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Urban Segregation in Post-apartheid South Africa
Abstract
An analysis of the results of the 1996 census reveals a general decline in urban racial segregation levels in South Africa since the end of legal apartheid in 1991. However, the trends are not uniform with Whites remaining both more segregated and less open to change than the other groups. Africans have become more integrated, but the majority are constrained in their choice of residential options by the general levels of poverty. Asian and Coloured people have witnessed the greatest changes, with significant declines in segregation levels in the majority of cities as they begin to return to the areas from which they were forcibly removed in the previous 40 years. However, segregation levels remain exceptionally high and rapid integration may require government intervention.
... Urban patterns in South Africa have been influenced by European settlement since the 1600s and continue to resemble colonial cities. Racial segregation was an important component of the colonial city as well as the growth and structure of cities in South Africa. The late nineteenth century marked the beginning of the restriction of settlement patterns based upon race (Christopher 2001). Focus on control over black residential spaces was a key element in South African urban planning (Mabin and Smit 1997). ...
... Population growth in the 1970s created more stress on existing townships and additional informal settlements were built (Maharaj and Narsiah 2002). In spite of population growth and changing labor regulations, new policies in the late 1980s removing segregationary legislation did not seek to reverse the effects of apartheid urban legislation (Christopher 2001). Residential integration and desegregation were largely left to market forces and no concerted effort was made to "undo" the apartheid city (ibid). ...
... As deracialization progressed, access to the labor market remained vital for individuals entering the market for the first time, a large contributor to labor market growth (Kingdon and Knight 2004). In the absence of economic expansion, migration from the rural areas to informal settlements on the urban margins increased (Christopher 2001). ...
High unemployment rates and the search for job opportunities are defining characteristics of the modern day South African economy. As apartheid era labor and land controls continue to break down, many households find themselves searching for work in an economy characterized by surplus labor. Examining high unemployment rates through the theoretical lens of deproletarianization provides an explanation of persistent unemployment and poverty more complex and complete than others. Research conducted in Polokwane, South Africa demonstrates increasing peri-urbanization as a physical manifestation of these changing labor relations. ¹ In an era dominated by global capitalism, theoretical engagements help explain household poverty, the failure of South Africa's economy to absorb excess labor, and how persistent unemployment contributes to a recon-figuration of space in South Africa's urban and peri-urban areas. The research team used a combination of qualitative semi-structured interviews and quantitative surveys to gain insight into household livelihoods and individual experiences. The deproletarianization argument applied here asserts that labor has become unfree in South Africa and represents a new form of labor discipline. Through the deproletarianization thesis, the labor market can be better understood to inform future unemployment and poverty research in South Africa.
... South Africa, Zimbabwe's southern neighbour, was colonised by Netherlands from 1652 to 1806, and then by the British in 1806. In addition to European colonisation from the southern parts, South Africa was also invaded by groups of people migrating from the north (Christopher, 2001). South Africa was colonised by a number of nations, although it was still regarded as a colony of Britain until 1961 (Christopher, 2001). ...
... In addition to European colonisation from the southern parts, South Africa was also invaded by groups of people migrating from the north (Christopher, 2001). South Africa was colonised by a number of nations, although it was still regarded as a colony of Britain until 1961 (Christopher, 2001). As a result of its unique colonial situation, South Africa therefore inherited various foreign spatial planning frameworks, building upon them to establish its own framework (Watson, 2003). ...
... The existence of white racial segregation in South Africa led to apartheid. The period from 1911 to 1950 saw the segregation of blacks from areas inhabited by whites (Christopher, 2001). Segregation was imposed under the pretence of maintaining order, since it was claimed that if different racial groups met, violence would ensue. ...
Over the years, the Zimbabwean and Zambian governments have been facing severe spatial development inequalities. They have therefore put in place various policies and strategies in a bid to ensure equitable spatial development. Spatial planning, which refers to the distribution of land uses and people, not only focuses on the physical aspects of land but also on national economic, environmental and social policies. This paper examines spatial planning frameworks in Zimbabwe and Zambia and how they have influenced spatial planning. The effect of spatial planning frameworks on development reveals a close relationship between spatial plans and spatial planning outcomes. The study shows how changes in institutional and legal frameworks affects development in different sectors of the economy and that a holistic approach to planning promotes sustainable development without neglecting other sectors. The data for the study was drawn primarily from secondary sources through a review of documents such as statutes, local development plans and other statutory instruments. The study found that in order to achieve sustainable spatial planning, there is need for a sustainable framework to guide spatial planning. Sustainable spatial planning frameworks also control and promote spatial development in both Zimbabwe and Zambia. Both institutional and legal frameworks guiding spatial planning should be sustainable for the benefit of future generations.
... Segregation and context effects are evidently of general interest, and the South African context is particularly suited for study. South Africa has a well known history of both formal and informal segregation (Davies 1967(Davies , 1981Sparks 1990;Christopher 1990Christopher , 1994Christopher , 2001Worden 2011). From the early days of settler colonialism physical space was consciously divided up on the grounds of race and ethnicity. ...
... In Johannesburg, the most populous city in South Africa, black South Africans lived in quasi-ghettos like Alexandra and the South-West Townships (Soweto), while whites remained in wealthy northern neighborhoods like Parkhurst, Houghton, or Sandton. These racial patterns were acts of deliberate policy; the apartheid regime and its predecessors planned cities extensively, using physical barriers and buffer zones to insulate the white population from the larger non-white population (Davies 1981;Christopher 2001). While small numbers of black, coloured, and Indian South Africans lived in white-designated areas, racial mixing on any larger scale was rare and short-lived, and shaped by white supremacist socio-political discourses that privileged whites over all others. ...
... In 1991, segregation was extremely pronounced across the country. By 1996, when the first post-apartheid census was conducted, levels of segregation had already declined greatly, but remained marked and obvious nonetheless (Christopher 2001;Seekings 2008). Despite this, in communities where segregation has declined, ethnographic accounts suggest that integration and racial mixing do follow, at least to some degree (Lemanski 2006a). ...
How does local demographic context shape political behavior? We investigate how racial isolation, one of the natural consequences of structural segregation, is related to racial voting in South Africa. Using a variety of new datasets, which include for the first time high resolution census data from before the end of apartheid, we leverage plausibly exogenous variation in the extent to which local segregation persisted after the end of apartheid to study this relationship. Whites who are more isolated engage in more racial voting, measured as the probability of voting along racial lines, against black political parties. Using geo-referenced survey data for over 39,000 people we then present individual level evidence consistent with our findings, and discuss potential mechanisms.
... This definition prefaces institutional discrimination as the basis for the formation of the ghetto in the city, and which differentiates it from other areas of urban poverty. The element of race is a defining characteristic and specifically relates to African Americans as other minority groups, Asians and Hispanics, have been more successfully integrated in the process of desegregation that began in the 1960s (Christopher 2001). The American ghetto functions as a place (Wacquant 2007) with specific forms of social organization that enable residents to access social capital and identify with the neighbourhood (Wacquant 1997). ...
... As the vast majority of the African population was extremely poor and so unable to purchase property in the formerly White areas, it is scarcely surprising that the white population was able to defend 'its' territory with a high level of success. (Christopher 2001: 454) Desegregation is occurring in former 'white' group areas in South African cities (Christopher 2001). In some areas, such as Hillbrow, this is in the form of newly segregated African ghettos (Christopher 2001) and in others, such as the northern suburbs, there is steady desegregation without white flight (Crankshaw and Parnell 2004). ...
... (Christopher 2001: 454) Desegregation is occurring in former 'white' group areas in South African cities (Christopher 2001). In some areas, such as Hillbrow, this is in the form of newly segregated African ghettos (Christopher 2001) and in others, such as the northern suburbs, there is steady desegregation without white flight (Crankshaw and Parnell 2004). However, in comparison to the United States over the second half of the last century desegregation has been more immediate and far-reaching in South Africa (Christopher 2001). ...
The ghetto as a metaphor is strongly present in the hood film and offers both utopian and dystopian representations of the city for African Americans. The ghetto or hood film has influenced the gangster genre in South Africa, where racial and socioeconomic segregation is a legacy of colonial and apartheid planning in cities. This article focuses on the geography of locations and aspects of mobility in the construction and depiction of the ghetto in two films of Johannesburg and Cape Town: Jerusalema by Ziman (2008) and Four Corners by Gabriel (2013). Although the ghetto is not easily applied to South African cities, defining elements are present in a variety of urban spaces including townships, the inner city and informal settlements. The ghetto, as Lefebvre’s ‘representational’ space, offers insights into the cultural, social and physical spaces of South African cities.
... It was one of the least segregated cities in the early 20 th century but became the most segregated by 1991, with only 5.7% of residents living outside their designated area (8% national average) (Christopher 2001). It thus offers a particularly interesting setting to measure neighbourhood effects in the absence of residential sorting for the subset of compliers. ...
... great majority of those contravening zoning legislations were servants living on the properties of their employees or Africans living in barracks (Christopher 1997(Christopher , 2001. ...
