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The Language Demands of Science Reading in Middle School
International Journal of Science Education
Abstract
The language used to construct knowledge, beliefs, and worldviews in school science is distinct from the social language that students use in their everyday ordinary life. This difference is a major source of reading difficulty for many students, especially struggling readers and English-language learners. This article identifies some of the linguistic challenges involved in reading middle-school science texts and suggests several teaching strategies to help students cope with these challenges. It is argued that explicit attention to the unique language of school science should be an integral part of science literacy pedagogy.
... Prior research generally confirms that subjects of STEM are heavily intertwined with language and might pose a lot of challenges for students regarding their language demands (Nestlog et al., 2024;Schleppegrell, 2004, Yore et al., 2007. For this reason, many authors demand that language requirements should also be explicitly taken into account in STEM lessons (Ernst-Slavit & Pratt, 2017;Fang, 2006;Hodgson-Drysdale, 2014;Schleppegrell, 2007). ...
... However, as Ö sterholm and Bergqvist (2013) pointed out, exemplified by the language in mathematics education, many claims about linguistic complexity in STEM are not necessarily based on systematic empirical evidence, but are rather presented by way of selective and illustrative examples. Furthermore, some researchers examining the language prevalent in STEM education refer to science as a whole (Fang, 2006;Kirk et al., 2001) rather than differentiating between scientific subjects, such as biology and physics. Thus, thorough linguistic analyses of texts in different STEM subjects are indispensable and desperately needed. ...
... In order to support students in their learning, teachers need to understand and acknowledge the role of languageand more specific, the role of LFsin different STEM subjects (Butler et al., 2004;Jin et al., 2020). As language is inseparably intertwined with subject content, addressing language is important not only in language classes, but also in STEM classes (Berendes et al., 2018) due to its high complexity (Fang, 2006;Schleppegrell, 2004). As of now, many researchers have criticized that dealing with language in STEM education is rarely taught explicitly: Teachers usually expect students to be able to deal with the language in expository texts (Feilke, 2012). ...
STEM education relies heavily on written language that students need to process in order to understand expository texts in the school context. Prior research indicates that students are challenged by certain linguistic features (LFs) prevalent in expository texts. Therefore, it is important that teachers support students adequately in their comprehension process. For German textbooks, however, research that examines which LFs are prevalent in which STEM subject is missing. In this study, we exploratively analyze the patterns of LFs of different STEM subjects (biology, chemistry, geography, mathematics, physics). For this, we examined 398 German texts extracted from 32 secondary textbooks. We found that some LFs are more prevalent in certain STEM subjects than in others. The found patterns of LFs hold the potential to provide concrete starting points for teachers to adequately support their students in processing the LFs of their respective STEM subject. Further implications and limitations are discussed.
... Long words are often, but not always, subject specific. These words frequently consist of several morphemes, that is, the smallest grammatical units in a language (Fang, 2006). Examples or words consisting of several morphemes are subtrac-tion, centi-meter, tri-angle and circum-ference. ...
... Passive voice expresses general relationships that are not dependent on a connection to a particular situation or individual, and that focuses an objective production of knowledge where people and relationships are less prominent to the reader. Passive voice is frequently used in written academic language found in science and mathematics (Fang, 2006). ...
... There are different kinds of subordinate clauses. For instance subordinate clauses can begin with adverbs such as when or a pronoun like which (Hellspong & Ledin, 1997) or with conjunctions like that or because (Fang, 2006;Veel, 1997). Although subordinate clauses fill several functions and vary extensively in terms of complexity, sentences with subordinate clauses are more complex on the whole. ...
This study investigates how written language is used as a resource to express meaning in different mathematical content areas; algebra, geometry, statistics and arithmetic, in the Swedish version of TIMSS 2011. Based on previous research we identify linguistic features that fulfill the function of expressing four central meaning dimensions of written academic language in general and in language used in school mathematics in particular; Packing, Precision, Personification and Presentation of information. These four meaning dimensions constitute the foundation for the analysis. The results show differences in how the language is used within the different mathematical content areas in TIMSS 2011. These differences consist primarily of to what extent the language is subject specific and used to express the specific mathematics in each of the four content areas. In this way the notion of a single mathematical language is also challenged.
... These linguistic distinctions help students communicate more precisely. Two main characteristics distinguish the LoS from everyday language: technicality, which involves the use of specific terminology, and rationality, which pertains to the structural composition of scientific language [19]. To engage students deeply with the LoS, both characteristics must be explicitly taught in schools. ...
... Additionally, students learning science must navigate multiple discursive languages [23], and this specialized language of science education poses a significant challenge for most students [24,25] due to the semiotic resources required for clear, concise, and accurate communication. When focusing on written text, factors such as thematic patterns [26], high lexical density, and socio-semiotic grammatical shifts, including nominalization [19], contribute to these challenges. Research indicates that the written language in school science environments is characterized by high lexical density, abstraction, and technicality [27]. ...
... Another linguistic mechanism involves the use of interconnecting, descriptive, and clarifying words and phrases to express semantic relationships between similar or dissimilar phenomena [26]. This practice enables scientists to construct categories and classes, forming taxonomic relationships [19]. According to Lemke [26], developing an understanding of these semantic relationships is central to all meaning-making processes in science instruction. ...
Evaluating science learning through written assessments for Multilingual Learners (MLs) can offer a critical source of information for educators aiming to adopt culturally and linguistically sustaining practices. However, without careful planning and design, written assessments for MLs can yield unreliable data. This conceptual article addresses this challenge by first examining the complexities of the written language of science and its impact on student learning. It then explores current literature and presents the Multidimensional Assessment Performance Analysis (MAPA) framework, a multimodal model for analyzing writing answers in multilingual educational contexts. MAPA integrates Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) to evaluate language use and Topic Models to allocate students based on their cognitive reasoning and thinking patterns. The article concludes with recommendations for classroom teachers and researchers to enhance assessment practices in science education for MLs.
... Tieteen kielelle ovat sanatasolla ominaisia termien ja käsitteiden tarkkarajaisuus ja täsmällisyys, abstrakteihin käsitteisiin viittaavat sanat, sanojen muodon samankaltaisuus arkikielen sanojen kanssa ja pitkät sananmuodot (Fang, 2006). Lemke (1990) perustelee luonnontieteen kielen omaksi kielekseen sen omalla sanastolla, semantiikalla ja syntaksilla. ...
... Edellä mainitut piirteet ovat tarkalle tieteelliselle ilmaisulle välttämättömiä, vaikka esimerkiksi abstraktius ja sanojen vierasperäisyys voivat haastaa kielen ymmärtämistä. Lausetasolla tieteen kielelle tyypillistä ovat esimerkiksi tekstin elliptisyys ja monimutkaiset lauseet (Fang, 2006). Myös fysiikalla on oma kielensä, jolle ovat ominaisia tietyt termit ja käsitteet sekä niiden normatiivinen käyttö. ...
... Saavutettavuuskirjasto Celia, 2024) ohella, että fysiikan kuvan ja ilmiön ymmärtämistä palvelevat täsmällinen luonnontieteiden tieto ja kieli (ks. Aksela ym., 2012, s. 15;Fang, 2006) sekä selkeä ilmaisu (ks. Leskelä, 2019), joka kuitenkin sallii abstraktien luonnontieteiden käsitteiden käytön. ...
Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan, millaisiksi luokanopettajaopiskelijat laativat ympäristöopin oppimateriaalin kuvien vaihtoehtoiset tekstit sisällöltään ja kieleltään. Verkko-opetusmateriaalien kuvien vaihtoehtoiset tekstit kertovat kuvan sisältämän tiedon ja edistävät yhdenvertaisuutta tehdessään kuvat saavutettaviksi. Tutkimuksen aineistona ovat opettajaopiskelijoiden laatimat vaihtoehtoiset tekstit (N=36) oppimateriaalikuviin, jotka esittävät fysiikan ilmiöitä. Tarkastelemme, 1) mitä kuvan tietoa luokanopettajaopiskelijat sisällyttävät vaihtoehtoiseen tekstiin ja 2) millaisia kielen täsmällisyyteen ja selkeyteen liittyviä valintoja opiskelijat tekevät. Opiskelijat sisällyttävät teksteihin informaatiota erityisesti kuvatun ilmiön syistä ja seurauksista sekä opetusmallissa käytetyistä symboleista ja symboliväreistä. Teksteissä on täsmällisen fysiikan kielen lisäksi arkikielisiä, epätarkkoja ja virheellisiä ilmauksia. Vaihtoehtoisten tekstien laatiminen oppimateriaaliin edellyttää tiedonalan sisältötiedon ja kuvanlukutaidon lisäksi täsmällisen tiedonalan kielen ja selkeän kirjoitetun kielen osaamista. Opettajankouluttaja voi saada vaihtoehtoisista teksteistä tietoa, kuinka opettajaopiskelijat hallitsevat ilmiön ja siihen liittyvät käsitteet sekä kielen, jolla ilmiöstä puhutaan. Tutkimuksemme auttaa näkemään, kuinka ympäristöopin oppimateriaalin vaihtoehtoisten tekstien laatimista voi ohjata ja samalla edistää saavutettavuutta. Promoting the accessibility of environmental studies learning materials: Class teacher students’ suggestions for alternative texts for images The study examines how class teacher students write alternative texts for images in environmental studies learning material in terms of content and language. Alternative texts in the images of online educational materials tell the information contained in the image and promote equality when making the images accessible. The data consists of alternative texts (N=36) written by teacher students for learning material images that present physical phenomena. We study 1) what image information students include in the alternative text and 2) what kind of choices students make regarding language accuracy and clarity. In particular, students include in the texts information about the causes and consequences of the phenomenon described, as well as the symbols and symbol colours used in the teaching model. In addition to the exact language of physics, the texts contain colloquial, inaccurate, and incorrect expressions. Writing alternative texts for learning material requires not only content knowledge in discipline and image literacy skills, but also knowledge of accurate language in discipline and clear written language. Teacher trainers can obtain information from alternative texts on how teacher students master the phenomenon and related concepts, as well as the language in which the phenomenon is discussed. Our research helps to see how to guide the writing of alternative texts in environmental studies and at the same time promote accessibility. Keywords: alternative text, accessibility, environmental studies, class teacher students Fulltext in Finnish.
