feeling of being alone. Virtual reality tourism research so far has mostly looked at how current knowledge and theories can be used to help people have a good experience with VR apps. To look at reviews and blogs, the researchers used an inductive method. It turns out that virtual reality tourist experiences have common threads, like a short-lived sense of seclusion and the addictive power of virtual reality. More research is needed to learn more about addiction and social isolation so that we can better understand what causes them, how they work, and what they can do to us.
KeywordsVirtual reality tourismAddiction and isolation in virtual realityTourism experiencesVirtual reality applications
This paper systematically reviews previous studies on the dark tourism experience by utilising the theory-context-characteristics-methodology (TCCM) based approach. The review shows that only half of existing studies use pre-defined theoretical frameworks, and other studies do not report any theories (T); there is a lack of understanding about tourists’ experience from the lighter end of the dark tourism spectrum compared with the darker end (C); most dark tourism destinations generate an emotional experience rather than a cognitive experience (C) and qualitative research approaches are employed more than quantitative approaches (M). Finally, this study suggests future research direction using a TCCM lens.
This qualitative research note reports two neglected themes in research on virtual reality tourism experiences, i.e. its potentially addictive nature and temporary sense of isolation. Existing work on virtual reality tourism experiences has applied existing knowledge and theories and has solely tested how VR applications can positively mediate or moderate the tourist experience. This study adopted an inductive approach, analyzing contents of reviews and blogs, and consequently uncovered a temporary sense of isolation and the addictive nature of virtual reality as hidden themes within virtual reality tourism experiences. We stress the importance of further work on addiction and a sense of isolation in terms of their nature, role, and effects.
Tourists perceived different types of risks towards different tourism destinations. There is limited research highlighted the perceived risks of western tourists towards Arab destinations in general and towards Oman in particular. Therefore, this chapter focuses on understanding western women’s perceived risks associated to travel to Oman. Interviews were conducted with western tourists (women) who visited Oman in October 2016 and January 2020. Content analysis and thematic analysis were conducted. The findings revealed that the main risks associated towards Oman by Western women were; facing some difficulties related to following the local customs and respecting the Omani culture, laws, tradition, and religion, facing some difficulties related to following the dress code for each area in Oman and how much skin should be covered, facing some difficulties in interacting and communicating with locals in Oman, finding that the locals have a negative stereotype of western tourists, and being cheated or asked to pay over the rate by people in Oman (e.g., taxi driver and shops).
Discourses concerning risk have become increasingly popular among tourism academics. While these cover a wide range of safety and security concerns, there is rather less of a focus on risk from conventional crime than on terrorist threats. In contrast, criminologists have written extensively about the actual and perceived risk of crime. Both tourism academics and criminologists have addressed the question of who is most concerned about crime, but in each case this analysis has focused on questioning people at one point in time. This paper differs in that it compares the perceptions of risk of those arriving on a visit to Istanbul with perceptions of safety among a similar sample of those returning from their trip. In the former case, we consider tourists’ perceptions of risk prior to their arrival. In the latter case, their perceptions of safety after their trip, and the consequences of this for future visits, a key concern within the tourism industry.
Ataki terrorystyczne w popularnych destynacjach turystycznych spowodowały pojawienie się istotnego dylematu, jakim jest znalezienie sposobów ochrony turystów i zapewnienie im odpowiedniej jakości odpoczynku. W artykule została przeprowadzona analiza ważności „miękkich” i „twardych” środków bezpieczeństwa, stosowanych w obiektach turystyki kulturowej, na podstawie przeprowadzonych wśród młodych turystów z Litwy badań ankietowych. Ich wyniki pokazały, że młodzi turyści znają środki bezpieczeństwa, stosowane w miejscach zagrożenia terroryzmem, chcą jednak podróżować bez ograniczeń, w poczuciu wolności, ale także z pewnością, że podróżują bezpiecznie.