... I aggregate this data to the neighbourhood level (2015 definitions by the City of Cape Town) and GAA zoned-areas for each ethnic group, see discussion below (Table 2.4). Caution is warranted with respect to the 1985 census dataset, since it was carried out before the end of apartheid and measurement error is high for blacks (Christopher 2001). These three census years provide useful information on ghetto characteristics during the first 10 to 15 years of life of the young adults in the sample. ...
This thesis consists of four independent chapters on urban and development economics. Chapter 1 looks at the issue of distance and labour outcomes in urban areas of a developing country. It studies the effect of a housing relocation program on the labour supply and living conditions of low-income households across major cities in South Africa. For this, I use four waves of panel microdata collected between 2008 and 2014, and I exploit the arbitrary eligibility rules of the policy with a fuzzy regression discontinuity design to obtain causal estimates. In the short-term of two to four years following relocation, I find that the labour supply of recipient households decreases by one standard deviation, driven mostly by a decrease in female hours. I find evidence of a large increase in distance (km) to economic opportunities. This is likely to be an important factor behind the decline, directly or indirectly through within-family shifts in livelihood strategies. Evidence is limited regarding improvements in housing and neighbourhood quality. Chapter 2 examines how neighbourhoods where children grow up can play a significant part in shaping their opportunities later in life. It provides unique evidence in a developing country context by using the random allocation of households to ethnically segregated residential areas during apartheid in South Africa. The main observations come from a panel of young adults aged 14 to 22 at baseline and residing in the city of Cape Town. It covers 5 periods of their life between 2002 to 2009. I focus on black children in families living in former black-only residential areas. I find compelling evidence of neighbourhood effects on labour and educational outcomes in adulthood across deprived neighbourhoods. The differences are more marked for young women, suggesting a stronger hold of social norms and institutions for young men. Location, both in terms of access to jobs and access to higher quality public amenities (schools), social networks and the underlying human capital composition of the neighbourhood are positively correlated to having better socioeconomic outcomes in adulthood. Chapter 3 moves beyond socioeconomic outcomes, to study the relationship between extreme weather events and disease in developing cities. As climate change is making extreme weather events more frequent around the world, urban residents in developing countries have become more vulnerable to health shocks due to poor sanitation and infrastructure. The chapter empirically measures the relationship between weather and health shocks in the urban context of sub-Saharan Africa. Using unique high-frequency datasets of weekly cholera cases and accumulated precipitation for wards in Dar es Salaam, we find robust evidence that extreme rainfall has a significant positive impact on weekly cholera incidence. The effect is larger in wards that are more prone to flooding, have higher shares of informal housing and unpaved roads. We identify limited spatial spillovers. Time-dynamic effects suggest cumulated rainfall increases cholera occurrence immediately and with a lag of up to 5 weeks. Chapter 4 addresses questions related to the local impact of economic policies in developing countries. Specifically, I provide evidence on the local effect of a popular trade policy: export processing zones. The chapter examines the impact of their establishment on the levels of per capita expenditure across Nicaraguan municipalities for the period 1993 to 2009. Using the time and cross-section variation of park openings in a difference-in-differences framework, I find that on average consumption levels increased by 10% to 12% in treated municipalities. Yet, average effects mask significant disparities across the expenditure distribution. The results suggest that the policy benefited the upper-tail the most: expenditure levels increased by up to 25% at the 90th percentile. At the opposite end of the distribution, only the bottom decile registered a positive increase in expenditure levels of close to 10% across the period.
... However, despite the demise of apartheid and the scrapping of legislation that enforced segregation, wide spread racial integration did not take place as was anticipated. Instead, various studies (Horn, 2005;Christopher, 2001;Durrheim and Dixon, 2010;Parry and van Eeden, 2012) suggest that there has been very little racial integration. Instead of integration, a new form of segregation is emerging; one that is dividing society on levels of class and income. ...
... The paper starts out by providing a brief literature review of the history and measurement of racial segregation. Secondly, it investigates how the racial patterns for KDM have changed over the last 20 years by using the Neighbourhood Diversity Index with data from Census 1996, 2001 model is used to determine if there is a correlation between racial integration and levels of income. The paper then concludes with a summary of the research contributions and directions for future research. ...
... The history of racial segregation around the world and particularly in South Africa, has been well documented by the likes of Franklin (1956), Christopher (2001), Crankshaw (2008), Durrheim andDixon (2010) and Parry and van Eeden (2012) and no doubt many others. Massey and Denton (1988:282) define racial segregation as "the degree to which two or more groups live separately from one another, in different parts of the urban environment." ...
... These laws were passed to enforce racial as well as ethnic segregation. To achieve the racially segregated spatial ideal of the ruling party, more than 3.5 million people were removed from their homes between 1950 and the early 1980's (Christopher, 2001). Black South Africans were confined to the townships, with rudimentary infrastructure and limited public services, without public transportation, recreation facilities, and industry (Jürgens et al., 2013;Mahajan, 2014). ...
... Making it only less than a third of the distance travelled commuting to and from the townships. The consequence of the spatial segregation was that Black South Africans were marginalised from the mainstream economy (Beinart & Dubow, 1995;Christopher, 2001). ...
Research has revealed a persistently low level of entrepreneurial activity among the Black South Africans, the majority of whom live in the townships. And the government has a major concern regarding the level of unemployment and poverty faced by this population group. It has therefore put into place a number of programs to foster entrepreneurship in order to develop the economy and employment. Despite these efforts, the level of entrepreneurship among Black South Africans, who constitute the majority of the population, has consistently remained low. This qualitative study, applying critical realism ontology, examines how a historical institution like apartheid through its racial discrimination policies may still affect current entrepreneurial behaviour. The outcomes demonstrate the impact of active social mechanisms, notably the underlying institutional logics on their effect on entrepreneurial behaviour. This may be useful in designing more efficient programmes to foster entrepreneurship within the township spatial context. The study contributes to the areas of spatial context, entrepreneurial motives, and entrepreneurial behaviour in relation to the understudied micro level effects of legacies of previously dominant institutional logics.
... This relationship constitutes a definite cause for inequality, but should still be viewed within the context of other causes for inequality in South Africa. Inequality also exists because of historical patterns of segregation and human settlements (increasingly resulting from migration), the poor transfer of economic power (Christopher 2001;Gelderblom 2006), dynamics in the labour market (Branson et al. 2012), access to ownership of assets and access to state welfare (Mustapha 2011), underdevelopment in terms of service infrastructure (Nel and Rogerson 2009), market mechanisms (referring to any economic operation in the urban environment with an intrinsic supply and demand relationship), forces of concentration and dispersion in cities (Kim 2008) and negative externalities arising from simultaneously pursuing global competitiveness and local development goals (Lemanski 2007). The unchecked path in which these dynamics developed, ultimately divides the country (socially and spatially) into two 'nations'-one very rich and one very poor. ...
... The race group classification adopted by the South African census is similar to that of the apartheid era and includes four main race groups ('Black African', 'Coloured', 'Indian/Asian' and 'White') and sometimes an 'Other' or 'Unspecified' category(Christopher 2001). ...
The premise of this paper arose from negative spatial legacies, a global and regional focus on inequality and questions about the success of spatial transformation in post-apartheid South Africa. This paper responds by filling a gap in representing the spatial dimensions of socio-economic inequality on a local level. The aim is to describe the spatial patterns of socio-economic inequality in the City of Tshwane, South Africa, through a relative socio-economic classification (comprising multiple variables) and identify underlying influences to enduring socio-economic inequality. The results show the enduring spatial legacies of socio-economic status and segregation in the study area. There is a strong mutually reinforcing relationship between median household income, unemployment levels and concentrations of tertiary education qualifications which constitute underlying influences to socio-economic inequality and segregation. High and low socio-economic status is spatially polarised and high socio-economic status is concentrated in a small area of the city. The central parts of the study area and the fringes of heritage townships experienced declines in socio-economic status between 2001 and 2011. When considered along with changes in the racial make-up of neighbourhoods there is evidence of class segregation replacing racial segregation, but historical patterns of race and class remain significant. Future spatial transformation efforts should consider a variety of spatial trends (including housing development and economic restructuring), but should target the inner city and also focus on tertiary education attainment and improving access to employment opportunities to encourage greater social equality in the study area.
... Drug use in South Africa is linked to apartheid laws and the slow socio-economic transformation and equal distribution of wealth proposed in post-apartheid economic policies [17,18]. Where apartheid legalised racial segregation, failure of economic policies in alleviating poverty among the majority of South African society, has facilitated segregation in the form of class grouping [19]. Affluent individuals tend to live in affluent areas, predominantly those previously demarcated for white people, which tend to be pricier but in turn more secure, have better health care, education, and access to information. ...
... Affluent individuals tend to live in affluent areas, predominantly those previously demarcated for white people, which tend to be pricier but in turn more secure, have better health care, education, and access to information. Those who continue to live in the areas previously demarcated for black people often do so because of lack of economic power to live elsewhere [19]. These areas tend to have high rates of crime and violence, a legacy of apartheid where law enforcement was primarily used to control black people at the neglect of black-on-black crimes and drug trade and use [20]. ...