... Additionally, at the word level, there are different types of derivations, such as nominalisation, e. g., 'Trockenheit' (= 'dryness'), that serve to economize within the technical language. However, they can additionally complicate text comprehension (Drumm, 2016;Fang, 2007). ...
... Moreover, borrowings from everyday language, i.e., words that have a different meaning in everyday life than in technical language (e. g., 'cell'; Beese et al., 2017;Childs & Ryan, 2016;Fang, 2007), can make comprehension of biology textbooks more difficult. Metaphors and metonymy that comprise a high amount of information and cannot be understood due to a possible lack in cultural knowledge background may also pose barriers to understanding (Fäßler, 1999;Harms & Kattmann, 2013;Rink, 2018). ...
... At the sentence level, complex subordinate clause structures make it difficult for students to decode the content (Beese et al., 2017;Schmellentin et al., 2017). Moreover, information density at the sentence level is furthered by (complex) adjuncts, such as those in the form of attributes (Drumm, 2016;Fang, 2007). A complicating factor for subordinate clauses is the use of separable verbs: meaningful verb components are shifted to the end of the sentence and are thus often overlooked by students, although they are typically crucial for understanding the whole sentence (Bickes, 2016;Beese et al., 2016). ...
As texts in biology classes can contain many barriers to understanding, the concept of Easy Lan-guage (‘Leichte Sprache’) is currently discussed for use in schools. This article analyses compre-hensibility barriers exemplary in standard school textbooks and highlights how translations into Easy Language can be realized and how they correspond to the educational standards. Overall, such translations seem to be promising, although some aspects still need further research and discussion.
... Integrating literacy-building strategies into content, such as science, promotes EBs' academic achievement [10,11]. Language and content integration can include explicit instruction in literacy components (e.g., phonemic awareness), along with academic language development [10,[12][13][14], reading in content areas [15][16][17][18][19], and writing [20][21][22]. The potential benefits of literacy-building activities and experiences to EC and EB students in content areas like science necessitate an investment in teacher professional development (PD) emphasizing language-development strategies for science teachers. ...
... Exploring the role of written and oral language in science is a crucial requirement for developing scientifically literate students [7,[44][45][46][47]. The language of science traditionally presented in classrooms often poses comprehension challenges for students, especially EBs [15]. Science vocabulary frequently differs from everyday conversations or may take on new meanings in the classroom [46,48]. ...
... Scientific language is often unfamiliar to students and is recognizably different from everyday language creating potential obstacles to learning, especially for struggling readers and EBs [15]. Scientific terms help establish professional discourse among the scientific community, but students may not encounter terms like organism, solute, or luminosity in their daily lives. ...
The 2019 science results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress showed that 8th-grade students, especially economically challenged and emergent bilingual students, made few gains in science and reading achievement. Researchers have found that scientific language may be a significant barrier to student comprehension. Researchers have advocated for integrating effective literacy strategies into the science curriculum to assist students in science and reading outcomes. We investigated the enactment of literacy-infused science strategies of a group of participating seventh-grade science teachers in a federally funded project following monthly virtual professional development sessions. Results indicated that teachers self-reported an overall increase in their use of literacy-infused science strategies after participating in monthly literacy-infused virtual professional development.
... The method quantifies the connectivity between terms in the lexical network. The method is based on a measure called communicability centrality (Estrada, 2012), which focuses on different contiguous paths found between nodes (terms) in the lexical network. The paths can be weighted according to their lengths. ...
... We are thus interested in the relative weight of these paths and the solution is to divide the number of walks by the factorial. This is called the communicability measure (Estrada, 2012) ...
... is the matrix exponential, I the identity matrix and […] pq is its element at row p and column q. Note that here a slightly modified version of the standard definition of communicability (Estrada, 2012) is used. The communicability has a free parameter β ≥ 1 that adjusts how wide a part of the network we look at when counting the paths. ...
Teaching and learning the language of science is an important part of science education. Learning the vocabulary of science plays a key role in learning the language of science. The meaning of abstract scientific terms builds on their connections with other terms and how they are used. In this research, we study pre-service physics teachers’ physics-related vocabularies and investigate how rich a vocabulary they use and what similarities and differences there are in their vocabularies regarding electrons and photons. We investigate the connectedness of physics terms by categorizing them according to their role in explaining quantum physics and carry out a lexical network analysis for N=60 written reports. The analysis shows that vocabularies do not share much similarity and the reports reflect narrow images of photons and electrons. We conclude that science teacher education needs to pay attention to explicit teaching of the language of science for pre-service teachers.
... For instance, science uses technical subject-specific terms that learners only encounter in the science classroom, making scientific language unique as the terminology is often unfamiliar to learners and rarely used in everyday language (Fang, 2006). Moreover, scientific language is conveyed in complex sentences and expressed in one term because scientific language transforms verbs into nouns, which take the shape of events and qualities (Fang, 2006). ...
... For instance, science uses technical subject-specific terms that learners only encounter in the science classroom, making scientific language unique as the terminology is often unfamiliar to learners and rarely used in everyday language (Fang, 2006). Moreover, scientific language is conveyed in complex sentences and expressed in one term because scientific language transforms verbs into nouns, which take the shape of events and qualities (Fang, 2006). Moreover, the language of science includes discourse, reasoning, subject-specific vocabulary, and communicating science (both orally and in writing), all of which teachers should consciously foster in their lessons (Carrier & Grifenhagen, 2020). ...
Language is a crucial cultural tool in the teaching and learning of science. Different perspectives have presented arguments on how poor language proficiency presents challenges in learning science concepts regardless of whether learners are English first language speakers. The present study investigated language challenges in Grade 7 Natural Sciences classrooms and the teachers' efforts to mitigate them. This qualitative case study was framed within the socio-cultural theory. Six Grade 7 Natural Sciences teachers from two independent primary schools were selected as participants. Data collection involved focus group discussions and lesson observations. Data analysis yielded four themes: 1. Lack of adequate reading time worsens language challenges; 2. Scientific language and its acquisition are hindered by using everyday language; 3. Inadequate text interpretation skills negatively impact learners' academic achievement; and 4. Using inappropriate learning strategies increases language challenges. The study recommends the use of mobile technologies to narrow language gaps.
... Reading in science allows students to construct arguments, generate questions, evaluate, and validate theories and evidence through scientific reasoning (Braten et al., 2014;Cervetti et al., 2015;Mason et al., 2014;Scholes et al., 2021). Where students in primary school are considered to be 'learning to read' and learning all of the skills and strategies of a 'good reader', high school students are required to 'read to learn' when they use their simultaneously developing reading and writing skills to improve content area knowledge from across the curriculum (Fang, 2006). In 2021, the OECD reported far higher performance from those students who read more texts, and particularly those who read from a non-digital source. ...
... and which for the most part, do not feature in a learners social register of language (Fang, 2006). This almost unique vocabulary is crucial to making and conveying meaning not only within the discipline of science but for ensuring academic success. ...
Ironically, advances in digital technologies which have dramatically changed the
ways in which we communicate, have led to a decline in participation in advanced
language and literacy skills and a resulting decline in STEM participation.
Difficulties in scientific vocabulary and reading often result in limitations with
scientific literacy, along with poor critical thinking and metacognitive skills. This
in turn can affect a student’s success in education and opportunities as a lifelong
learner with further technological and financial implications for society and
future employers. This study addresses a gap in research relating to students
reading opportunities in middle school science classrooms and to understand
teacher beliefs and pedagogical approaches for developing reading skills and
scientific vocabulary in middle school science students.
... Educators and linguists have provided detailed descriptions of "the language of schooling" by specific content area (Fang, 2006;Schleppegrell, 2004;Scott & Balthazar, 2010). The idea is to document how different disciplines favor different syntactic mechanisms for conveying information, a pursuit labeled as disciplinary literacy (Ehren et al., 2012;Shanahan & Shanahan, 2012). ...
... The idea is to document how different disciplines favor different syntactic mechanisms for conveying information, a pursuit labeled as disciplinary literacy (Ehren et al., 2012;Shanahan & Shanahan, 2012). For example, according to Fang (2006), science texts have (a) informational density via a greater proportion of content words packed into clauses (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and some adverbs); (b) explanation and elaboration via pre-and postmodification of nouns in the form of prepositional phrases, appositive constructions, and relative clauses (e.g., the lush green tropical rain forest formed from the remains of once-living organisms); (c) abstraction via nominalization that turns verbs and adjectives into abstract process nouns (e.g., evaporation, condensation, this narrowing. . .); and (d) authoritativeness via mechanisms such as passive voice that remove the agent. ...
Purpose
In this article, we present key concepts pointing to the importance of targeting complex sentences for school-age children and adolescents with developmental language disorders (DLD). Drawing on current treatment research, we argue that the sentence is a crucial but often neglected piece of the puzzle when it comes to understanding relationships between DLD and academic outcomes. We provide detailed suggestions for how clinicians can focus on complex sentence structures in natural academic contexts to bridge this gap.