In view of the events that have been taking place in recent years, tourism security issues have become a popular subject in academic research. Terrorism attacks in trendy tourism destinations have raised a significant question: how can the tourist be protected and provided with quality? The article presents an evaluation of the significance of ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ security measures used in cultural tourism facilities by young tourists from Lithuania. The research showed that young tourists belong to the group of ‘courageous’ travellers, but their bravery has a limit. Young people want to travel ‘without restrictions’, feeling free, but they also want to know that someone has taken care of their safety.
This book brings together, explores and expands socio-spatial affect, emotion and psychoanalytic drives in tourism for the first time. Affect is to be found in visceral intensities and resonances that circulate around and shape encounters between and amongst tourists, local tourism representatives and places. When affect manifests, it can 'take shapes' in the form of emotions such as fun, joy, fear, anger and the like. When it remains a visceral force of latent bodily responses, affect overlaps with drives as expounded in psychoanalysis. The aim of the title, therefore, is to explore how and in what ways affects, emotions and drives are felt and performed in tourism encounters in places of socio-political turmoil such as Jordan, Palestine/Israel, with a detour to Iraq. Affective Tourism is highly innovative as it offers a new way of theorising tourism encounters bringing together, critically examining and expanding three areas of scholarship: affective and emotional geographies, psychoanalytic geographies and dark tourism. It has relevance for tourism industries in places in the proximity of ongoing conflicts as it provides in-depth analyses of the interconnections between tourism, danger and conflict. Such understandings can lead to more socio-culturally and politically-sustainable approaches to planning, development and management of tourism. This ground breaking book will be of valuable reading for students and researchers from a number of fields such as tourism studies, geography, anthropology, sociology and Middle Eastern studies.
Purpose
– This study aims to examine whether movies are pivotal in developing empathy, nostalgia, perceived risk, place familiarity and place image that can shape viewer attitude towards and intention to visit a place.
Design/methodology/approach
– Data were collected from two sample frames of patrons at a large cinema chain located in a major shopping centre in Perth, Western Australia. The experimental group watched the romantic comedy, Friends with Benefits. The control group watched the romantic comedy, Desi Boyz which is set in London and India and is not associated with New York. A quota for data collection was set at 230 subjects in each group. The two groups watched their movies concurrently in different theatres at the same cinema chain in the same shopping centre. Subjects in both groups were asked for their responses to New York immediately after viewing the movie.
Findings
– In an experimental study, subjects who watched a romantic comedy set in New York had significantly higher empathy, place familiarity, attitude towards and intention to visit New York and significantly lower performance/financial risk associated with visiting New York than the control group. However, perceived risk played no significant role in influencing place familiarity in the experimental group, whereas nostalgia played no significant role in influencing place familiarity in the control group.
Originality/value
– The proposed decision-making framework provides academics with theoretical underpinning for future empirical tourism studies in the research area. The findings also encourage more collaboration between government, movie producers, destination management organisations and marketers to deliver a movie that provides consistent branding in its story, location and product placement strategies.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of dark tourism in constructing narratives and stories which co-create and reinforce national identity. By focusing on the voice of the tourist and their consumer experience, we develop an understanding of youth behaviours and motivations associated with dark tourism and the effect of social influences in forming narratives. This empirical study comprises 20 interviews with young American dark tourist site visitors, 11 of whom were re-interviewed. The emic insights suggest dark tourism experiences can be used to (re)affirm individual roles, enhance feelings of national identity and co-create a self as well as a national identity. An etic conceptual model is proposed that is specifically designed for dark tourism sites. It provides a novel explanation of national identity co-creation and recognises the relationship between tourist motivation, experience and co-creation.