Background
Alcohol and other drug use (AOD) and risky sexual behaviours remain high among adolescents in South Africa and globally. Religiosity influences, mitigates and provides resilience against engaging in risky behaviours among young people but few South African studies have explored potential associations between religiosity, AOD use and risky sex. We report the prevalence of religiosity and association between religiosity and AOD use and risky sexual behaviours among learners in the Western Cape Province, South Africa.
Methods
Between May and August 2011, a cross sectional survey was conducted among 20 227 learners from 240 public schools randomly selected through a stratified multistage sampling design to determine the prevalence of AOD use and sexual risk behaviours. We performed univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses to assess the association between religiosity, AOD use and risky sexual behaviours.
Results
The learners were aged 10-23 years. Almost three quarters (74%) of learners reported high religiosity (defined as attending religious services or activities at least 1-2 times a month). More female than male learners had high religiosity. The prevalence of past 30 day reported alcohol, tobacco and cannabis use was 23%, 19% and 8% respectively. Compared to learners with low religiosity, those with high religiosity were less likely to engage in AOD use: specifically alcohol use, (AOR=0.86, 95%CI: 0.76-0.97), tobacco use (AOR=0.76, 95%CI: 0.67-0.87), cannabis use (AOR=0.57, 95%CI: 0.48-0.68) in the last 30 days. They were also less likely to engage in risky sexual behaviours (AOR=0.90, 95%CI: 0.81-0.99).
Conclusion
Religiosity was associated with lower odds of reported AOD use and risky sexual behaviours among learners in the Western Cape. This calls for further exploration on how to incorporate religiosity into AOD use and risky sexual behaviour interventions.
... Apartheid is a former South African policy of segregation, and political and economic discrimination against non-European groups in the country [64]. The Group Areas Act passed in 1950 [9] forcefully relocated Black, Coloured and Indian people out of urban areas and into townships where they were allocated uniformly sized small plots of land on the outskirts of cities and towns. While apartheid legislation was repealed in 1991, its effects are still alive today [45]. ...
Aerial images of neighborhoods in South Africa show the clear legacy of apartheid, a former policy of political and economic discrimination against non-European groups, with completely segregated neighborhoods of townships next to gated wealthy areas. This paper introduces the first publicly available dataset to study the evolution of spatial apartheid, using 6, 768 high resolution satellite images of 9 provinces in South Africa, 550 of which are labeled. Our dataset was created using polygons demarcating land use, geographically labelled coordinates of buildings in South Africa, and high resolution satellite imagery covering the country from 2006-2017. We describe our iterative process to create this dataset over two years, which includes pixel-wise labels for 4 classes of neighborhoods: wealthy areas, non wealthy areas, nonresidential neighborhoods and background (land without buildings). While datasets 7 times smaller than ours have cost over $1M to annotate, our dataset was created with highly constrained resources. We finally show examples of applications examining the evolution of neighborhoods in South Africa using our dataset.
... Previously populated by White Afrikaners, the suburb is now overwhelmingly Black. With the end of apartheid and the emergence of Blackmajority rule after 1994, most White neighborhoods in urban South Africa, such as Sunnyside, have been transformed into Black neighborhoods (Christopher 2001;Seekings 2010). Black South Africans and African immigrants from various national origins such as Nigeria, DRC, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Burundi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Ghana, and Somalia, inter alia, inhabit the suburb. ...
The increased immigration to post-apartheid South Africa of Black African migrants has given rise to widespread xenophobic sentiments and recurrent violence against them. Over the past three decades, migration scholars have extensively studied the phenomenon of xenophobia as a major problem in citizen–migrant relations. However, most migration scholars’ predominant focus on xenophobia in South Africa appears to have overlooked positive migrant–citizen relations in some places, though a few scholars have noted the presence of xenophilia in certain communities. Drawing on an auto-ethnographic qualitative approach, this paper reports on my own lived experiences, as a Black African refugee, with xenophilia in my everyday interactions in a multi-cultural urban suburb of Sunnyside, Pretoria. This paper attempts to add nuance to existing scholarship on citizen–non-citizen relations in post-apartheid South Africa. I argue that multi-cultural urban neighborhoods in South Africa, where there are everyday inter-ethnic interactions, friendships, amenities, services, and shared spaces, tend to function as drivers of social cohesion and inter-group conviviality.
... p< .01) . Cet effet peut être lié à un fort sentiment de discrimination ressenti par les populations de ce continent qui ont subi, et parfois subissent encore, des mouvements de ségrégation raciale forts et traumatisants (Christopher, 2001) . Par conséquent, tout signe de l'organisation en faveur d'une ouverture à tous les publics est valorisé dans un tel contexte historique et politique . ...
Cet article compare l’influence de la gou- vernance coopérative d’un employeur sur son attractivité RH selon les aires culturelles. Notre recherche menée auprès de 1014 indi- vidus sur quatre continents montre que si la perception de la finalité et des principes coo- pératifs – définis par l’Alliance Coopérative Internationale – influence positivement l’attractivité des coopératives en tant qu’em- ployeurs, le poids de chacune de ces facettes dépend du contexte soulignant l’absence d’universalisme. Dans les régions développées, la valorisation des employeurs coopératifs se fait selon une logique de redistribution de la richesse créée. Dans les économies émer- gentes, cette valorisation suit une logique d’accès à la démocratie et, en particulier, d’accès aux marchés sur le continent africain.
... As with most South African towns and cities in the early 1900s, Stellenbosch underwent a spatial reorganisation to accommodate apartheid-era segregation policies (Lemon, 1991;Rock, 2011). This legacy is difficult to undo, particularly because of the historical lack of infrastructure and development investments made into poorer areas (Christopher, 1992(Christopher, , 2001Schensul & Heller, 2010). Today, Cloetesville, Khayamandi, and Enkanini (a relatively new informal and illegal settlement on the outskirts of the town) are characterised by high population densities, low levels of infrastructure development and high levels of crime and poverty, as well as limited access to basic services (Western Cape Government, 2014). ...
The South African cities are faced with highly complex spatial development challenges that require more than just urban development models to solve. The cities require stable collaborative efforts between stakeholders from various backgrounds to solve. There is a growing recognition amongst the urban planning fields that transdisciplinary research approach presents an opportunity to conduct and deliver functional research. The transdisciplinary research findings can be useful when implementing a specific development model, for example, transit-oriented development (TOD) model. This article explored how transdisciplinary approach was used to explore TOD as a potential model for spatial restructuring purposes to bring about mixed land use development with equitable access to places of employment, business, and leisure. The explorative field research of this article was done using the diverse methodological approach from both qualitative and quantitative structures. This resulted in the creation of the infrastructure improvement collaborative forum for Du Toit station precinct in Stellenbosch, South Africa. The aim of the collaborative forum was to create the short-term and long-term development interventions needed to revitalise the space. The sets of these interventions were guided by the basic TOD principles and transdisciplinary research approach to create a vision of mixed land use developments. That can be serviced by motorised and non-motorised public transport services. This article presents transdisciplinary research as a prospective methodological approach for urban development. This approach can be used when exploring the implementation of models such as TOD with the aim to create sustainable integrated urban spaces for equitable access to the benefits of urban activities.
... p< .01) . Cet effet peut être lié à un fort sentiment de discrimination ressenti par les populations de ce continent qui ont subi, et parfois subissent encore, des mouvements de ségrégation raciale forts et traumatisants (Christopher, 2001) . Par conséquent, tout signe de l'organisation en faveur d'une ouverture à tous les publics est valorisé dans un tel contexte historique et politique . ...
Cet article compare l’influence de la gouvernance coopérative d’un employeur sur son attractivité RH selon les aires culturelles.
Notre recherche menée auprès de 1014 individus sur quatre continents montre que si la perception de la finalité et des principes coopératifs – définis par l’Alliance Coopérative Internationale – influence positivement l’attractivité des coopératives en tant qu’employeurs,
le poids de chacune de ces facettes
dépend du contexte soulignant l’absence
d’universalisme. Dans les régions développées,
la valorisation des employeurs coopératifs
se fait selon une logique de redistribution de
la richesse créée. Dans les économies émergentes,
cette valorisation suit une logique
d’accès à la démocratie et, en particulier,
d’accès aux marchés sur le continent africain.
... The inevitable arrival of democratisation led to high rates of urbanisation, including the migration of Africans from across the continent into the space that was opening. As Christopher (2001) shows, while there was partial desegregation in post-apartheid South Africa, de-facto segregation continued through class and economic barriers. From the mid-1990s, the rapid desegregation of Johannesburg city centre and capital flight dramatically changed property ownership patterns surrounding Wits and the Rand Afrikaans University. ...
Debates on epistemological decolonisation have focused on curriculum issues. There has not been sufficient analysis of how questions of decolonisation are shaped by other factors, such as the very spatial location of universities. This article argues that the colonial nature of the university in South Africa is directly linked spatially to the historic land question of dispossession in South Africa. Historically, South African universities came to be fixed as physical and cultural elements of towns and cities based on the broader trajectory of settler-colonialism and apartheid urban development, segregation and the Group Areas logic of the apartheid state. We therefore argue that in order to grapple with transforming the tertiary sector as a whole, we must conceptualise universities not only as spaces of learning but also as spatial entities in themselves that are directly related to the demography and economies of towns and cities. This paper critically explores the spatial locatedness of the university through the crisis of student accommodation encountered by working-class students in the system. We propose that inasmuch as the university is an “epistemic entity” entangled within colonial and imperial circuits of knowledge-making and power, it is also a “spatial entity” located in social geographies of inequality that were produced through racialised spatial relations of colonisation and apartheid.