Method
Background information on sentence complexity is presented, along with a rationale for targeting complex sentences with school-age children and adolescents with DLD. Intervention methods from a variety of studies targeting multiclausal sentences are discussed in relation to current accounts of language learning and language processing models. We provide a robust catalog of suggested strategies for targeting sentence complexity in a manner that is aligned with research findings to date and integrated into real academic contexts.
Conclusions
Complex sentence structures are a key challenge for students with DLD as they tackle discipline-specific language and academic tasks. Sentence complexity treatment programs employ one or more treatment methods including priming, modeling, recasting, contextualization, metalinguistic instruction, and sentence combining. While studies have consistently shown a measurable improvement in complex sentence production on proximal outcomes regardless of treatment approach, evidence of durable, functional changes for students with DLD remains sparse. We encourage new treatments that target comprehension and production of complex sentences in real-life academic contexts in clinical practice and research.
Supplemental Material
https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.23969103
... It is well established that learning the language of science is an essential aspect of science learning (Cooper et al., 2022;Fang, 2006Fang, , 2016Lee et al., 2013Lee et al., , 2018Lemke, 1990). Mastering the language of science means learning its grammar and precise vocabulary (Fang, 2005(Fang, , 2006, managing its multimodal demands which include mathematical expressions and graphs (Hand & Choi, 2010;Lemke, 1998), and also its contextualized practices (Gee, 2004;Markic & Childs, 2016;Seah & Silver, 2020;Seah et al., 2014). ...
... It is well established that learning the language of science is an essential aspect of science learning (Cooper et al., 2022;Fang, 2006Fang, , 2016Lee et al., 2013Lee et al., , 2018Lemke, 1990). Mastering the language of science means learning its grammar and precise vocabulary (Fang, 2005(Fang, , 2006, managing its multimodal demands which include mathematical expressions and graphs (Hand & Choi, 2010;Lemke, 1998), and also its contextualized practices (Gee, 2004;Markic & Childs, 2016;Seah & Silver, 2020;Seah et al., 2014). Integrating science language learning as part of teaching practices can bring significant improvement in student achievement (Fazio & Gallagher, 2019). ...
Many science students struggle with using scientific language and making sense
of scientific phenomena. Thus, there is an increased interest in science education
research and public policy with regard to understanding and promoting scientific
language use and sensemaking in science classrooms. However, there is a lack of
comparative studies on how upper-secondary school students of different achieve-
ment and language levels use scientific language to make sense of phenomena. The
aim of this study was to explore the relationship between achievement level, scien-
tific language use, and sensemaking in chemistry for students being set a sensemaking task while constructing concept maps on the topic of chemical equilibrium. The concept maps were collected from five different upper-secondary schools in Sweden from two school systems (Swedish and International Baccalaureate). Using content analysis, these concept maps were examined for scientific language use as well as structuring of sensemaking. A majority of the students had difficulty structuring sensemaking in their concept maps, independently of achievement level. These difficulties included unstructured reasoning, symbolic representations being used as explanations, surface-level learning, and linear reasoning connected to rote learning. There appeared to be a connection between learning context and student individual structuring of sensemaking as expressed in the concept maps. The results also showed a clear relationship between scientific language use and achievement level in the student sample. The results indicate that the structuring of sensemaking and scientific language use are not always connected processes. In conclusion, teachers may need to adopt a teaching practice that includes directed and differentiated support for scientific sensemaking.
... Students must learn to recognize the linguistic characteristics of inferences (e.g., the use of connective words; see Fang, 2006) to understand experts' conclusions in texts, as scientists use inferences to explain their observations (Lederman, 2007). Making inferences helps students to synthesize all the information from individual sentences in order to understand the meaning of texts (Best et al., 2005;Kintsch, 1988). ...
Integrating reading and writing instruction with scientific inquiry can enhance student learning, yet the nature of the connections between each of these learning domains remain underexplored. In this systematic review, we analysed 16 interventions in elementary education in order to develop a categorization of the functions of reading and writing within scientific inquiry. Inductive analysis resulted in three main categories of functionalities: reading and writing as support for understanding, doing, and concluding in scientific inquiry. Specific functions belonging to each category are identified and illustrated with learning activities as described in the interventions. These functions highlight a range of possibilities, informing researchers and practitioners about aligning reading and writing with scientific inquiry. The review also included a deductive analysis of instructional reading and writing support in these interventions. Findings revealed that support was minimally described, primarily consisting of explanations (including direct instructions and examples) and providing graphic organizers (e.g., worksheets with prompts). Support for reading activities focused mainly on general and disciplinary-specific strategies for reading comprehension. Writing support emphasized disciplinary-specific strategies such as writing according to an argumentation structure, preparing scientific explanations, and documenting data. The results of this study advance our understanding of the rationale for integrating reading, writing, and scientific inquiry and can inform future integrated interventions. It also underscores the missed opportunities and gaps in current interventions regarding the interactions between reading, writing and scientific inquiry in elementary education.
... Linguistically speaking, there is a general consensus, even outside the academic community, that academic writing has distinct characteristics that set it apart from other types of language. Much research (Biber, 1988;Biber et al., 1999;Biber & Gray, 2010, forthcoming;Halliday, 2004;Banks & Banks 2005;and Fang, 2006) has focused on describing a defining characteristic of academic prose, its dense reliance on nouns and noun phrase structures. This nominal style contrasts with the structure of, for example, conversation, which relies on the use of more verbs and clausal structures. ...
This study addresses the issue of academic writing in English by comparing
pragmatic argumentation in the writing of 40 graduate students studying at Iraqi
universities (SSIU) with the writing of 40 graduate students studying at American
universities (SSAU). In these 80 theses, six selected aspects of academic writing were analyzed: (a) paragraph structure, (b) length and construction of sentences, (c) organization of information in sentences, (d) vocabulary, (e) topic sentences, and (f) discourse markers. This study seeks to go beyond the traditional and often onedimensional analysis of pragmatics of argumentation in English academic writing to distinguish and describe different aspects of academic writing and their results when used by EFL graduate students and graduate students coming from English-speaking countries.
The quantitative analysis of the six selected aspects of academic mentioned above begins with a brief definition and is followed by frequency information from corpus analysis in the corpora. I analyze the selected data with a corpus-based approach and pragmatic theories that are proposed in Chapter Two to see if the results answer the research questions that are proposed in Chapter One. Learners of English who reached the postgraduate level of study should have awareness of the pragmatic aspects involved in writing and reporting academic research. These aspects are, according to their importance, topicality, organization of information, and paragraph structure. Other aspects can serve as an auxiliary function that can help presenting the major aspects above in better manner. These aspects are: length and construction, organization of information, and vocabulary. This study has reached a point at which a conclusion can be hypothesized and conducted. The full observation of these conclusions made the researcher able to suggest recommendations for further such studies.
... With growing immigration, 5.3 million students in U.S. public schools are English Language Learners (ELLs) (NCES). This large population of ELL students highlights an urgent demand for effective support in science learning, where language barriers can hinder comprehension of complex concepts and limit access to educational opportunities (Fang, 2006). ...
This proposal presents the design of a translanguaging learning environment. It integrates multimodal technologies, including a haptic glove and an interactive computer visualization, to deliver a multisensory experience. It contributes to translanguaging pedagogy by leveraging fluid language practices with multimodal learning technology, enabling English Language Learners (ELLs) to utilize their full linguistic and sensory resources to make sense of the science concept.
... This is particularly the case for multilingual or bilingual students who are having to learn mathematics in a second language. Fang (2006) contends that the particular linguistic features that render science texts more abstract and denser can often lead to difficulties in understanding, especially for students whose first language is not English. Moreover, the number of such students is growing in line with increasing migration and mobility, and approximately 50% of the global population are now believed to use two or more languages or dialects in their lives (Ansaldo et al., 2008). ...
This review was particularly relevant as it took place at a time when the number of Saudi students in the United Kingdom (UK) and most other developed countries had increased dramatically. Such growth called for an understanding of the language difficulties these students were likely to face in coping with the discursive features of mathematics courses. This review responded to this need and provided important information for educators. Existing knowledge was accessed to determine the relationship between language and mathematical learning and helping non-native English-speaking students. A specific detailed methodology was used to select the chosen studies including four criteria: topic, research base, reliability and validity, and research question. Their findings would enable stakeholders and mathematics teachers to anticipate the language problems for these mathematics students. The study suggested strategies for mathematics teachers that support non-native English-speaking students and made several recommendations for mathematics teachers to improve the experience for such students. It is clear that all students who are non-native English speakers need support to participate in mathematical conversations, and the strategies provided will help to enrich the mathematical learning experience for these students.
... The dual cognitive demands of language processing and content comprehension for students learning a second language can impede understanding and expression [38]. STEM-specific jargon, such as 'enthalpy' or 'polymorphism,' presents additional challenges, as these terms often lack direct equivalents in other languages [39]. This issue is particularly acute in regions with diverse linguistic demographics or where English is the primary language of STEM instruction but not the students' native tongue. ...
... However, it is less clear if some children experience reading comprehension difficulties because they have difficulties using syntactic signals to establish how the individual words relate to each other: The example sentences above may not pose comprehension difficulties for the vast majority of typically developing school-aged children. However, in school texts, especially from middle school and onward, texts grow increasingly syntactically complex, for example, containing longer nominal phrases and more subordination (Fang 2006;Uccelli et al. 2015). Furthermore, children will sometimes only have little background knowledge of these academic subjects, making it more difficult to guess or infer how word meanings relate to each other in complex sentence meanings. ...