This study examines whether the romantic comedy as an information source can impact on and shape viewer attitude toward and intention to visit a place. Data were collected from patrons at a large cinema chain located in a major shopping center in Australia. Using an experimental approach, the experimental group watched a romantic comedy set in New York, whereas the control group did not. Subjects in the experimental group had significantly higher empathy, past experience, place familiarity, attitude toward, intention to visit New York, and significantly lower performance/financial risk associated with visiting New York than the control group. Furthermore, perceived social risk played a significant role in influencing place familiarity in the control group. This suggests that romantic comedies can be an effective information source in allaying viewers' concerns about a movie location. This article provides researchers with theoretical underpinning for future empirical studies in movie-induced tourism. It also encourages more collaboration between government, movie producers, and destination managers to deliver a movie that provides consistent branding in its story, location, and product placement strategies.
The Meaning of Things explores the meanings of household possessions for three generation families in the Chicago area, and the place of materialism in American culture. Now regarded as a keystone in material culture studies, Halton's first book is based on his dissertation and coauthored with Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. First published by Cambridge University Press in 1981, it has been translated into German, Italian, Japanese, and Hungarian. The Meaning of Things is a study of the significance of material possessions in contemporary urban life, and of the ways people carve meaning out of their domestic environment. Drawing on a survey of eighty families in Chicago who were interviewed on the subject of their feelings about common household objects, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Eugene Rochberg-Halton provide a unique perspective on materialism, American culture, and the self. They begin by reviewing what social scientists and philosophers have said about the transactions between people and things. In the model of 'personhood' that the authors develop, goal-directed action and the cultivation of meaning through signs assume central importance. They then relate theoretical issues to the results of their survey. An important finding is the distinction between objects valued for action and those valued for contemplation. The authors compare families who have warm emotional attachments to their homes with those in which a common set of positive meanings is lacking, and interpret the different patterns of involvement. They then trace the cultivation of meaning in case studies of four families. Finally, the authors address what they describe as the current crisis of environmental and material exploitation, and suggest that human capacities for the creation and redirection of meaning offer the only hope for survival. A wide range of scholars - urban and family sociologists, clinical, developmental and environmental psychologists, cultural anthropologists and philosophers, and many general readers - will find this book stimulating and compelling. Translations: Il significato degli oggetti. Italian translation. Rome: Edizione Kappa, 1986. Der Sinn der Dinge. German translation. Munich: Psychologie Verlags Union, 1989. Japanese translation 2007. Targyaink tukreben. Hungarian translation, 2011.
This paper reviews the extensive research examining developmental patterns in normal fear. Areas of focus include age, gender, and socioeconomic status differences in fear content, prevalence, and intensity. The structure and stability/duration of normal fears are also discussed. Finally, the crosscultural research in this area is reviewed. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies indicate that fear decreases in prevalence and intensity with age. There are also major changes in the content of normal fear over the course of development. Such changes are characterised by a transition from infant fears which are related to immediate, concrete, and prepotent stimuli, and which are largely noncognitive, to fears of late childhood and adolescence which are related to anticipatory, abstract, and more global stimuli and events. Fears of late childhood and adolescence are also more cognitive. One of the prominent themes during these years is social evaluation. It is noteworthy that fears have been demonstrated to be largely transitory in nature, decreasing significantly in number and intensity over time and with maturation. Future research into normal fear should more closely examine the validity of current assessment techniques. There is also a need for research into the developmental correlates of fear, including individual differences and affective environmental experiences. In particular, research examining the correlates of normal fear within a developmental psychopathology framework is recommended.
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This chapter outlines the two basic routes to persuasion. One route is based on the thoughtful consideration of arguments central to the issue, whereas the other is based on the affective associations or simple inferences tied to peripheral cues in the persuasion context. This chapter discusses a wide variety of variables that proved instrumental in affecting the elaboration likelihood, and thus the route to persuasion. One of the basic postulates of the Elaboration Likelihood Model—that variables may affect persuasion by increasing or decreasing scrutiny of message arguments—has been highly useful in accounting for the effects of a seemingly diverse list of variables. The reviewers of the attitude change literature have been disappointed with the many conflicting effects observed, even for ostensibly simple variables. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) attempts to place these many conflicting results and theories under one conceptual umbrella by specifying the major processes underlying persuasion and indicating the way many of the traditionally studied variables and theories relate to these basic processes. The ELM may prove useful in providing a guiding set of postulates from which to interpret previous work and in suggesting new hypotheses to be explored in future research.