... Land invasions may constitute another way in which the poor are demanding to be recognised as full citizens of this country, with all the inherent, constitutional and legislative rights, rather than to be foundering on the margins and remaining invisible. It is a major struggle of the poor to realise citizenship rights in the 'new' post-apartheid South Africa, which appears to discriminate against people on the basis of class, in addition to race (Christopher, 2001;Alexander, 2010). ...
... Furthermore, we did not consider how changes in the income distribution of other social groups to which households do not belong a↵ect visible spending. Nevertheless, our results suggest that although there has been a decline in geographical segregation between social groups (Christopher, 2001), households still seem to care about their perceived rank within their traditional reference groups, as evidenced by the significant impact that the local income shares within these groups have on visible spending. Another question for future research is whether this situation will change as segregation between groups continues to decline, and how this would influence visible expenditure by low income households across social groups. ...
Using South African household expenditure data, we analyze how the spending of a household on visible goods, such as jewelry and clothes, depends on the distribution of income within its social group. We find that this spending is positively correlated with the share of peers who possess a similar income level to the household, what we dub the “local income share.” Moreover, we find that the spending of a household on visible goods is positively correlated with the average income of peers that are poorer than this household. We interpret this as evidence for cascade effects through which income changes among the poorest in the social group can trigger adjustments in the visible spending patterns of the wealthy. In line with previous research (Charles et al. 2009), we also find that visible spending of a household is negatively correlated with the average income of its social group. We present a simple model of status competition based on Hopkins and Kornienko (2004) that synthesizes these effects and can account for our results. (JEL D12, D31, O12)
... Furthermore, we did not consider how changes in the income distribution of other social groups to which households do not belong a↵ect visible spending. Nevertheless, our results suggest that although there has been a decline in geographical segregation between social groups (Christopher, 2001), households still seem to care about their perceived rank within their traditional reference groups, as evidenced by the significant impact that the local income shares within these groups have on visible spending. Another question for future research is whether this situation will change as segregation between groups continues to decline, and how this would influence visible expenditure by low income households across social groups. ...
Using South African household expenditure data, we analyze how the spending of a household on visible goods, such as jewellery and clothes, depends on the distribution of income within its social group. We find that this spending is positively correlated with the share of peers who posses a similar income level to the household , what we dub the 'local income share'. Moreover, we find that the spending of a household on visible goods is positively correlated with the average income of peers that are poorer than this household. We interpret this as evidence for cascade effects through which income changes among the poorest in the social group can trigger adjustments in the visible spending patterns of the wealthy. In line with previous research (Charles et al., 2009), we also find that visible spending of a household is negatively correlated with the average income of its social group. We present a simple model of status competition based on Hopkins and Kornienko (2004) that synthesizes these effects and can account for our results.
... Its world-renowned, liberal constitution and popular rhetoric boast of multiculturalism, but the reality is less sanguine. For the most part, whites, Indians, coloreds, and African blacks remain segregated geographically, as well as socioeconomically (Christopher, 2001;Musterd & Ostendorf, 2013). And, as our study shows, while psychological bias has perhaps 'gone underground', that is, become less explicit, manager implicit racial bias seems to be an unfortunate, enduring feature of the modern South African workplace. ...
This article examines manager-employee relations in democratic South Africa, using an unobtrusive, implicit measure of managers’ racial bias. We test the link between manager automatically activated evaluations of race labels with positive/negative words (implicit racial bias), and employees’ judgement of their manager’s effectiveness, their satisfaction with their manager, and their willingness to engage in extra-role workplace behavior. Results indicated that Indian and white managers were similar in their negative automatic evaluation of African blacks, and that employees of white managers reported higher manager satisfaction, higher manager effectiveness, and a greater likelihood of engaging in extra effort, compared to employees of African black managers. From these results we infer that racial bias has gone ‘underground’ and continues to play a pivotal role in manager-employee relations in ‘the Rainbow Nation’.
... such peripheral spaces for the underprivileged were crafted during the territorial formation of contemporary south African urban regions. central to the urban planning concept of apartheid was a process of deliberate spatial exclusion, which relegated entire populations into hidden territories (christopher, 2001;Parnell, 1993; 1 sources also note that, while the protests began over fears regarding service delivery, conflicts were also shaped by the remarcation of former Bantustan borders and has escalated into an ethnic conflict. chipkin (2015) has also noted that an increasing return to localised identities has led to the loss of power by the African National congress (ANc) in these areas. ...
Urban development in contemporary South Africa generates opportunities for the reproduction of inequality, as well as chances to increase the social justice of the urban landscape. This article juxtaposes two current developments in greater Johannesburg to illustrate the contrast between 'insurgent' bottom-up planning approaches and top-down 'control' policies characteristic of development in Africa today. While top-down megaprojects often promoted by governments can marginally reduce poverty, they fail to address the complex networks of human interaction necessary for underprivileged populations to negotiate their everyday lives. The narrative of control and insurgency explored in Johannesburg therefore highlights the diversity of approaches the underprivileged employ to ensure claims to space and opportunity. It also emphasises the need for innovative approaches attuned to this urban majority rather than 'grand visions' that effectively exclude them from the processes of city-making. The article concludes with analysis of several current initiatives that attempt to address this urban majority from the top and the bottom, reinforcing the need to incorporate insurgent tactics in redressing inequality.
... Robust standard errors are used in all specifications to correct for heteroskedasticity (Wooldridge 2015), as is the case for the specifications presented by columns (1), (2), (3) and (4). The NIDS data takes on a stratified, two-stage cluster sample design and is stratified across district councils (Leibbrandt et al. 2009, Chinhema et al. 2016) which historically eminate from the urban racial segregation that persists (Christopher 2001) in relation to the Group Areas Act No. 41 of 1950 (Horrell & Cillié 1978). This fixed effects model accounts for these within-cluster unobservable factors. ...
... Second homes as a research niche fits into the larger South African urban and rural geographical discourses. Since the demise of apartheid, new research themes developed in South African urban geography; for example, studies on urban desegregation (see Christopher, 2001;Kotze and Donaldson, 1998;, urban reconstruction and local government (see Parnell and Pieterse, 1998), urban poverty and development (see for example Parnell, 2004; to name a few. Moreover, Local Economic Development (LED) has received considerable attention (see Maharaj and Ramballi, 1998;Nel, 2001;Rogerson, 1997;. ...
... However, in the current post-apartheid era segregation remains evident within the urban environment (see figure 2) and spatial patterns of racial inequality and limited access to economic opportunities persist (Christopher, 2001a). The complex nature of the segregated city of Cape Town provides a boundless challenge for the spatial planners involved to find an optimum solution to the question of social division and racial disparity in opportunity. ...
The history of the South African city was shaped more by a turbulent political past than by the inherent dynamics of urban growth. Since the initial emergence of colonization in South Africa racial prejudice and cultural segregation was evident and to date this phenomenon is still apparent in the major cities. This paper considers the idea of studying segregation and the potential promotion of future integrated development by the application of agent-based modelling to social and cultural interaction in the urban environment.
... South African cities are generally not understood in terms of encounter and interaction, but rather in terms of segregation and separation. During the apartheid years, the state planned mono-racial residential zones in such a way that whites, coloureds, Blacks and Indians 1 did not have to cross each other's paths (Christopher, 2001). Industrial areas, hills and wet river valleys acted as buffer zones between 'group areas' for different races (Western, 1996). ...
... Americans would have to move in order to make the region perfectly integrated (CensusScope, 2001;Iceland, Weinberg, & Steinmetz, 2002). As a benchmark, the dissimilarity index for whites and Africans in South Africa in 1991 (the last year of state sanctioned apartheid) was 91.5; for whites and African Americans in all US metropolitan areas in 2000 the index was 64.5 (Christopher, 2001;Iceland, et al., 2002). ...
A growing body of health services research shows that African Americans, when compared to whites, are more likely to perceive discrimination in health care, be the target of negative stereotypes from health care providers, and receive lower quality of care for a broad range of services even after controlling for socioeconomic status. Less well documented are the physician- and setting-related factors that predict or protect against negative stereotypes and unequal treatment. Through a mail-based questionnaire administered to primary care physicians and endocrinologists in the greater-Southeast Michigan area, this research investigated these factors with the goal of improving our understanding of the intersections among race, place, socioeconomic status, and health care as it relates to the management of diabetes. Specifically, this dissertation explored physicians??? perceptions of patients, how these perceptions are associated with patients??? and physicians??? demographics, and how patients??? and physicians??? demographics are correlated with physicians??? decision making and strategies to manage diabetes.