The present study examined whether syntactic comprehension constitutes a source of individual differences separate from vocabulary and of relevance to reading comprehension. One hundred and sixty‐one Danish Grade 6 students completed multiple tests of syntactic comprehension, vocabulary, decoding, and reading comprehension. Syntax measures were designed to isolate syntactic skills. Syntax and vocabulary measures included expressive and receptive tasks to balance method variance. Structural equation models supported that syntactic comprehension and vocabulary constituted separate, moderately correlated factors, and that syntactic comprehension had the strongest direct effect on reading comprehension. The results suggest that syntactic comprehension and vocabulary are separate sources of individual differences, and thus that some students misunderstand texts due to difficulties establishing how individual words relate to each other in sentences based on syntactic signals. The study also suggests that for sixth‐grade students, individual differences in syntactic comprehension are at least as important as individual differences in vocabulary.
... SHS students must expand their agricultural literacy to become self-reliant, resourceful, and capable of solving farming challenges. Teachers play a vital role in guiding students through complex texts, new vocabulary, and disciplinary literacy (Fang, 2006;Pearson et al., 2010;Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). School garden projects offer hands-on learning, fostering healthier eating habits, teamwork, and environmental appreciation while reconnecting students with nature (Amiri et al., 2021;Bucklin-Sporer & Pringle, 2010;Osborne & Collins, 2010 She also has the most beautiful room inside the campus because of the plants she grows and is also properly maintained by her advisory class also" E1: "Naggabi-gabi man po kami igdi tapos pag dakol ng bungga, tinatawan kami nila ma'am para ugwa man kami maiuli" ("We also grow plants here inside the school and during harvest time, our teacher shares with us the fruits of our labor.") ...
One of the country's key objectives in the battle against hunger should be the development of students' competence and abilities, which should include agricultural literacy. The study's main goal was to create an integrated framework that considered the sustainability and seasonality challenges that come with distributing and integrating agricultural literacy into K-12 curricula, as well as the identified underlying concerns and problems. Key informants identified 3 collaborating schools along Pili. These include Felix E. Villamer High School (SJPNHS-Annex) in Del Rosario, Pili National High School in Pawili, Pili, Rodriguez National High School in Cadlan, and Pili National High School in Pawili. Results showed that agricultural literacy integration was necessary, especially in schools offering the Horticulture Strand. The need to further strengthen students' involvement in agriculture through creating innovative and interactive interventions was also put into account.
... SFL views language as a resource for meaning-making, emphasizing the relationship between linguistic choices and their social functions [12]. In high school science education, SFL provides a lens for analyzing the specialized language demands of scientific discourse and how these may pose challenges or opportunities for multilingual learners [13]. ...
As student populations in the United States grow increasingly linguistically and culturally diverse, asset-oriented peda-gogical approaches become essential for leveraging the linguistic talents of multilingual students in science education. This literature review explores evidence-based instructional interventions supporting emergent multilingual learners in deeply engaging with scientific practices and communication in high school science classrooms. The review examined nine peer-reviewed studies published between 2012 and 2023, focusing on instructional strategies for multilingual learners in secondary science education. Findings reveal promising interventions such as the 5E instructional model, think-pair-share discussions, translanguaging techniques, and culturally responsive pedagogy. These approaches, grounded in sociocultural theory and systemic functional linguistics, conceive learning as a social process involving cultural tools like language to construct knowledge. The efficacy of these interventions relies on their adaptability to diverse student backgrounds , classroom dynamics, and teacher readiness. Emerging effective strategies encompass technology-enhanced learning for multilingual science students, interactive science notebooks, and integrating content and language instruction for emergent multilinguals. Further research is needed to refine these models for multilingual youth across diverse high school settings. Advancing scientific literacy and educational equity requires educators to embrace asset-oriented pedagogies that integrate content, language, and literacy development, drawing on established theories to cultivate robust disciplinary thinking and knowledge acquisition for all students.
... Language has long been recognized as a crucial resource for learning disciplinary knowledge [1,2] and plays a vital role in students' mastery of disciplinary-specific literacy [3]. While linguistic resources, such as metadiscourse [4], nominalizations [5,6], clause complex [7], and interpersonal resources [8] have been the focus of extensive scholarly attention, technical terms as a type of linguistic resource for constructing disciplinary knowledge have been comparatively underexplored. ...
Nominal technical terms (NTTs), as crucial builders for disciplinary knowledge, can cause difficulties for students. However, previous studies have rarely associated NTTs with disciplinary knowledge construction. Apart from that, scholars of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) have mainly focused on making wordlists for one specific discipline based on corpora rather than on meanings. Moreover, the current categorization of technical terms cannot reveal their role in constructing disciplinary knowledge. Against this backdrop, we carried out a corpus-based study to classify NTTs in secondary school biology textbooks and to unveil the knowledge constructed by different types of those NTTs. As a result, we found that NTTs in those textbooks could fall into five major categories: Thing, Activity, Semiotic, Place, and Time. We also found intra-disciplinary differences in NTT distributions. The lexicogrammatical analysis indicates that the five types of NTTs can construct different knowledge. With the findings, we put forward implications for teaching biology in secondary schools.
... Students were expected to read the assigned textbook chapters before each class. However, Aria, Myrriahm, Emily, and Phoebe were all baffled by the complex linguistic features (e.g., specialized vocabulary, nominalizations, and complex sentences; Fang, 2006;Jaipal, 2001) in their textbooks. While the disciplinary instructors pointed out that some of their students may have difficulty with the textbooks, there was no single instance, out of our 27 classroom observations, of the instructors spending time helping students parse the complex linguistic features. ...
Students classified as English learners (ELs) in high school are more likely to start their postsecondary education in community colleges (CCs). Many high school EL graduates enter a CC, hoping to make good academic progress and later transfer to a 4-year college. However, past research has found that such students often struggle in CCs and rarely earn a postsecondary credential or transfer to a 4-year college. ELs' high school academic preparation and their subsequent college access—or lack thereof—are closely related. Yet, there is little research connecting ELs' academic preparation in high school and their subsequent ongoing trajectories once they are enrolled in CC. Drawing on the concepts of opportunity to learn (OTL) and opportunity sequences, this qualitative case study examines six high school ELs' academic trajectories from high school through CC. Our analysis shows a negative opportunity sequence in which ELs' limited OTL in high school lands them in remedial education at a local CC, which in turn delays their exposure to disciplinary courses in their majors. The students' struggles with their first disciplinary courses subsequently hinder their CC persistence and timely transfer to a 4-year college, forcing them to reset their postsecondary goals.
... The C of culture leverages students' funds of knowledge to bridge home and school contexts (Moll et al., 1992). The C of code-breaking deconstructs academic and disciplinary literacy codes necessary for content learning (Fang, 2006;Moore & Schleppegrell, 2014). The C of challenge sets high expectations and promotes disciplinary literacy and reasoning (Hammond, 2009). ...
Scaffolding ensures multilingual learners (ML) are adequately challenged and supported at school while learning English and subject area content. Due to the dynamic nature of language development, teachers may struggle to anticipate how to adequately scaffold lessons or reflect on their practice to identify areas for improvement. This paper examines how nine middle and secondary teachers across different content areas expanded their understandings of scaffolding for MLs. Using qualitative case study methods, data were collected through M.S. Ed. in TESOL coursework incorporating a Language-Based Approach to Content Instruction (LACI). LACI emphasizes teaching content through language, ensuring MLs access grade-level content while supporting language development. Data sources include major course assignments: (a) a designed lesson plan and reflection of the taught lesson, and (b) a video-based observation of a lesson. Both assignments incorporated the six Cs of Support (namely, a means of scaffolding based on LACI). Findings indicate that teachers deepened their understanding of scaffolding in general and in relation to the six Cs of Support for MLs. This study anticipates how teachers approach, expand upon, and apply their understandings of scaffolding practice, offering insights and implications for teacher educators to enhance how scaffolding is presented in coursework with a focus on MLs.
... In addition, science texts present explanations using language in ways that students do not encounter in their everyday uses of language, or in their reading of fictional and narrative text [30,31]. For example, the Koala text states, "Scientists know that, 45,000 years ago, Sapiens (the earliest name given to humans) built boats that could be used to travel across the ocean and reach Australia. ...
In this conceptual paper, we present a discussion of how we have embraced two challenges, posed by Aukerman and Schuldt, in their call for a more socially just science of reading, to which this special issue is responsive. Specifically, we share lessons learned from years of designing texts that (a) advance knowledge-building in the context of project-based science teaching and (b) advance readers’ textual dexterity. Our research is conducted in the context of project-based learning in science, and we approach our inquiry from multiple theoretical perspectives. We argue for the importance of text in science instruction. We present theories, empirical support, and national standards consistent with the integration of text in science. We discuss the role that texts can play in project-based science instruction. We also illustrate the design and optimization of texts and tasks, as well as the role of the teacher in this instruction.
... The ability to reason about and understand scientific and mathematical topics has been linked with reading ability (e.g., Björn et al., 2016;Reed et al., 2017), and there is some evidence showing that "poor comprehenders" perform less well than typical readers on tests of mathematical reasoning (Pimperton & Nation, 2010). In addition, science subjects have their disciplinary-specific vocabulary, including low-frequency words and morphologically complex Latinate forms (Fang, 2006), posing additional challenges for children with language and literacy weaknesses. While empirical work is needed to tease out causal relations, our findings demonstrate that children with poor comprehension in mid-childhood are at risk for poorer education outcomes across the curriculum. ...