Copyright © 1986 Academic Press Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
This article advances an interpretation of gender and fear of violence based on feminist post-structuralist theory. The authors explore the interweaving of 'embodied discourses', 'investments' in subject positions, and emotion. They illustrate their discussion through an exploratory analysis of the ways in which a sample of male and female university students describe their experiences of physical and sexual danger in urban space. The authors interpret the accounts they offer in terms of multiple subject positions embodied in the context of gendered power relations. In so doing they offer a fresh perspective on the geography of women's fear.
This article reports the results of an exploratory study concerning the relationship between the personality construct “sensation seeking”, operationalized in terms of Arnett’s (1994, Personality and Individual Differences, 16(2), 289–296) Inventory, and attitudes to various aspects of national parks. Significant relationships were observed between scores on the Intensity subscale of the Inventory and attitudes to visiting remote parks, structured tours, presence of dangerous animals, seeking wildlife, and stimulating/challenging activities. Scores on the Novelty subscale of the Inventory were also found to be significantly related to attitudes to visiting remote parks, as well as to the importance of picnic/BBQ facilities, meeting interesting/like-minded people, and eating in untouched areas of parks. It is suggested that further productive research on this topic should examine the effects of individual difference variables in more detail, most notably age, and other personality characteristics, as well as providing a more detailed characterization of park features. The analysis of markets for national parks in terms of sensation seeking and other personality variables appears to have substantial potential as a means to enhance the marketing and management of such areas.
Tourism is a major activity in the Greek islands. Its development during recent decades has stopped the economic and demographic decline of the area. The paper develops a framework for the appraisal of tourism's sustainability in the Greek islands,and it is concluded that the conventional tourist model,based on sun,sea and sand (3S) has failed to promote sustainability due to the limited economic benefits for host commu- nities and growing environmental pressures. The latest trend in Greece and elsewhere is a shift from mass tourism to more environmentally friendly and sustainable forms of tourism. Policies to change tourism patterns in the Greek islands will need to take into consideration their unique characteristics,their existing realities,and to be based on the exploitation of the local natural and cultural resources in order to develop new forms of tourism. The purpose of this paper is to identify types of new forms of tourism that are being developed in the Aegean Islands,and to evaluate their impact. Various practical examples are presented,together with the difficulties involved in their imple- mentation. The initiatives are in fact so recent that it is difficult to assess their tangible results.
Interpreters at urban nature centers were asked to recall and list fears expressed by students on field trips to wildland areas. Forty-eight interpreters recalled 564 examples of fearful reactions. Responses were interpreted based on the literature on fear. Fears of snakes, insects, nonindigenous animals, and plants were most frequently cited. Enlightening was the high frequency of “fear of getting lost” and the emotion of disgust expressed in relation to natural objects. Results suggest the need to address not only students' fears but also their feelings of disgust. Anxiety reactions from students suggest that interpretive programs for some students may be corrective instead of formative.
A growing number of environmental education organizations use outdoor adventure activities as part of their curriculum. Many of these activities can be fear-provoking and exert a tremendous influence upon the individual. These fears are both environmentally and socio/psychologically based and can be modified through participation in adventure activities. This paper describes the construct of fear, its use in outdoor environmental programs, and the results of two recent studies on fear.
Tourism marketers and managers must be sensitive to those psychographic characteristics that distinguish their visitors and potential visitors. A growing list of psychographic characteristics has interested tourism researchers through the years. One such personality trait is the concept of sensation seeking. It is widely accepted that some vacationers seek higher levels of arousal than do others and that the appropriate matching of the trait to the destination or product is an important element of successful tourism marketing. But how does one measure sensation seeking? This article discusses the results of an empirical test that compared a somewhat cumbersome but well-established testing method with a relatively new scale created to serve as an alternative. The findings validate the new, simplified approach.