An overarching principle guiding this research is the notion that successful management of diabetes requires more than the provision of medical care; it requires balancing input from multiple influences across the ecological spectrum. Findings suggest that when physicians assess patients or when they make decisions on how to provide care they take into account not only information about patients??? illness or disease but are influenced by patients??? demographics, their own demographic and professional backgrounds, and the settings in which care is provided. After controlling for a broad set of covariates, physicians??? gender and training background proved to be the most salient predictors of physicians??? perceptions of patients, strategies to manage diabetes, and decision making style; results were not consistent with the notion that physicians respond more negatively or with biased attitudes when working with African American patients versus patients generally. Findings from this research indicate that (a) increasing physicians??? competency in social determinant of health, (b) promoting policies that finance patient centered medical homes, and (c) rewarding health systems that grow the primary care physician workforce in urban settings may help to improve the quality of diabetes care for the populations living in such areas.
... We would expect it to be easier to transition into search than into employment, however high costs associated with job seeking in South Africa may pose a significant barrier to an individual conducting an active search if he or she desires to do so. The majority of Black Africans live in residential neighborhoods established under apartheid that are far from business centers and that remain highly segregated (Christopher 2001(Christopher , 2005. Even informal enterprises are clustered in inner-city zones, and sparser in Black African townships and informal settlement areas where there is less opportunity for economic growth (Rogerson, 1996). ...
The first paper examines the labor market effects of the largest AIDS treatment program in the world. I use geographic and temporal variation in the program rollout to identify the causal impact of the program. I find that for men the likelihood of labor force participation and employment both rise after an AIDS treatment clinic opens less than 15 miles away, but there are no discernible effects for women. Over time, as a greater proportion of the population begins receiving treatment, labor force participation falls and employment rises for both men and women. These results demonstrate that AIDS treatment is undersupplied if the positive employment effects are not taken into account.
The second paper, co-authored with James A. Levinsohn, Olive Shisana and Khangelani Zuma, uses two econometric methods based on the propensity score to estimate the causal effect of HIV status on employment outcomes in South Africa. This paper provides the first nationally representative estimates of the impact of HIV status on labor market outcomes for southern Africa. We find that being HIV-positive is associated with a seven percentage point increase in the likelihood of being unemployed. In absolute value, this is of the same magnitude as the advantage conferred by having completed high school compared to having no education. Despite high unemployment rates, being HIV-positive confers a disadvantage and reinforces existing inequalities in South Africa.
The third paper examines whether a negative shock to household employment and the corresponding fall in the reservation wage leads unemployed household members to resume job search or obtain employment. I find that men are more likely to increase search activity following a negative employment shock to the household, but only more likely to obtain employment 12-18 months after a negative shock or when the household experiences two consecutive shocks. There is no change in labor force participation for women, however, they are more likely to obtain employment 12-18 months after a negative shock. Gender-specific social networks also appear to play a role in obtaining employment. My results present evidence that structural and frictional factors constrain household responses to negative shocks.
... Evidence suggests that income poverty and racial inequality intensified during the transition to democracy (Seekings, 2011). In the post-apartheid era, residential segregation persists in the urban areas (Christopher, 2001), and differential access to both public and private health services underscores the difficulty of changing social policy (Harris et al., 2011). ...
Objectives:
Normal human bone tissue changes predictably as adults get older, but substantial variability in pattern and pace remains unexplained. Information is needed regarding the characteristics of histological variables across diverse human populations.
Methods:
Undecalcified thin sections from mid-thoracic ribs of 213 skeletons (138 M, 75 F, 17-82 years, mean age 48 years), are used to explore the efficacy of an established age-at-death estimation method and methodological approach (Cho et al.: J Forensic Sci 47 (2002) 12-18) and expand on it. The ribs are an age-balanced sample taken from skeletonized cadavers collected from 1967 to 1999 in South Africa, each with recorded sex, age, cause of death and government-defined population group (129 "Colored," 49 "Black," 35 "White").
Results:
The Ethnicity Unknown equation performs better than those developed for European-Americans and African-Americans, in terms of accuracy and bias. A new equation based solely on the study sample does not improve accuracy. Osteon population densities (OPD) show predicted values, yet secondary osteon areas (On.Ar) are smaller than expected for non-Black subgroups. Relative cortical area (Ct.Ar/Tt.Ar) is low among non-Whites.
Conclusions:
Results from this highly diverse sample show that population-specific equations do not increase estimate precision. While within the published range of error for the method (±24.44 years), results demonstrate a systematic under-aging of young adults and over-aging of older adults. The regression approach is inappropriate. The field needs fresh approaches to statistical treatment and to factors behind cortical bone remodeling. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2016. © 2016 The Authors American Journal of Physical Anthropology Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... Blacks and Coloureds have historically differed in terms of culture, language, and status in South Africa. Although communities today are more racially integrated, it is not uncommon for Blacks and Coloureds to live in different areas of the same community, and to attend different social establishments (Christopher, 2001;Tredoux & Dixon, 2009). Accordingly, the venues included in our study were systematically selected based on their attendance by primarily Black or Coloured patrons. ...
South Africa has among the highest rates of HIV infection in the world, with women disproportionately affected. Alcohol-serving venues, where alcohol use and sexual risk often intersect, play an important role in HIV risk. Previous studies indicate alcohol use and gender inequity as drivers of this epidemic, yet these factors have largely been examined using person-level predictors. We sought to advance upon this literature by examining venue-level predictors, namely men's gender attitudes, alcohol, and sex behavior, to predict women's risks for HIV. We recruited a cohort of 554 women from 12 alcohol venues (6 primarily Black African, and 6 primarily Coloured [i.e., mixed race] venues) in Cape Town, who were followed for 1 year across four time points. In each of these venues, men's (N = 2216) attitudes, alcohol use, and sexual behaviors were also assessed. Men's attitudes and behaviors at the venue level were modeled using multilevel modeling to predict women's unprotected sex over time. We stratified analyses by venue race. As predicted, venue-level characteristics were significantly associated with women's unprotected sex. Stratified results varied between Black and Coloured venues. Among Black venues where men reported drinking alcohol more frequently, and among Coloured venues where men reported meeting sex partners more frequently, women reported more unprotected sex. This study adds to the growing literature on venues, context, and HIV risk. The results demonstrate that men's behavior at alcohol drinking venues relate to women's risks for HIV. This novel finding suggests a need for social-structural interventions that target both men and women to reduce women's risks.
In examining xenophobia in South Africa, scholars have advanced various theoretical explanations to make sense of its causes and nature. Within this paper, I focus on the ways in which multiple structural arrangements create conditions for the manifestation of xenophobia in post‐apartheid South Africa. By drawing on Louis Althusser's notion of ‘interpellation’ and Judith Butler's concept of ‘the subject,’ I disconnect xenophobia in South Africa from the conscious and autonomous human agent and locate it within larger structural frameworks, namely historical residues of othering, neo‐liberal political economy, the exclusionary state and negative media representations of refugees and migrants. I argue that voluntary, conscious attitudes do not primarily lead to violence or other forms of exclusion as some may argue; instead, a constellation of systemic/structural forces shape and inform xenophobic attitudes and violence. This paper asks scholars to look more deeply into the relationship between exclusion/violence and structural constraints than perhaps they have.
Academics largely define gentrification based on changes in the class demographics of neighborhood residents from predominately low-income to middle-class. This ignores that gentrification always occurs in spaces defined by both class and race. In this article, I use the lens of racial capitalism to theorize gentrification as a racialized, profit-accumulating process, integrating the perspective that spaces are always racialized to class-centered theories. Using the prior literature on gentrification in the United States, I demonstrate how the concepts of value, valuation, and devaluation from racial capitalism explain where and how gentrification unfolds. Exposure to gentrification varies depending on a neighborhood’s racial composition and the gentrification stakeholders involved, which contributes to racial differences in the scale and pace of change and the implications of those changes for the processes of displacement. Revising our understanding of gentrification to address the racialization of space helps resolve seemingly contradictory findings across qualitative and quantitative studies.
Makhanda (Grahamstown) is a small city that falls within the Eastern Cape Province. It was established in 1812 as a British military garrison and, assisted by the arrival of the 1820 Settlers, it quickly became an important civic and economic centre. The city formed a strategic defence post on the frontier between the warring Cape Colony and the amaXhosa people who had been driven over the Fish River. The city structure was somewhat typical of the settler-colonial, segregation and apartheid eras. In the post-apartheid period, the city has retained many of the spatial legacies of the past. Segregation indices, though improving, are still high and are maintained through socio-economic barriers to integration, limited housing stock and the impact of studentification on the property market. The city has also experienced several structural changes in the form of urban sprawl and densification, but these have done little to challenge the residential segregation of the apartheid era. The future of the city is unclear. Several strategies could be initiated to tackle the challenges that are faced in achieving a fair and functional city. These strategies include planning interventions like mixed-income residential settlements, decentralization of amenities, and improved public transport systems. Greater and more challenging issues of structural unemployment, inequality and the effects of post-Fordist capitalism on urban spaces present significant barriers to positive change. In addition, a struggling and dysfunctional municipality has meant that the delivery of basic services and the maintenance of key infrastructure are under threat. Good local governance and management will certainly be necessary ingredients in creating a positive future for the city.