Reading is a key gateway to learning, enabling independent access to a range of educational materials. Thus, reading difficulties leave a child particularly vulnerable to academic problems in later schooling and beyond. However, while there is good awareness of children with word reading difficulties within the education system, much less is known about the children who struggle to comprehend texts despite having adequate word reading skills. In this registered report, we investigated the later education and occupational outcomes of 947 children initially identified as having poor reading comprehension at 8–9 years from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, compared to peers not identified as having a specific reading difficulty (n = 4,516) and those with word reading weaknesses (n = 1,383). We observed that children with comprehension weaknesses (a) were less likely than typical readers to meet U.K. national educational targets as they progressed through education, with more marked differences for mathematics and science than English; (b) had poorer qualifications at the point of leaving compulsory education, which were comparable to children with word reading weaknesses; and (c) were the group at greatest risk of being out of employment, education and training at age 20. However, there was considerable variability in outcomes, with much of the risk shared with socio-demographic factors. The results address an important gap in knowledge regarding the functional consequences of reading comprehension difficulties in mid-childhood and inform discussions concerning the need for identification and targeted support in classroom settings.
... The C of culture enables students to build on prior knowledge by accessing cultural and linguistic resources, or their "funds of knowledge" from home communities (Moll et al., 1992), and are used to support academic learning as MLs develop new resources to participate in new situations, bridging home and school. Through codebreaking, teachers address academic and disciplinary literacies to break the codes of content learning (Fang, 2006;de Oliveira & Schleppegrell, 2015), integrating language and content as inseparable instructional components. The C of challenge puts a focus on high challenge and high support as high academic standards and content are maintained for MLs Figure 6.2 LACI's Six Cs. (Hammond, 2006). ...
... Secondary school students spend a substantial amount of time engaging in academic writing tasks in content areas (e.g., explanations of natural phenomena, lab reports). To accomplish the writing tasks, ELs must switch from everyday language to an academic language (Gibbons, 2009) and integrate the language patterns associated with science writing with an awareness of appropriate linguistic choices available for the writing situations (de Oliveira et al., 2021;Fang, 2006;Gee, 2006;Lemke, 1990). ...
This article reports findings from a study that investigated English learners’ (ELs’) developing awareness of disciplinary writing and academic language in science courses in a U.S.-based high school. Based on an analysis of writing samples, this case study first introduces the situational and linguistic characteristics of two science writing tasks in forensics and oceanography. The author then explores ELs’ developing understanding of science writing and academic science language via ethnographically oriented interviews. Informed by the Register-Functional perspective and Academic Literacies frameworks, the analyses demonstrate higher EL sensitivity to vocabulary, but not grammatical structures yet. Writing practices in science classes shape ELs’ understanding of disciplinary writing in unexpected directions. The situational analysis of writing and ELs’ perspectives provide a systematic approach for understanding learner needs in writing and integrating language into content instruction. Implications for EL education in science and teacher collaborations are provided.
... In conjunction with ongoing language development in adolescence, there are significant academic demands on language skill and use that emerge during this period as many of the language forms encountered with content-area discourse and written texts are complex and contain highly specialized or technical terminology (Fang, 2006(Fang, , 2008Fang et al., 2006;Unsworth, 1999;Zwiers, 2014). This means that a great deal of adolescents' learning requires independent reading and writing taxing those with typical language development and often presenting significant challenges for adolescents with language disorders. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate language development and disorders course titles across communication sciences and disorders (CSD) graduate programs in an effort to determine whether adolescents were specifically being recognized via inclusive language or dedicated courses. The findings can be used to propel important discussions about the need for inclusive course titles, inform initial directions for improvements in preprofessional education, and guide broader changes in the discipline, especially for the adolescent population.
Method
A review of accredited CSD graduate programs across the United States was conducted using the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association EdFind database. A total of 298 master's-level CSD programs were used for this study. CSD course titles located in each of the university's graduate catalogs were documented, categorized, and reviewed by the research team.
Results
Of the 298 CSD graduate programs reviewed, one in eight specifically included the word “adolescent(s)” or “adolescence” in the titles of their language development and disorders courses. Remarkably, only four adolescent-focused courses, two of which were listed as electives, were offered across all reviewed programs. A post hoc analysis of the language used in course titling revealed that 42 titles used inclusive terminology.
Conclusions
Adolescents are developmentally distinct from children, yet a majority of CSD graduate programs used ambiguous or exclusive words in the titles of their language development and disorders courses. The unintentional failure to recognize this important difference in course titles may be contributing to the ongoing neglect of adolescents within the field. Reframing collective thinking is required for change. Reasons and suggestions for including adolescents in course titles and separate offerings are provided to assist CSD graduate programs in leading the way toward improving equity for adolescents.
... By using the familiar-picture books-to reinforce the strange-unfamiliar language patterns-this approach invites elementary readers to engage closely with the linguistic features that characterize complex informational texts. In this paper, we take up the unique aspects identified by Fang (2006Fang ( , 2008 that reveal how the language used to communicate specialized disciplinary information differs from everyday language conventions: technicality, abstraction, density, and authoritativeness. ...
Informational texts present complex content using language that is simultaneously technical, abstract, dense, and authoritative. This article describes practical strategies to support teachers in using informational picture books to prepare upper elementary school students for navigating the complex language demands necessitated by expository reading. These strategies include morphological analysis, spotlighting discipline‐specific vocabulary, sentence completion, unpacking nominalizations, identifying actions and their agents, deconstructing noun phrases, paraphrasing complex sentences, and syntactic anatomy. They are designed for classroom teachers to support their implementation of authentic informational texts.
... Det er bred enighet om språkets betydning for laering i naturfag (af Geijerstam, 2012;Fang, 2005Fang, , 2006Lemke, 1990;Wellington & Osborne, 2001) og om at varierte skriveoppdrag er et viktig bidrag i elevers meningsskapende prosesser (Knain, 2005;Mork & Erlien, 2017). Denne artikkelen bygger på Wallace (2004) sine argumenter om at de to skriveretningene «skrive-for-å-laere» og «laere-å-skrive naturfaglig» utfyller hverandre. ...
The article explores how 11-12 year-old pupils in linguistically diverse science classrooms utilize creative visual imaginations and mental models in meaning-making processes about life-cycles in a Bottle-garden. The students wrote narratives while imagining being inside a model (the Bottle-garden). Such transformations allow students to relate personal experiences to abstract scientific processes. Four student-texts are analyzed qualitatively. The tool for analysis is inspired by frameworks of creativity and meaning-making. The narratives revealed variation in the students´ experience with language and text, interests and attitudes. The findings indicate that writing-tasks giving students the opportunity to express themselves in imagined worlds in a scientific context, activates the students´ bodily experiences and emotions. This encourages meaning-making in different layers. The approach also represents a potential for formative assessment.
... As a result, students may develop interest in science and enthusiasm about science careers (Gibson & Chase, 2002;Knox et al., 2003). However, the jargon and scientific language scientists use tends to be a communication barrier (Peters, 2013) and may be too cognitively demanding for students to comprehend (Fang, 2006). In particular, the overuse of jargon may negatively affect learners' science interest and engagement (Shulman et al., 2020). ...
... Exposition is notable for its lexical complexity. It has greater lexical density and diversity than narration and conversation (Fang, 2006;Fang & Schleppegrell, 2010;Lundine & McCauley, 2016). The lexicon reflects use for abstract, precise, or technical concepts. ...
Purpose
This tutorial guides speech-language pathologists (SLPs) through the research base for expository intervention and evidence-based decision making for clinical implementation.
Method
In the first half of the tutorial, the nature and development of expository discourse is described, and then attention is turned to the research base that informs SLP expository intervention. The many educational domains in which relevant research can be found and the diverse terminology used are explained. From reading comprehension and compositional writing, two areas with strong research evidence that are suitable to SLP use—text structure and learning strategies—are identified. The second half of the tutorial focuses on crafting SLP interventions from the educational evidence. An expository intervention designed specifically for SLPs from this research base, called Sketch and Speak, is presented. In this intervention, visual and written note-taking strategies are combined with oral formulation and practice strategies and taught through individualized oral interactions around informational texts. SLPs are guided on how to adapt this and other expository treatments to their own priorities and service delivery situations while maintaining quality features or “active ingredients” of researched treatments.
Conclusions
There is considerable educational research on expository intervention. From this literature, SLPs can strategically adopt and adapt to implement evidence-based interventions to help students understand, speak, and write in this important discourse form.
The purpose of this meta-analysis is to examine the effect of vocabulary interventions on the science vocabulary and knowledge of English learners (ELs) who are culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD ELs). After searching four databases and conducting hand searches, we identified nine studies that met our criteria. All these studies included a treatment and control group, five of the studies were randomized control trials. Our effects analysis indicated main effects of the interventions on science vocabulary and science knowledge for all students, ELs and non-ELs (g = 0.66). Our moderator analysis indicated that type of intervention, type of outcome (science vocabulary, science knowledge, general academic vocabulary), age, and whether the assessment outcome was standardized, or researcher developed, had a significant moderating effect of the intervention on science outcomes. We discuss our findings in the context of other meta-analyses and science vocabulary studies.