Nearly one-third of the 615 travelers responding to a 1997 survey reported being indisposed by gastrointestinal illness during their trips to Cancun. Those reporting illness were disproportionately residents of the United States. One accepted way to avoid traveler’s diarrhea is to eat only cooked food. In addition, many of the sixty hotel chefs surveyed attempted to interdict disease by avoiding local suppliers and instead ordered frozen foods from distant markets. Neither of those strategies will work, however, if kitchen workers themselves cause disease, which appears to occur. Rather than risk being shunned by international travelers, Cancun’s hoteliers would do well to create alliances with local producers to provide appropriately handled foodstuffs and to work together to ensure a sanitary environment for employees. By improving workers’ health, hotel chefs can close another door to disease. Similarly, by partnering with local growers, hotel chefs can ensure a supply of the freshest produce possible.
Cape Town, a major tourist destination, has gained a reputation for being an unsafe place to go on holiday. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate whether tourists, who visited Cape Town in August and September 2001, felt safe while staying at and touring in the ‘Mother City’, and how they perceived safety and security in Cape Town. The findings, which were taken from a survey of 438 visitors to Cape Town, reveal that respondents had reasonably positive perceptions of safety and security, although they felt unsafe going out after dark and using the city's public transport. A number of personal factors, such as nationality and previous experience of crime, were also found to affect respondent's perceptions of safety and security. These findings are compared with several studies, which include empirical research conducted at other international tourist destinations, and the South African Tourism data on foreign visitor's perceptions of tourism facilities in the country. In light of the findings, it is recommended that the tourism industry and law enforcement agencies co-ordinate efforts to improve crime prevention measures in Cape Town.
With examples drawn from the UK, Europe, the USA, Australia, and Asia, this book brings together a range of expert academic analysis of theory and practice concerning crisis management in tourism. Part I (chapters 2-11) deals with theoretical foundations of crisis management. Part II (chapters 12-17) deals with tourism crises arising from natural causes, while part III (chapters 18-24) deals with tourism crises resulting from human actions. Part IV (chapters 25-26) concludes the book. This book will be of interest to researchers and practitioners in tourism.
Significant developments within the past few years have made possible the publication of this rather large volume focusing on specific emotions of human experience, such as interest, joy, anger, distress, fear, shame, shyness, and guilt. The relevant events include new evidence on the relationship of emotions to cognitive processes and to personality traits and defense mechanisms. They also include discoveries relating to the biological foundations of emotions and theory regarding their significance in human evolution. Finally, there have been important findings on the role of emotions and emotion expressions in social relations, pain, grief, and psychopathology. These developments are elaborated in the pages of this volume. The contributors represent the disciplines of clinical, social, and experi mental psychology, psychiatry, and psychoanalysis. The contributions show important common themes that cut across disciplines, but they also reflect some differences that invite further thought and research. Above all, they add to our knowledge of human emotions and to our ability to understand and resolve human problems. The Department of Psychology of the University of Delaware has pro vided an excellent intellectual climate for work on a volume that ranges across several specialities and disciplines. Conversations with colleagues in the offices and hallways of Wolf Hall have provided answers to many questions. They also yielded some questions that compelled me to seek greater clarification of an issue.
In this chapter, Dr. Buechler and I suggest some new ways of thinking about emotions in infancy. The concept of emotional development is considered too broad to treat as a single topic. The chapter discusses four developmental processes relating to the emotions and to infant development and infant well- being. The expressions of the emotions in infancy are seen as critical in personality integration and the development of infant-parent and other social relationships. The question of the predictive value of emotion response patterns in infancy is placed in perspective, in part by considering the value of studying emotions in infancy apart from the issue of continuity of infant emotion traits.