Trevor Wills’ (1991) chapter underscored how segregationist policy and practices shaped the development of Pietermaritzburg and environs from its very inception. Wills concluded that ‘closing the gaps’ in Pietermaritzburg’s racialized form would take a long time after the scrapping of apartheid laws. In this chapter, we draw on new insights from the historiography since then, including on gender and the city’s peripheral areas, recent census data and close observation, to assess changes and continuities in the city’s de facto racial segregation. The data presented suggests that while patterns of desegregation are certainly present in all city suburbs—and in some areas like the city centre far more advanced than anticipated—class dynamics continue to align with a legacy of racial segregation in both the most affluent and poorest areas of the city, and a trend of uneven development continues. As pertinently, the analytical lens of the city as a de jure political-administrative entity that Wills employed is too limiting. We argue that apprehending the city as a broader conurbation and de facto metropolitan is more appropriate, and that attempts to redress the inequities of the past, amidst ongoing spatial agglomeration and desegregation in the post-apartheid period, have to a large degree been hampered by the fact that an appropriate metropolitan area has yet to be demarcated, much less agreed to.
Straddling apartheid’s buffer zone between Soweto and Johannesburg South lies a newly demarcated municipal ward. Described by its councillor as a miniature “Rainbow Nation”, it is a provocative site for stitching together the apartheid city and for exploring postapartheid socio-spatial change at a mesoscale between the neighbourhood and the city. Qualitative fieldwork reveals that reconfigured political boundaries are just one of many boundary-making projects unfolding at multiple scales. Formerly white suburbs are racially desegregated, but have also witnessed white flight out of neighbourhoods, institutions and public space, and some enclavisation through gated complexes and private schools. Microgeographies of racially coded space inform everyday life, now often attributed to “cultural difference”. Black residents produce connections to other parts of the city through relationships to family and friends in townships and create new communities in developer-built subdivisions. Infrastructural distinctions between “township” and “suburb” are blurring, with new and old infrastructural inequalities and entanglements emerging. Not all discourses and practices of belonging and exclusion can be mapped onto racial categories or racialised space: new alliances based on property ownership, class and security are emerging, along with new shared “others”. This site demonstrates how new boundary placements overlay and cathect existing boundaries and their repertoires of belonging and exclusion in ambivalent ways.
Racial discrimination by housing and lending institutions occurs worldwide. In the United States, it was legal and widely practiced well into the 1960s and has persisted in varying forms since. The Home Owner's Loan Corporation (HOLC) was one of many institutions engaging in racially discriminatory practices and created neighborhood appraisal maps in the 1930s based in part on race, ethnicity, and economic class of a neighborhood's residents. Using these HOLC neighborhood boundaries, we compared 12 present day population characteristics including health, employment, education, and income measures in each of the four HOLC neighborhood ratings across 14 U.S. cities. We used population-weighted logistic regression for paired data comparison and unsupervised learning techniques to uncover the consistency between HOLC evaluations and today's socio-economic and health outcomes. While existing literature focuses on case studies of particular cities and outcomes, we took a broad view and found consistent relationships over our study's cities and variables with few exceptions. Though there are many factors that contribute to continued inequality in a particular area, this study demonstrates that socio-economic and health inequality measured across numerous indicators continues to align with historic discriminatory housing boundaries.
Scholars examining racial residential segregation¹ in South Africa have paid little attention to the racialised settlement patterns and lived experiences of Black African migrants in post-apartheid South Africa. Even though immigration to South Africa from the African continent has increased for over two decades, their racially segregated lived world in inner-cities is scarcely investigated. Using everyday naturalistic observation, I focus my analysis on spatial settlement and racially structured lived experiences of African migrants in inner-city neighbourhoods of Pretoria, namely Pretoria Central, Arcadia, and Sunnyside. My everyday observations of the all-Black neighbourhoods in Pretoria began from 2008 until 2020 where I was resident. Low income Black African migrants concentrate and socially interact within Black-majority neighbourhoods in Pretoria physically and socially segregated from other racial groups. The racialised lived experiences of Black African migrants in Pretoria reflects South Africa's neoliberal migration policies in which low income migrants of African descent tend to concentrate in inner city ghettos segregated from affluent and relatively racially integrated suburbs surrounding inner cities.
To contribute towards addressing the problem of relatively few general equilibrium studies focusing on gender impacts of disease pandemics, this paper uses a gendered Computable General Equilibrium model linked to a microsimulation model to study the short run economic effects of COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa. A mild and severe scenario is run to represent the pandemic. Findings suggest that while COVID-19 leads to negative economic effects irrespective of scenario, female-headed households bear a disproportionately higher burden of the brunt. Because women tend to be more concentrated in employment in sectors that are hurt the most by COVID-19 response measures as well as that they predominate in unskilled categories, the simulation results show that women suffer disproportionately more from higher unemployment than their male counterparts though the differences are not as pronounced. The poverty outcomes show worsened vulnerability for female-headed households given that, even prior to the pandemic, poverty was already higher amongst women. These results are important in informing evidence-based responses by government to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The chapter revisits the themes and questions at the heart of this project, specifically focusing on the global politics of the post-Cold War era and neoliberalism. It concludes by discussing why the state remains important in a study of politics and how it helps us understand contemporary issues globally and in South Africa.
Since 2009, District 9 has been analyzed with regard to different topics by various scholars. While these analyses include postcolonial perspectives and issues, there has not been a comprehensive analysis of the film in a postcolonial perspective so far. Also, District 9 has received a lot of criticism for supposedly racist depictions of South African minorities over the years, but there has not been a judgment from a perspective specifically focused on an analysis of the satire applied in the film. This thesis aims at presenting both a postcolonial and a satire-focused perspective on District 9 with regard to social and racial issues in contemporary South Africa. In doing so, it also addresses South Africa’s troubled past of Apartheid.
In the years following the end of Apartheid, South Africa introduced the Employment Equity Act as part of legislation designed to address entrenched racial and gender inequalities. Through section 27 of the Act, firms are required to report on the representation and remuneration of their workers by gender and population group. In this study, unprecedented access to the data generated by this reporting was used to assess gender-based occupational segregation and pay gaps in 2015 and 2016. We found the data on employment to be relatively trustworthy and to show that women (and especially black and coloured women) continue to be under-represented in high-skilled and management positions. Substantial gender pay gaps were found, but the reliability of these estimates was made questionable by a high number of apparent errors and inconsistencies in the remuneration data. The data has several advantages over other household and firm surveys, but these issues undermine its potential for the estimation of gender pay gaps among workers matched on occupational skill levels. This analysis shows that more needs to be done to ensure that this data is appropriately processed and distributed, so that it can shed light on the state of women in the South African labour market and be used to effectively address inequalities in pay and representation.
The geographical landscape in South Africa (physical, social and economic), was profoundly influenced by the policy of apartheid. This chapter analyses the rise and demise of the apartheid city and is divided into four sections. The first section focuses on compounds and locations, which marked the early phase of colonial segregation, and was often implemented under the guise of health concerns and slum clearance programmes. Municipal officials also viewed locations as a mechanism to control the influx of Africans into cities. The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 represented the first Union attempt to control, manage and segregate urban Africans. The Group Areas Act (GAA) of 1950 was one of the key instruments used to reinforce the ideology of apartheid and is the theme of the second section. The demise of the GAA and the rise of ‘grey’ and free settlement areas are discussed in the third section. The final section reviews post-apartheid segregation and desegregation trends. There are remarkable continuities between the apartheid and democratic eras in terms of socio-spatial inequalities, and neoliberal policies tend to reinforce race and class segregation, rather than radically challenge the apartheid urban landscape. Although all race-based discriminatory legislation has been scrapped, the legacy of apartheid will be visible in the South African landscape for a long time.
The spatial legacy of the apartheid city has left cities that are divided and segregated along racial and class lines. These cities do not only have to overcome the economic challenges of the post-apartheid system, but equally address the poor spatial layout of the city. Housing is one of the key issues when addressing they layout of a city, housing is not only a basic right in South Africa but equally a tool to integrate the city. South African cities have a massive array of types, from luxury houses to informal shacks, the complexities of this housing typology means that there is no single policy that can address the housing crisis in the country. Informal housing forms a vital space for the urban poor to find housing and other economic opportunities, however, the poor services and unhealthy environment in informal settlements has pushed government to try and eradicate these settlement types. However, city governments in South Africa simply do not have the resources to rehouse the millions of individuals who find shelter in these settlements. This chapter explores the role of housing in post-apartheid South Africa and how it can contribute to the livelihood of the most vulnerable in society.
The urban poor residents in South Africa are over time known for imbalance and inadequate housing amidst recent concern of shock in food production. In studying this peculiar problem, this study investigates the cointegration and long-run equilibrium relationship of population growth, crop production, and the housing price in the country. Empirically, a quarterly data from 1975:Q1 to 2015:Q4 is employed using the conventional Autoregressive Distributed Lag. The investigation shows strong significant evidence of cointegration and a quarterly speed of adjustment of 17.2% to long run in the system. Also, as the population grows, a decline in house price index is experienced in the long run. Although unusual, adequate and sustainable housing plan, demand-supply dynamics, in respect to a country’s population expansion could posit observation. But, in the short run, a strongly significant positive association is observed. It shows further that positively short-run and long-run relationships significantly exist between crop production and house price index. In reality, caution is essential in the introduction of land redistribution policy to avoid hampering the housing policies and 2030 housing target of the government.