Generative artificial intelligence translation (GenAIT) brings convenience yet also imposes severe challenges on the dissemination of knowledge. The respective (dis)advantages of GenAIT and human translation (HT), and the ways to promote their effective interaction have not been sufficiently explored yet. This study investigates the linguistic features of GenAIT and HT of scientific texts rendered from English to Chinese from lexical and syntactic levels. The GenAIT is generated by ChatGPT 3.5, a representative GenAI platform, while HTs are done by 19 Master-of-Translation-and-Interpreting students in China. Data shows that GenAIT and HTs present distinguished linguistic features in both levels. At the lexical level, HT exhibits lengthier texts with a lower average word diversity; GenAIT presents higher accuracy in translating terminology. At the syntactic level, the average sentence count in HT is greater, whereas its average sentence length measured in tokens is shorter. Moreover, human translators tend to transform sentences from passive voice into active voice more frequently than ChatGPT 3.5 does. Furthermore, human translators exhibit superior skills in deconstructing lengthy and complex sentences into shorter, more comprehensible clauses. This study reveals that ChatGPT 3.5 and human translators exhibit complementary capabilities in the translation of scientific texts, thereby suggesting an optimisation of the strengths inherent to both parties. Implications are provided for future translator training, language service providers and the ongoing development of GenAIT and HT.
Fenômeno crescente ao redor do mundo, a educação bi/multilíngue é compreendida como aquela em que diferentes idiomas se articulam no processo de ensino e aprendizagem de conteúdos disciplinares. No Brasil, a integração entre línguas e conteúdos coloca-se como um desafio na formação de professores, de modo que a abordagem "Language-based approach to content instruction (LACI)” coloca-se como uma possibilidade para subsidiar o trabalho docente. Constituída com base na linguística sistêmico-funcional (LSF), a LACI apresenta possibilidades de encaminhamentos para quebra de código em que a linguagem disciplinar pode tornar-se acessível a estudantes multilíngues (EM). Por meio da análise de dois textos, um em inglês e outro em português, extraídos de livros didáticos do Ensino Fundamental com foco no estudo das plantas, evidenciam-se características da linguagem disciplinar da área de Ciências a fim de refletir sobre contribuições de uma abordagem funcional para contextos bi/multilíngues.
Multilingual learners face significant challenges when navigating the linguistic complexities of chemistry assessments. This study, employing the Equitable Framework for Classroom Assessment, identified these specific challenging features in general chemistry assessment items on the topics of limiting reactant and percent yield. Through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with multilingual students, we discovered critical barriers to comprehension: lack of metacognitive support, complex vocabulary and syntax, dense text layout, and extraneous information. These findings emphasize the need to better understand and alleviate these types of linguistic features in assessment items to more accurately measure chemistry knowledge, rather than linguistic proficiency. By addressing these challenges, instructors can design more accessible assessment items for a diverse group of students. The results also offer valuable insights and practical guidance for writing equitable assessment items.
This book showcases how teacher educators from diverse backgrounds, contexts, and realities approach English language teacher education with a critical stance. Organized into nine parts that explore different facets of English Language Teaching, each section opens with theoretical considerations chapters and features 24 practical application chapters.
Written by renowned scholars including Graham Hall, Lili Cavalheiro, and Mario López Gopar, among others, the theoretical considerations chapters offer concise insights into current issues and controversies in the field, point out opportunities for criticality, and discuss implications for teacher education.
Written by critically-oriented teacher educators/researchers from various parts of the world including Brazil, Germany, Morocco, Sweden, Turkey, and the USA, among others, the practical application chapters exhibit various ways to incorporate critical approaches in reshaping current teacher education practices (ranging from critical and queer pedagogy to translanguaging to multilingualism) along with a critical reflection of the potentials and the challenges involved in their application.
Exploring language ideology and pedagogy, this article details two approaches utilized to bridge theory and practice in a class on second language acquisition for preservice teachers.
This study aims to investigate the translation styles from the perspective of text complexity and to elucidate underlying factors contributing to the formation of stylistic differences based on individuation. Using SysFan and SPSS22.0 as tools, a combined quantitative and qualitative approach is employed to comparatively analyze the lexical density and grammatical intricacy across the renowned ancient Chinese poem Pipa Xing 琵琶行and its nine English translations. The findings reveal that while the translations exhibit comparable levels of lexical density, disparities in complexity primarily manifest in terms of grammatical intricacy, reflecting distinct text features: spoken, written, and mixed spoken and written, as well as varying degrees of hierarchical and narrative features. The variations in translation styles are intricately linked to the individuation process undergone by translators. The translator’s individuation process is modeled to show how a translator mobilizes the meaning resources in the repertoire, which is constrained by the allocation of the cultural reservoir, to re-instantiate the source text in the translated text, while constructing affiliation with the target-reader community. Different translators’ allocated repertoires ultimately shape their conscious or unconscious choices in terms of lexicogrammar, thereby generating translated texts characterized by diverse styles.
Our research is aimed at building a lexical typology of Russian UN texts by defining the range of metrics of a set of parameters i.e., Flesh-Kincaid Grade Level (FKGL), lexical density, lexical diversity (TTR) and Legal terms incidence. We utilized the data from the UN site ((https://www.ohchr.org/EN/PublicationsResources/Pages/RecentPublications.aspx) and compiled a corpus of 20 UN texts with the total size of about 20,000 words. FKGL, which is computed based on an average sentence length, number of words, number of syllables, proves to be relatively high and varies between 11.75 and 16.49. The findings indicate that the texts are both lexically dense and diverse: with lexical density varying from 67 to 74 and TTR ranging from 0.56 to 0.62. Thus, they demonstrate a high degree of correlation with FKGL. A typical Russian UN text contains about 66 legal terms, which shows that 7 texts out 8 contain legal terms incidence varying from 66 to 73. We conclude that the range of metrics of the four parameters selected above could serve as predictors in determing complexity in Russian UN texts thus confirming Ure’s views (1971). The results can be of interest to educators, and researchers of text complexity and translation studies.
Researchers in science education lacks valid and reliable instruments to assess students’ disciplinary and epistemic reading of scientific texts. The main purpose of this study was to develop and validate a Reading in Science Holistic Assessment (RISHA) to assess students’ holistic reading of scientific texts. RISHA measures students’ content, procedural, and epistemic domains of reading two texts, one history-of-science text and another socio-scientific text. The initial 24-item RISHA was administered to 161 Grade 9 students from 3 schools. The multidimensional Rasch partial credit model was used to analyze the reliability and validity of RISHA. All items demonstrated good fit and reliability. According to logit scores generated for each domain in Rasch analysis, students in our study performed better in content domain and less well in the epistemic domain. Students also performed significantly better in the epistemic domain of the socio-scientific text than in the history-of-science text. RISHA provides accurate measures in various domains of reading scientific texts and various contexts of scientific texts. We propose that RISHA could potentially be applied to studying the effect of reading-science intervention or predictors of students’ performance in each domain of reading scientific texts.
This study explores teachers’ use of metalanguage in science classroom talk that supports students’ science writing. Metalanguage was introduced to science teachers as part of a collaborative researcher-teacher inquiry into student writing. Seventeen lessons taught by three teachers were analyzed for the types of metalanguage used in their lessons and the science-language connections foregrounded by each type. The analysis highlights metalanguage as a resource for talking about the demands of science writing and reveals four distinct types of metalanguage adopted by the teachers in their instruction: grammar, content, genre, and science discourse conventions. Science-language connections are illustrated by the various levels of language and aspects of science foregrounded by the various types of metalanguage. Implications on the pedagogical use of metalanguage and professional learning of science teachers are discussed.
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This study discusses lexical bundles in reading passages in English textbooks for senior high school. This study has two objectives, the first is to find out lexical bundles three-word and four-word are found in reading passages of English Textbook for senior high school for X, XI, and XII grade. Second, To find of lexical Category types found in reading passages of English Textbook for senior high school entitled ”Bahasa Inggris” for X, XI, and XII grade. In addition, this study used theory from Biber. According to Biber, the categories of lexical bundles are noun phrase, verb phrase and prepositional phrase. This study uses a quantitative descriptive method used reading passages in an English textbook for senior high school entitled "Bahasa Inggris". Data collection in this study was assisted by Antconc software to determine lexical bundles and analyze lexical bundles according the category of lexical bundles. From the results of the study there were 146 lexical bundles in X grade, 203 lexical bundles in XI grade, and 199 lexical bundles in XII grade. Then, 299 categories of lexical bundles noun phrases, 159 verb phrases, and 91 lexical bundles preposition phrases. Lexical bundles three-word and four-word are found in reading passages in English textbooks. Then, three-word lexical bundles have the highest occurrence rate. In addition, the noun phrase category has a level of occurrence that is often used in reading passages in English textbooks for senior high school.
This article explains the elements of reading fluency and ways to assess and teach them. Fluent reading has three elements: accurate reading of connected text, at a conversational rate with appropriate prosody. Word reading accuracy refers to the ability to recognize or decode words correctly. Reading rate refers to both word-level automaticity and speed in reading text. Prosodic features are variations in pitch, stress patterns, and duration that contribute to expressive reading of a text. To assess reading fluency, including all its aspects, teachers listen to students read aloud. Students' accuracy can be measured by listening to oral reading and counting the number of errors per 100 words or a running record. Measuring reading rate includes both word-reading automaticity and speed in reading connected text using tests of sight-word knowledge and timed readings. A student's reading prosody can be measured using a checklist while listening to the student. To provide instruction in rate and accuracy, variations on the repeated readings technique are useful. To develop prosody, readers can listen to fluent models and engage in activities focused on expression and meaning. Opportunities to develop all areas of reading fluency are important for all readers, but especially for those who struggle.
Reading Science looks at the distinctive language of science and technology and the role it plays in building up scientific understandings of the world. It brings together discourse analysis and critical theory for the first time in a single volume.This edited collection examines science discourse from a number of perspectives, drawing on new rhetoric, functional linguistics and critical theory. It explores this language in research and industrial contexts as well as in educational settings and in popular science writing and science fiction. The papers also include consideration of the role of images (tables and figures) in science writing and the importance of reading science discourse as multi-modal text.The internationally renowned contributors include M. A. K. Halliday, Charles Bazerman and Jay Lemke.