Traditionally, the emotions have been viewed from a biological perspective; that is, the emotions have been seen as genetically determined and relatively invariable responses. The present chapter, by contrast, views the emotions as social constructions. More precisely, the emotions are here defined as socially constituted syndromes or transitory social roles. A role-conception does not deny the contribution of biological systems to emotional syndromes; it does, however, imply that the functional significance of emotional responses is to be found largely within the sociocultural system. With regard to subjective experience, a person interprets his own behavior as emotional in much the same way that an actor interprets a role“with feeling.” This involves not only the monitoring of behavior (including feedback from physiological arousal, facial expressions, etc.), but also an understanding of how the emotional role fits into a larger“drama” written by society. Some of the biological, personal, and situational factors that influence emotional behavior are also discussed.
Despite Ghana's vast tourism resources, tourism has been unable to play a catalyst role In the country's development process. This failure of Ghana tourism is not attributable to foreign ownership and control as is implied in the political economy of Third World tourism analysing the industry from underdevelopment theoretical perspective. Rather, the problem to date is that Ghana's approach to tourism development has favoured the wholesale adoption of conventional (mass) tourism which does not fit with the country's low capital accumulation capacity, unskilled tourism personnel, and traditional entrepreneurial and management styles. Foreign capital and mass tourists, which are relied upon by most Third World countries to establish their tourist industries, are not forthcoming because of Ghana's political instablity. Under these conditions, the appropriate approach is to adopt nonconventional or alternative forms of tourism which could thrive on minimum tourism infrastructure and services, and can survive political instability.
1. Introduction The study of emotion Types of evidence for theories of emotion Some goals for a cognitive theory of emotion 2. Structure of the theory The organisation of emotion types Basic emotions Some implications of the emotions-as-valenced-reactions claim 3. The cognitive psychology of appraisal The appraisal structure Central intensity variables 4. The intensity of emotions Global variables Local variables Variable-values, variable-weights, and emotion thresholds 5. Reactions to events: I. The well-being emotions Loss emotions and fine-grained analyses The fortunes-of-others emotions Self-pity and related states 6. Reactions to events: II. The prospect-based emotions Shock and pleasant surprise Some interrelationships between prospect-based emotions Suspense, resignation, hopelessness, and other related states 7. Reactions to agents The attribution emotions Gratitude, anger, and some other compound emotions 8. Reactions to objects The attraction emotions Fine-grained analyses and emotion sequences 9. The boundaries of the theory Emotion words and cross-cultural issues Emotion experiences and unconscious emotions Coping and the function of emotions Computational tractability.
This chapter presents a preliminary theoretical framework that may help to bring some order out of the apparently chaotic state of existing data on the relation between fear arousal and attitude change. The implications of the theoretical analysis have been examined in the light of the available experimental findings. In reviewing the evidence, the chapter does not attempt to cover all investigations that purport to deal with the effects of fear arousal on attitude change, but concentrates on those that appear to have met the necessary conditions to compare the relative effectiveness of communications that induce different intensities of fear. It is apparent that although some puzzling inconsistencies can be resolved by the proposed theoretical framework, others remain that cannot be accounted for in any compelling way. Nevertheless, even in its rudimentary form, the theoretical model seems to have considerable heuristic value, and is pointed out by emphasis on some fresh leads concerning interacting variables that ought to be investigated. In discussing these leads, the chapter indicates why it is believed that research on the new questions posed by the theoretical model will have a fairly good chance of improving the quality and consistency of experimental results.
It is useful to remember occasionally that life unfolds as a chain of subjective experiences. Whatever else life might be, the only evidence we have of it, the only direct data to which we have access, is the succession of events in consciousness. The quality of these experiences determines whether and to what extent life was worth living. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. All rights reserved.