This paper investigates progress in reducing the high level of racial stratification of occupations after apartheid in South Africa. Empirical analysis, using census microdata and Labour Force Surveys, does not provide compelling evidence of sustained or significant desegregation. Occupations remain highly segmented by race, with blacks disproportionally holding low‐paying jobs (compared with whites), although segregation and segmentation also affect in a different way the other population groups (Indians/Asians and Coloureds). Less than a third of the occupational segregation and about half of the segmentation of Africans (with respect to whites) are related to their characteristics, especially their lower educational achievement, a gap that has been reduced over time. Segregation and stratification, however, remain when blacks and whites with similar characteristics are compared.
Socio-spatial segregation becomes an explanatory factor of labor market segmentation. Employment and income opportunities depend on the residential locations and the degree of social isolation. Census analysis indicates that low income groups accentuate their precarious employment and income opportunities, whereas medium income groups show a clear decadence in their financial capabilities that does not correspond to its cultural or social baggage. High income groups present indications that do not correspond to the economy's new dynamics.
Brazil has always been considered to be a land free of racial and ethnic tensions. However, despite Brazil being famous for miscegenation, racial discrimination in Brazil has been documented in the literature, especially in light of the huge disparity between Brazil’s racial groups with respect to economic outcomes and education levels. The objective of this paper is to contribute to a better understanding of the economics of racial discrimination in Brazil. To this end, the effect of segregation on the income of workers is estimated using data from elementary schools in São Paulo, the largest city in the country. Measures of segregation in the educational system are evaluated using economic data obtained from the 2010 census. It is shown that segregation plays a fundamental role on the wage gap among racial groups. This effect may be attributed to the virtual absence of pretos and pardos in private schools. In public education, however, there is little separation along racial lines, which suggests that lack of access to social networks and to higher quality public schools may be the most important element in explaining wage differences. In Brazil, racial discrimination seems to work indirectly through socio-economic factors.
Imagined contact is an intervention that combines the prejudice-reduction of intergroup contact with the easy, low-risk application of imagery-based techniques. Accordingly, it can be applied where direct contact is difficult or risky. However, a possible limitation of imagined contact is that it may not be effective for participants with stronger initial prejudices, which would limit its usefulness and application. Two experiments (N1 = 103, N2 = 95) investigated whether initial prejudice moderated imagined contact's effects on explicit attitudes, behavioral intentions (Experiment 1), implicit attitudes, and petition-signing behaviors (Experiment 2) toward two different outgroups. In both experiments, imagined contact was more effective when initial prejudice was higher. Implications for imagined contact theory and application are discussed.
The current nature and challenges of urbanisation in sub-Saharan Africa display several unique features only weakly evident on other continents. Key ones include the current high rates of population growth, inadequate planning and governance systems, concentration in small and medium-sized towns, and increasing urban poverty. These shape the extent, nature and use of ecosystem services provided by urban green infrastructure. This paper first examines the location of green infrastructure across nine towns, showing that it is unequal between suburbs and that the bulk is located under private tenure (74%) rather than in public spaces. We then consider the extent and patterns of use of selected provisioning and cultural ecosystem services from green infrastructure in different locations within towns, including private gardens, public parks and street trees. The results show significant use of green infrastructure for a range of provisioning and cultural services as well as its contribution to spiritual and mental wellbeing. Provisioning contributions are both in regular support of livelihood needs as well as increased use after a covariate shock (a flood), both of which help reduce household vulnerability. Lastly, our results show the expressed level of support and willingness-to-pay or work amongst urban residents for green infrastructure and the services it provides. Whilst the composite results indicate marked variation between and within towns, they show that there is widespread use of green infrastructure for both basic needs as well as for more aesthetic and psycho-spiritual appreciation and recreation, in small and medium-sized towns in a developing country such as South Africa.
The relationship between globalization1 and economic development is a topical and controversial one. Many economists see the benefits of globalization outweighing its disadvantages, and ascribe the rise in living standards, especially in Asia to the openness of trade brought on by globalization. Dissenting voices however, point to globalization as a contributing force to global inequalities and for locking poor countries into disadvantageous positions relative to richer countries (see for instance the summary in Wade, 2004). Following the financial crisis of 2008, many are arguing that financial integration and openness has gone too far, and that it is in the interest of developing countries to delay or roll back financial openness (for example, Obstfeld, 2008).
Perhaps no other country has experienced as much and as detailed socio-political engineering as apartheid South Africa. The apartheid project impacted people’s lives at every level, always with the goal of creating a set of parallel but grossly unequal spatial realities with almost no meaningful contacts between the population groups. This apartheid era legacy is one of enormous inequalities reflected in landscapes of separate, ethnically determined social worlds filled with despair for non-White South Africans. The bulldozing of two residential districts – South End in Port Elizabeth and Sophiatown in Johannesburg – are used as examples of government policies intent on breaking up mixed-race areas in order to create the “neat” residential areas that were such an integral part of apartheid planning. In the post-apartheid era, planners now have the task of undoing the many legacies created by the racially based system. Since 1994 there has been significant improvement in service delivery and in quality of life conditions for previously disenfranchised South Africans, but most of that change has taken place within already defined residential districts, so that many of the previously racially segregated residential districts remain as rigidly segregated today as they were during apartheid. The persistence of the pattern of racial segregation is seen as an outcome of municipal policies which focuses on service delivery in situ and rather than on the deliberate racial integration of residential areas. It is posited that not implementing policies of social integration could cause difficulties for future national cohesion and development.
A cornerstone of apartheid was the enforcement of urban residential segregation. From the mid 1970s, however, the racial composition of the Johannesburg inner city, historically a white group area, altered dramatically. The paper illustrates that the national context in the 1970s made it increasingly difficult for the state to carry out its urban apartheid policy. The economic crisis increased the state housing shortage in the respective black group areas, thereby forcing people to migrate into the Johannesburg inner city where there was an abundance of accommodation. The political crisis and changing class composition of Afrikaners brought about hesitancy and division within the National Party as the more pragmatic verligtes battled against the conservative, verkrampte wing. This facilitated the movement of 'non-white' families into the Johannesburg inner city.
There appears to be a growing awareness of post-apartheid development challenges in large South African cities. However, current and future development challenges in small towns are largely neglected. This paper argues that post-apartheid development challenges in small towns should have a high priority in the decade ahead. The paper gives an overview of small towns in the Free State, identifies current development challenges of these towns and proposes some development opportunities and ideas for small towns.
The processes of residential racial desegregation in certain parts of South African cities, especially Johannesburg, preceded by several years the official abolition of separate living areas. In the centre of Johannesburg, different stages and various spaces, setting for the institution of new social relationships bringing changes in their use and their perception, can be brought out. The current tendency is one stage away from the Whites giving rise to a new method of segregation, putting an end to hopes of conviviality and new social relationships in these areas.
This paper examines trends in residential segregation for blacks, Hispanics, and Asians in 60 SMSAs between 1970 and 1980 using data taken from the 1970 Fourth Count Summary tapes and the 1980 Summary Tape File 4. Segregation was measured using dissimilarity and exposure indices. Black segregation from Anglos declined in some smaller SMSAs in the south and west, but in large urban areas in the northeastern and north central states there was little change; in these areas blacks remained spatially isolated and highly segregated. The level of black-Anglo segregation was not strongly related to socioeconomic status or level of suburbanization. Hispanic segregation was markedly below that of blacks, but increased substantially in some urban areas that experienced Hispanic immigration and population growth over the decade. The level of Hispanic segregation was highly related to indicators of socioeconomic status, acculturation, and suburbanization. Asian segregation was everywhere quite low. During the 1970s the spatial isolation of Asians increased slightly, while dissimilarity from Anglos decreased. Results were interpreted to suggest that Asian enclaves were beginning to form in many U.S. metropolitan areas around 1980.
This article assesses the nature of residential desegregation in Pietersburg. Empirical data were collected in May 1993 and May 1997 to determine the number of black home-owners living in the former Pietersburg area. The findings are then interpreted in the context of a social restructuring survey conducted among residents of an integrated Pietersburg. The survey investigated aspects relating to social integration and urban transformation after apartheid that directly relates to residential desegregation. Aspects covered include the following: attitude towards residential desegregation, awareness of residential desegregation; perceived influence of residential integration on suburbs, future expectations and legislation, and racial transition seen through conflict. In addition to these social restructuring aspects the survey determined residential mobility patterns of the respondents. The findings of the survey shed light on how a former conservative, apartheid city transformed itself during the period of transition.
Residential segregation in Boston between European ethnic populations has declined little during the 20th century. Racial segregation rose during the 19th and early 20th century, but has remained stable since about 1940, prior to the expansion of the city's Negro population. These conclusions indicate that racial segregation is but an extension of the pattern of ethnic separation, especially since Asian and Latin ethnics show similar patterns in the contemporary city. Moreover, segregation levels are only slightly lower in the 1970 SMSA suburban ring than they are in the central city. We suggest that this demographic record is relevant to issues of Boston's public school desegregation controversy.