Literature, both fiction and nonfiction, is rife with themes. Books and articles rarely promote just one main idea but rather several themes for readers to ponder and infer. When we talk to students about themes, we help them discern the difference between theme and plot. We explain that the plot is simply what happens in the narrative. The themes represent the bigger ideas of the story. The plot carries those ideas along. To demonstrate plot, we choose a simple narrative that everyone is likely to be familiar with. We might recount the plot of Goldilocks and the Three Bears by summarizing the events of the story as follows. A girl named Goldilocks was wandering through the forest and entered an unfamiliar, empty house. She tasted porridge that didn't belong to her, broke a chair, and slept in a bed that wasn't hers. She was caught when the bears returned, and she ran out of the house scared to death. We explain to our students that themes are the underlying ideas, morals, and lessons that give the story its tex-ture, depth, and meaning. The themes are rarely written out in the story. We infer themes. Themes often make us feel angry, sad, guilty, joyful, frightened. We tell kids that we are likely to feel themes in our gut. To help students more clearly understand the difference, we might ask, "What are the bigger ideas in Goldilocks and the Three Bears?" Kids tend to identify taking things that don't belong to you, selfishness, thoughtlessness, and so on. They have experienced these notions and they understand them.
In order to compete in the modern world, any society today must rank education in science, mathematics, and technology as one of its highest priorities. It's a sad but true fact, however, that most Americans are not scientifically literate. International studies of educational performance reveal that U.S. students consistently rank near the bottom in science and mathematics. The latest study of the National Assessment of Educational Progress has found that despite some small gains recently, the average performance of seventeen-year-olds in 1986 remained substantially lower than it had been in 1969. As the world approaches the twenty-first century, American schools--when it comes to the advancement of scientific knowledge--seem to be stuck in the Victorian age. In Science for All Americans , F. James Rutherford and Andrew Ahlgren brilliantly tackle this devastating problem. Based on Project 2061, a scientific literacy initiative sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, this wide-ranging, important volume explores what constitutes scientific literacy in a modern society; the knowledge, skills, and attitudes all students should acquire from their total school experience from kindergarten through high school; and what steps this country must take to begin reforming its system of education in science, mathematics, and technology. Science for All Americans describes the scientifically literate person as one who knows that science, mathematics, and technology are interdependent enterprises with strengths and limitations; who understands key concepts and principles of science; who recognizes both the diversity and unity of the natural world; and who uses scientific knowledge and scientific ways of thinking for personal and social purposes. Its recommendations for educational reform downplay traditional subject categories and instead highlight the connections between them. It also emphasizes ideas and thinking skills over the memorization of specialized vocabulary. For instance, basic scientific literacy means knowing that the chief function of living cells is assembling protein molecules according to the instructions coded in DNA molecules, but does not mean necessarily knowing the terms "ribosome" or "deoxyribonucleic acid." Science, mathematics, and technology will be at the center of the radical changes in the nature of human existence that will occur during the next life span; therefore, preparing today's children for tomorrow's world must entail a solid education in these areas. Science for All Americans will help pave the way for the necessary reforms in America's schools.
To investigate the reading attitudes and reading behaviors of middle school students over time, the researchers administered two instruments to the same 164 students early in their sixth, seventh, and eighth grade years. By responding to the Teale‐Lewis Reading Attitude Scales, students reported their general attitude toward reading and the values that they placed upon reading for three distinct purposes: Individual Development, Utilitarian, and Enjoyment. By responding to the Reading Behavior Profile, they reported their current levels of voluntary reading activity.
This book is about how language is used in the context of schooling. It demonstrates that the variety of English expected at school differs from the interactional language that students use for social purposes outside of school, and provides a linguistic analysis of the challenges of the school curriculum, particularly for non-native speakers of English, speakers of non-standard dialects, and students who have little exposure to academic language outside of schools. The Language of Schooling: A Functional Linguistics Perspective builds on current sociolinguistic and discourse-analytic studies of language in school, but adds a new dimension--the framework of functional linguistic analysis. This framework focuses not just on the structure of words and sentences, but on how texts are constructed--how particular grammatical choices create meanings in the different kinds of texts students are asked to read and write at school. The Language of Schooling: A Functional Linguistics Perspective * provides a functional description of the kinds of texts students are expected to read and write at school; * relates research from other sociolinguistic and language development perspectives to research from the systemic functional linguistics perspective; * focuses on the increasing linguistic demands of contexts of advanced literacy (middle school through college); * analyzes the genres typically encountered at school, with extensive description of the grammatical features of the expository essay, a gatekeeping genre for secondary school graduates; * reviews the grammatical features of disciplinary genres in science and history; and * argues for more explicit attention to language in teaching all subjects, with a particular focus on what is needed for the development of critical literacy. This book will enable researchers and students of language in education to recognize how the grammatical and discourse features of the language of schooling construct the content areas, role relationships, and purposes and expectations of schools. It also will enable them to better understand the nature of language itself and how it emerges from and helps to maintain social structures and institutions, and to apply these understandings to creating classroom environments that build on the strengths students bring to school. © 2004 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
Offers suggestions for selecting picture books for use in the middle school classroom to integrate and extend content and skills in various curricular areas, including reading and language arts, social studies, science, mathematics, and fine arts. Includes a bibliography with titles in each area. (JPB)
Identifies literature that has the potential to introduce students to the meaning of science, inquiry, and scientists. Discusses the importance of using multiple texts to teach science, reading strategies to introduce the concept of inquiry, literature to extend student understanding of the role of inquiry in science, and the use of this cluster for flexible grouping and differentiated instruction. (KHR)
This book is a story for and by real teachers. In the book, two seasoned veterans recount their 23-year collaboration to find ways to help students improve learning in their content area subjects. Over the years, the book explains, the two educators have developed a host of practical activities and strategies to infuse the processes of learning into the content to be learned. The book brings these activities to life--real activities immediately doable in classrooms at any level. It shows how practical ideas grow naturally from a theoretical base. And it invites teachers to take these ideas, tweak and adapt them to their own content area, and enjoy the same journey in teaching real reading and real writing. The book is divided into the following chapters: (1) Real Journeys; (2) Real Situations, Real Times, Real Places; (3) Real Destinations; (4) Reading: Conveying the Big Picture; (5) Making Reading Happen: Before; (6) Making Reading Happen: During; (7) Making Reading Happen: After; (8) Selling Reading: Creating a Lifetime Habit; (9) Slipping Writing into the Content Area; (10) Purposeful Writing to an Audience; (11) Learning for a Lifetime; and (12) Lifelong Teaching. Appendixes are: Surveying Your Textbook; Reading Guide: Cells and Structure; Review Circles; Review--A, B, C...Simple!; and Student Favorites. (Cites 134 works.) (NKA)
The purpose of this study was to determine middle school students’ (grades 4 to 8) metacognitive knowledge about science reading, science text, and science reading strategies. The 52 subjects were selected from 532 students who completed a survey instrument designed to determine students’ knowledge about science reading, science text, and science reading strategies. The stratified randomly sampled students were interviewed using five structured protocols. The protocol items were based on 21 strategic characteristics of successful readers of science text and three domains of metacognitive knowledge: declarative, procedural, and conditional. Quantitative analyses reveal surface level metacognitive knowledge about 20 of 21 strategies explored and similar levels of knowledge across the three metacognitive domains. A qualitative analysis indicates that average middle school students’ metacognitive knowledge of science reading, science text, and science reading strategies is similar to that of younger and poorer readers of narrative text.
Scientific writing contains unique linguistic features that construe special realms of scientific knowledge, values, and beliefs. An understanding of the functionality of these features is critical to the development of literacy in science. This article describes some of the key linguistic features of scientific writing, discusses the challenges these features present to comprehension and composition of science texts in school, and argues for greater attention to the specialized language of science in teaching and learning. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed, 89:335–347, 2005
The purposes of this study were to examine how well middle school programs support the attainment of key scientific ideas specified in national science standards, and to identify typical strengths and weaknesses of these programs using research-based criteria. Nine widely used programs were examined by teams of teachers and specialists in research on teaching and learning. Reviewers found that whereas key ideas were generally present in the programs, they were typically buried between detailed or even unrelated ideas. Programs only rarely provided students with a sense of purpose for the units of study, took account of scientific ideas plausible, modeled the use of scientific knowledge so that students could apply what they learned in everyday situations, or scaffolded student efforts to make meaning of key phenomena and ideas presented in the programs. New middle school science programs that reflect findings from learning research are needed to support teachers better in helping students learn key ideas in science. The criteria and findings from this study on the inadequacies in existing programs could serve as guidelines in new curriculum development. ß 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 39: 522–549, 2002 Whereas curriculum materials (and in particular textbooks and their accompanying teacher’s guides) are but one of the resources available to teachers, they have a major role in
An analysis and comparison of everyday life and the domain of science reveals significant differences in their goals and in the cognitive means used to attain these goals. Students' lack of awareness of these differences can lead to pervasive learning difficulties in their study of science. Thus many students (a) have erroneous conceptions of scientific goals, (b) import goals and ways of thinking which are effective in everyday life but inadequate in science, and (c) devise ways of thinking ill suited to science. Additional complications arise because science taught in schools often differs both from actual science and from everyday life. Students' learning difficulties are thus increased because scientific goals are distorted and scientific ways of thinking are inadequately taught. The preceding analysis suggests some empirical investigations and instructional improvements.