This study, which is based on unit record data from the Queensland Crime Victim Survey of 1991, conducts, using a common set of explanatory variables, a joint analysis of the probabilities of becoming, and of being afraid of becoming, a victim of personal and of housing crime. It then proceeds to analyse the relationship between previous victimization experience and fear of crime (personal and housing). Its broad conclusion is that unlike personal crime, where reducing the fear of crime - over and above concern with reducing the incidence of crime - might be an important policy objective, the policy goal for housing crime should, primarily, be to reduce its incidence. This is because, for personal crime, variations in the probability of being afraid greatly exceeded variations in the risk of becoming a victim: fear of personal crime thus emerges as a problem in its own right. On the other hand, for housing crime, incidence is an accurate reflection of fear. It also concludes that lack of neighbourhood cohesion, neighbourhood incivility and perception of relatively high neighbourhood crime levels contribute significantly to the probability of being afraid of crime and to the risk of victimization. It suggests that, in policy terms, community action might be a more effective means of combating both crime and the fear of crime than a 'leave it to the police, that's what they get paid for' attitude.
Marketing researchers have questioned the use of the fear appeal, believing it to be too difficult to implement properly. AIDS, drug abuse, and other social problems have caused practitioners to return to the fear appeal, but with little direction from marketing theory. The protection motivation paradigm offers a prescriptive model to improve the effectiveness of the fear appeal. The authors propose and empirically test several changes to the PM model. Results indicate that fear appeals should present certain material in a specified order and attack maladaptive behaviors.
Fear of crime affects far more people in the United States than crime itself, and there are sound reasons for treating crime and fear of crime as distinct social problems. After assessing the state of knowledge on fear, this chapter considers whether public fear of crime can and ought to be controlled, and the moral and practical implications of doing so. The discussion draws on the literatures of risk perception and risk communication, as well as research on the etiology of fear and public beliefs about crime. A final objective of the chapter is to identify the most pressing unanswered questions about fear con-fronting investigators today.
The conceptualization and measurement of fear of crime have received considerable attention in the research literature. Nevertheless,
most sample surveys use indicators that only tap a general, cognitive assessment of safety — assumed to represent fear of
violence. This article examines whether there are conceptually and empirically distinct dimensions of fear of crime by comparing
the micro- and macrolevel antecedents of such a general, cognitive “fear” — which we call “perceived risk” — with those for
a more emotionally based, burglary-specific fear. Hierarchical logistic regression models for both types of fear are presented.
Some similarities were found between fear and risk in terms of various predictors, but results generally provide further empirical
evidence that the two constructs are quite distinct. At the individual-level, the effect of gender is different across models,
and routine-activities variables are somewhat better predictors of burglary-specific fear in comparison to risk perception.
At the contextual level, neighborhood integration serves to diminish respondents' perceptions of neighborhood danger, yet
this variable is positively related to burglary-specific fear.
There has been considerable attention paid within tourism management and the tourism academic community to tourists' experiences and fear of crime, but there has been little interest in the topic among criminologists. This is particularly surprising, given that tourist areas appear to suffer disproportionate amounts of crime, and within such areas tourists seem to be victimized more frequently than do local residents. Our own research attempted to fill this void through a victim survey of a national sample of British people, focusing particularly on their last holiday. We asked them about their experiences of crime while on holiday and their perceptions of safety. Our findings confirmed the high victimization rates experienced by tourists. However, although many people took notions of safety into account when they chose a holiday area/country, few saw crime or disorder as a problem when they subsequently went on holiday. While the criminological literature suggests that fear normally exceeds risk, in the case of tourism and crime it appears that risk exceeds fear. These findings are discussed in the context of debates over the rationality of fear of or anxiety about crime.
The problem investigated in this research study is the impact, now and potentially, of Washington, D.C.'s burgeoning crime rate on its second largest industry, tourism. The purpose of the study is to examine and evaluate the rationale between the two forces. Source used are current newspaper article, trade publications and a questionnaire circulated among visitors to the city. The conclusion of the research is that the specter of an increasing crime rate threatens the city's lucrative tourist industry.