The urban policies and processes during the political transition (1990–1994) in South Africa were more than a continuation of those employed in the late 1980s. These new policies together with the nature of the political transition created the conditions for two important changes in South Africa's urban environment: 1) the de jure desegregation of some formerly segregated urban areas; and 2) the seizure by small numbers of the urban poor of prime land within some previously “white” suburbs. This paper investigates these changes through a case study of the establishment of an informal settlement within a “white” suburb in Cape Town.In 1990 black squatters erected shacks on Marconi Beam, a piece of state-owned land within the white suburb of Milnerton. While these squatters managed to maintain their foothold in the area, they gained little access to the suburb's social and educational facilities and they were excluded from official local government institutions for the duration of the national political transition (and beyond). I argue that it was only through the unique politics of the transition that local governments—largely in defiance of the wishes of their white voters—permitted settlements such as Marconi Beam to remain in these locations. As class replaces race as the driving force behind South Africa's city structure, and as new democratically elected local governments assert more control over the urban environment, it is unlikely that relatively affluent desegregating suburbs will tolerate similar informal settlements.
The policy of apartheid, or racial separation, in South Africa has been one of the most controversial political problems in the latter part of the 20th century. Levels of racial segregation in South African cities have risen markedly in the 20th century as a consequence of legislative programmes, which have also had the result of introducing greater uniformity between the provinces (although the colonial heritage has not been eliminated entirely). The process would appear to have reached its conclusion with a lessening of intent on the part of the government and the survival of some elements of colonial integration. Urban segregation levels have attained remarkably high levels, although the goal of total separation has eluded the White legislators.
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Residential segregation between blacks and whites persists in urban America. However evidence from the 1990 Census suggests that peak segregation levels were reached in the past. We evaluate segregation patterns in 1990 and trends in segregation between 1980 and 1990 for the 232 U.S. metropolitan areas with substantial black populations. We review the historical forces that intensified segregation for much of the twentieth century, and identify key developments after 1960 that challenged institutionalized segregation. The results suggest that the modest declines in segregation observed during the 1970s continued through the 1980s. While segregation decreased in most metropolitan areas, the magnitude of these changes was uneven. Testing hypotheses developed from an ecological model, we find that the lowest segregation levels in 1990 and the largest percentage decreases in segregation scores between 1980 and 1990 occurred in young, southern and western metropolitan areas with significant recent housing construction. Because the black population continues to migrate to such areas, residential segregation between blacks and whites should decline further but remain well above that for Hispanics or Asians.
In South Africa the state plays a major role in influencing the socio-spatial structuring of society. The Group Areas Act, which emphasised racial residential segregation, was one of the key instruments used to enforce the ideology of apartheid. However, since the mid-1980s many blacks began to move into white designated group areas, which blurred race-space divisions and led to the formation of ‘grey areas’. Against the background of the socio-political changes which have taken place in South Africa over the past decade, this paper examines the internal dynamics in one such grey area, Albert Park in Durban. This paper traces the arrival of blacks in Albert Park, and identifies the problems which they have experienced in the area. The nature of black protest and resistance to evictions in Albert Park is evaluated. The white reaction to the process of residential integration in Albert Park is also analysed. Finally, the response of the Durban City Council is considered. This paper concludes that blacks were moving into Albert Park because of a shortage of accommodation and a desire to escape from the strife-torn townships. However, they experienced numerous problems such as curfews, evictions without notice, and regular harassment from the police. Conservative Durban city councillors expressed concern that the desegregation process in Albert Park will threaten white working-class interests, while liberal councillors called for the whole of Durban to be declared ‘open’. White fears that the influx of blacks into Albert Park would lead to an increase in crime and a decline in property values were unfounded. The abolition of the Group Areas Act in 1991 merely gave ‘de jure recognition to a de facto situation’.
The abolition of the Group Areas Act in 1991 has, in the space of five years, contributed to major changes in the former apartheid cities of South Africa. However, the socio-political transformation that has taken place has been experienced differently-as can be seen, for example, in Bloemfontein and Pietersburg, the capitals of the Free State and the Northern Province respectively. Historic factors, locations and the new-found status of the two cities have influenced the desegregation process that has occurred. The spatial lay-out of Bloemfontein, a city with its own black township, differs sharply from that of Pietersburg, a city without a township during the apartheid era. This paper assesses desegregation in these two provincial capitals in post-apartheid South Africa and investigates residential desegregation patterns, grass-roots political changes (the outcomes of the local elections held in November 1994), and property values as a further indication of the differences that exist between these two cities.
Urban ethnic residential segregation and integration in South African cities without apartheid is examined. The basic concepts of the segregation of human communities is noted and a review of work done in cities of the English speaking world is made. These findings are juxtaposed against those of researchers in Southern Africa and from this a broad prognosis is presented.
Urban land invasions have occurred in South Africa since the 1940s. However, since 1993 a new form of invasion has developed ‐ the invasion of developed and often serviced land and dwellings. This article examines the orchestrated land and housing invasion at Wiggins in Cato Manor. The focus is on the socio‐economic and political context that led to the invasion, which was highly organised and planned. The main reasons for the invasion are the serious housing shortage in Chesterville and the racist allocation of dwellings in Wiggins by the House of Delegates. The invasion took place on the eve of elections, when the moral and political authority of the apartheid state was waning. Although there were tensions, social relations between Indian residents and African invaders in Wiggins have improved. The Cato Manor Development Association has been appointed as development agent for Cato Manor and on its shoulders lies the inordinate task of resolving the Wiggins crisis.
Namibia is distinctive in southern Africa as the region's last colony. Furthermore, the liberation struggle is not being waged against a distant metropolitan power but Namibia's dominant neighbour, South Africa. These circumstances have had a profound impact on the evolution of Namibia's colonial political economy and urban structure, while simultaneously imposing major constraints on the scope for postcolonial transformation. This study is situated within the theoretical debates on colonial urban development and urban change, and on segregation in capitalist cities. The decolonialization process is examined with respect primarily to urban desegregation in Windhoek after 1977, when arrangements for an ostensible transition to independence began. Attention is devoted to its extent and pattern, its racial and class implications, the perceptions and behaviour of various key actors and groups, and the contradictions and limitations inherent in such reforms. Finally, some thoughts are offered on the prospects for transformation after independence and the implications for South Africa's current haltering reforms of the apartheid system.
Land invasions, where people move onto private or public land illegally in an attempt to gain access to resources within the urban sphere, result in the juxtaposition of contrasting urban landscapes and in alterations to place-making processes. This paper examines the changes to place, as perceived by the formal residents of the area, arising from the establishment and growth of an informal settlement in Hout Bay, a middle-to-upper-income coastal suburb of Cape Town, South Africa. The resettlement of over 2500 squatters in a site-and-service scheme in close proximity to established formal residential areas resulted in marked social conflict. This was perhaps inevitable given the sharply contrasting socio-spatial patterns that were created. In analysing the surrounding community's perceptions of the informal settlement, the influence of spatial proximity vis-à-vis other explanatory factors is the paper's central focus. The paper reveals that a number of different factors underlie the conflict: factors rooted in social structures and processes (both class and political); in the actions and interpretations of human agents; and in the nature of the locality. Most formal residents were negative about the development of the informal settlement, although for different reasons, depending on their socio-economic status. Shifting political relations in South Africa during the early 1990s played a key role in influencing both the planning of the informal settlement and residents' reactions to it. The paper concludes by suggesting some policy implications of the Hout Bay case study.
Based upon documents and interviews, this paper presents an analytical history of interactions between the United States Bureau
of the Census and Mexican-American leaders preparatory to the 1980 census. Participants confronted several issues, such as
defining Hispanic ethnicity, designing instruments and field procedures, and maximizing public participation. Although census
officials and ethnic leaders aimed at getting a “full count,” the former emphasized scientific objectives while the latter
emphasized the political.
This study examines 1990 residential segregation levels and 1980-1990 changes in segregation for Latinos, Asians, and blacks in U.S. metropolitan areas. It also evaluates the effect of emerging multiethnic metropolitan area contexts for these segregation patterns. While black segregation levels are still well above those for Latinos and Asians, there is some trend toward convergence over the decade. More than half of the areas increased their Latino segregation levels over the 1980s, and almost three-fourths increased their Asian segregation levels. In contrast, black segregation levels decreased in 88% of metropolitan areas. Multiethnic metropolitan area context is shown to be important for internal segregation dynamics. Black segregation levels are lower, and were more likely to decline in multiethnic metropolitan areas and when other minority groups grew faster than blacks. Latino segregation was also more likely to decline in such areas, and declines in both Latino and Asian segregation were greater when other minority groups were growing. These findings point up the potential for greater mixed-race and mixed-ethnicity coresidence in the neighborhoods of multiethnic metropolitan areas.
"In the course of the 1980s a number of changes took place in the organization of South African cities, leading to the concept of 'modernizing' apartheid. Relaxation of laws and the publicized responses to racial integration in a few localities encouraged the concept of a breakdown of residential barriers. However, an examination of the 1991 census suggests not only that segregation levels are remarkably high, but also that they rose in the period between 1985 and 1991. The White population in particular remains highly segregated from the remainder. There is nevertheless a number of significant regional differences, indicating that urban restructuring was not uniform. The late-apartheid city thus appears little changed from its predecessor."