A major achievement in the sociology and philosophy of science over the past two decades has been the recognition that science is a form of culture with its own creeds, language, material practices, perceptions, theories, and beliefs. Learning science then amounts to participation (from more peripheral to central ways) in the particular practices of this culture. We argue here that there are some fundamental, heretofore neglected, ways in which newcomers come to perceive and talk about natural phenomena. Beginning with “muddled” talk and supported by deictic and iconic gestures, learners isolate salient objects and events which are, in increasing ways, represented in linguistic forms. More abstract forms of communication (writing, abstract symbols) are competently used only later in the emerging communicative patterns. As such, there lies tremendous potential in science activities that focus on observational and theoretical language in the presence of the relevant phenomena. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed86:368–385, 2002; Published online in Wiley Interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/sce.10008
This paper draws upon a distinction between fundamental and derived senses of literacy to show that conceptions of scientific literacy attend to the derived sense but tend to neglect the fundamental sense. In doing so, they fail to address a central component of scientific literacy. A notion of literacy in its fundamental sense is elaborated and contrasted to a simple view of reading and writing that still has much influence on literacy instruction in schools and, we believe, is widely assumed in science education. We make suggestions about how scientific literacy would be viewed differently if the fundamental sense of literacy were taken seriously and explore some educational implications of attending to literacy in its fundamental sense when teaching science. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed87:224–240, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/sce.10066
About the book: The thought provoking papers in this volume address some of the key aspects of the literacy debate from the perspective of a language based theory of learning. The contributions range from the theoretical to the practical and from everyday development of language at home to the workplace. Featured here are papers which interpret literacy demands on students across the secondary curriculum, by authors who are working in and around Martin's 'genre-based' movement, as well as those which present alternative perspectives. Contributors include Geoff Williams, Ruqaiya Hasan, Theo van Leeuwen, Sally Humphrey, Clare Painter, Joan Rothery, J.R. Martin, Anne Cranny-Francis, Robert Veel, Caroline Coffin, Mary Rose Macken, Allan Luke and M.A.K. Halliday. The unifying theme throughout this volume is placed on the relevance of language in understanding literacy education as a significant social practice.
Enteropathogenic Campylobacterjejuni, C. coli and C. lari are currently the most common causes of acute infectious diarrhoeal illness in the UK. Many domestic animals, including pigs, act as natural reservoirs of these organisms and infection may occur through the ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs. C jejuni and C. coli, isolated from the livers of bacon pigs, were examined at subspecies level by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MEE) typing with seven enzymic loci. Polymorphological variation was highest with indophenol oxidase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and L-phenylalanyl-L-leucine peptidase giving 5. 5 and 4 alleles at these loci, respectively. The 35 Campylobacter isolates examined in this study (12 C. jejuni and 23 C coli) represented 30 unique electrophoretic types (ETs). Of these ETs, 8 unique types were detected for the 12 C jejuni isolates and 19 unique ETs were detected for the 23 C coli isolates. In addition, 3 types (ETs 2, 5, 10) were shared in common among C. jejuni and C coli. The average number of alleles per enzyme locus was 3.28. The mean genetic diversity, i.e. arithmetic average over all loci assayed, including monomorphic values, was 0.5573 and 0.5350 for C jejuni and C coli. respectively. Alleles were shared by C jejuni and C coli, suggesting an exchange of genetic material between the species. MEE analyses of isolates showed that there was a wide range of subspecies types within both C. jejuni and C coli in porcine livers. In certain cases, up to four phenotypically different strains of C coli were isolated from one liver, indicating multiple infections.
Editorial: science textbook analysis What students have to say about their science texts
- R Good
- B Guzzetti
- C Hynd
- W Williams
- S Skeels
Good, R. (1993). Editorial: science textbook analysis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30(7), 619. Guzzetti, B., Hynd, C., Williams, W., & Skeels, S. (1995). What students have to say about their science texts. Journal of Reading, 38, 656–665.
Science voyages: Exploring the life, earth, and physical sciences
- Glencoe
- Mcgraw-Hill
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. (2000). Science voyages: Exploring the life, earth, and physical sciences (Florida ed.). Columbus, OH: Glenco/McGraw-Hill.
The reading crisis: Why poor children fall behind Learning the literacies of primary and secondary schooling The development of abstraction in adolescence in subject English
- J Chall
- V Jacobs
- L Baldwin
- F Christie
Chall, J., Jacobs, V., & Baldwin, L. (1990). The reading crisis: Why poor children fall behind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Christie, F. (1998). Learning the literacies of primary and secondary schooling. In F. Christie & R. Misson (Eds.), Literacy and schooling (pp. 47–73). London: Routledge. Christie, F. (2001). The development of abstraction in adolescence in subject English. In M.
Things and relations: Regrammaticising experience as technical knowl-edge Reading science: Critical and functional perspectives on discourses of science
- M A K Halliday
Halliday, M. A. K. (1998). Things and relations: Regrammaticising experience as technical knowl-edge. In J. R. Martin & R. Veel (Eds.), Reading science: Critical and functional perspectives on discourses of science (pp. 185–235). London: Routledge.
Foreword Language and literacy in science educa-tion (pp. iv–v)
- J Lemke
Lemke, J. (2001). Foreword. In Wellington, J. & J. Osborne, Language and literacy in science educa-tion (pp. iv–v). Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.
The language demands of school learning
- K Perera
Perera, K. (1982). The language demands of school learning. In R. Carter (Ed.), Linguistics and the teacher (pp. 114–136). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Reading comprehension requires knowledge—Of words and the world American Educator, Spring Issue Choosing science textbooks: Connecting research to common sense Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction: Perspectives on theory into practice
- E D Hirsch
- W Holliday
Hirsch, E. D. (2003). Reading comprehension requires knowledge—Of words and the world. American Educator, Spring Issue, 10–22, 28–29, 44. Holliday, W. (2004). Choosing science textbooks: Connecting research to common sense. In E. W. Saul (Ed.), Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction: Perspectives on theory into practice (pp. 383–394). Newark, DE: IRA & Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
Integrating reading instruction into an inquiry-based science curriculum: Its effects on middle school students' attitudes and achievement in reading and science. Final Report to the Learning Systems
- Z Fang
- L Lamme
- R Pringle
Fang, Z., Lamme, L., & Pringle, R. (2005). Integrating reading instruction into an inquiry-based science curriculum: Its effects on middle school students' attitudes and achievement in reading and science. Final Report to the Learning Systems Institute at Florida State University, Tallahas-see, FL.
The fluent reader: Oral reading strategies for building word recognition, fluency, and comprehension Cognition in scientific and everyday domains: Comparison and learning implications
- T F Rasinski
- J Larkin
Rasinski, T. (2003). The fluent reader: Oral reading strategies for building word recognition, fluency, and comprehension. New York: Scholastic. 520 Z. Fang Reif, F., & Larkin, J. (1991). Cognition in scientific and everyday domains: Comparison and learning implications. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(9), 733–760.
A diet THAT lacks in protein, minerals, and vitamins can prevent a person from growing to his/her potential maximum height. " 25. A diagram [THAT IS] called an energy pyramid shows the amount of energy that moves from one feeding level
- Z Fang
Z. Fang and thus comprehensible: " A diet THAT lacks in protein, minerals, and vitamins can prevent a person from growing to his/her potential maximum height. " 25. A diagram [THAT IS] called an energy pyramid shows the amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to another in a food web.
Genres of power? Literacy education and the production of capital
- A Luke
Luke, A. (1996). Genres of power? Literacy education and the production of capital. In R. Hasan & G. Williams (Eds.), Literacy in society (pp. 308–338). New York: Longman.
Report of the 2000 national survey of science and mathematics education
- I Weiss
- E Banilower
- K Mcmahon
- P Smith
Weiss, I., Banilower, E., McMahon, K., & Smith, P. (2001). Report of the 2000 national survey of science and mathematics education. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research.
Understanding the language demands of schooling Language in the science classroom: Academic social languages as the heart of school-based literacy Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction: Perspectives on theory into practice
- Z Fang
- M Schleppegrell
- B Cox
- Az Gee
Fang, Z., Schleppegrell, M., & Cox, B. (2003). Understanding the language demands of schooling. Symposium presented at the annual meeting of National Reading Conference, Scottsdale, AZ. Gee, J. P. (2004). Language in the science classroom: Academic social languages as the heart of school-based literacy. In E. W. Saul (Eds), Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction: Perspectives on theory into practice (pp. 13–32). Newark, DE: International Reading Association & Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
I read it, but I don't get it
- C Tovani
Tovani, C. (2000). I read it, but I don't get it. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.
Is learning to read and write the same as learning to speak?
- J Hammond
Hammond, J. (1990). Is learning to read and write the same as learning to speak? In F. Christie (Ed.), Literacy for a changing world (pp. 26–53). Melbourne, Australia: ACER.
Teaching multiliteracies across the curriculum: Changing contexts of text and image in classroom practice
- L Unsworth
Unsworth, L. (2001). Teaching multiliteracies across the curriculum: Changing contexts of text and image in classroom practice. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.
Language and literacy in science education Improving comprehension with think-aloud strategies
- J Wellington
- J Osborne
Wellington, J., & Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press. Wilhelm, J. (2001). Improving comprehension with think-aloud strategies. New York: Scholastic.
Children's writing and reading: Analysing classroom language. London: Basil Blackwell Science explorer (includes life, physical, earth and environmental sciences
- K Perera
Perera, K. (1984). Children's writing and reading: Analysing classroom language. London: Basil Blackwell. Prentice Hall (2001). Science explorer (includes life, physical, earth and environmental sciences).