Crime rates and the quality of life do not necessarily change in direct response to changes in the physical and social characteristics of neighborhoods. Developments that have an indirect effect on increasing crime rates and fear of crime include neighborhood disinvestment, demolition and construction activities, demagoguery, and deindustrialization. Other factors such as government programs, collective neighborhood action, and individual initiatives and interventions help to maintain neighborhood stability. Fear of crime in declining neighborhoods does not always accurately reflect actual crime levels. It is derived from primary and secondary knowledge of neighborhood crime rates, observable evidence of physical and social disorder, and prejudices arising from changes in neighborhood ethnic composition. Regardless of its source, fear of crime may stimulate and accelerate neighborhood decline. Increasing fear of crime may cause individuals to withdraw physically and psychologically from community life. This weakens informal processes of social control that inhibit crime and disorder, and it produces a decline in the organizational life and the mobilization capacity of a neighborhood. Fear may also contribute to the deterioration of business conditions. The importation and local production of delinquency and deviance may also be influenced by perceptions of neighborhood crime rates. Changes in the composition of the resident population may be stimulated by the cumulative effects of fear. Fear of crime does not inevitably encourage or result in urban decline as "gentrification" demonstrates.
While there seems to be general agreement among members of contemporary American society about the value of reducing threats to individual well-being, there are may who actively seek experiences that involve a high potential for personal injury or death. High-risk sports such as hang gliding, skydiving, scuba diving, rock climbing, and the like have enjoyed unprecedented growth in the past several decades even as political institutions in Western societies have sought to reduce the risks of injury in the workplace and elsewhere. The contradiction between the public agenda to reduce the risk of injury and death and the private agenda to increase such risks deserves th attention of sociologists. A literature review is presented that points to a number of shortcomings in existing studies, most of which are associated with the psychological reductionism that predominates in this area of study. An effort is made to provide a sociological account of voluntary risk taking by (1) introducing a new classifying concept- edgework-based on numerous themes emerging from primary and secondary data on risk taking and (2) explaining edgework in terms of the newly emerging social psychological perspective produced from the synthesis of the Marxian and Meadian frameworks. The concept of edgework highlights the most sociologically relevant features of voluntary risk taking, while the connections between various aspects of risk-taking behaviour and structural characteristic of modern American society at both the micro and macro levels. This approach ties together such factors as political economic variables, at one end of the continuum, and individual sensations and feelings, at the other end.
This paper explores tourism and tourists visiting prostitutes as both being examples of liminal behaviours, that is behaviours undertaken by those operating at social thresholds. Prostitution exists as a ‘fuzzy legal’ activity, in that while largely proscribed in many countries, it nonetheless continues within a legal and social framework of constraint and limited tolerance. Tourism can also be observed as a liminal behaviour. in that it is a temperorally constrained, socially tolerated period of wish fulfilment, a form of fantasy enactment that is normally denied to people. Generally, the tourism literature has tended to perceive sex tourism as a form of deviance, but this paper argues that it is not an added component to tourism, but a form of behaviour quite consistent with the motivations that underlie much of tourism. Both activities of tourism and going to a prostitute involve satisfaction of needs of social companionship, fantasy fulfilment, family bonding, the search for something new and opportunities for relaxation. Sex tourism is thus not a deviance, but fully consistent with the norms of tourism; yet both, as liminal activities outside the main norms of behaviour, imply much about the consensus of what constitutes socially acceptable behaviour.
This paper studies the leisure activities of young men and women tourists. It is based on information collected about the behaviour of young tourists during their holiday in the beach-oriented resort of Torquay, in Southwest England. This work is required because of the importance of the young beach-oriented tourist to the tourism industry and the paucity of previous research on this population. The need to study gendered differences is related to the suggestion that men and women engage in different leisure activities in their home environment. The study found very few gendered differences, in terms of the leisure activities of young tourists.