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And We Are Still Not Saved: Critical Race Theory in Education Ten Years Later
Race Ethnicity and Education
Abstract
In 1995, Teachers College Record published an article by Gloria Ladson‐Billings and William Tate entitled ‘Toward a critical race theory of education’. In this article, the authors proposed that critical race theory (CRT), a framework developed by legal scholars, could be employed to examine the role of race and racism in education. Within a few years of the publication of the article by Ladson‐Billings and Tate, several scholars in education had begun to describe their work as reflecting a CRT framework. In this article, we review the literature on CRT in education that has been published over the past ten years. We also assess how far we have come with respect to CRT in education and suggest where we might go from here.
... Delgado and Stefancic (2017) described voice as the unique and vital perspective of folx of color. Dixson and Rousseau (2005) described the essence of voice as "... The assertion and acknowledgement of the importance of the personal and community experiences of people of color as sources of knowledge" (p.10). ...
... Amir and Malcolm described how food chain workers are impacted by unsafe and exploitative working conditions, a key aspect of food justice outlined in the literature review (Harper, 2011;Sbicca, 2018). Furthermore, Amir and Malcolm described the impacts of food access and security on themselves, their families, and their communities, providing a necessary opportunity for them to use their voices to share their stories (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). This example showed how a food justice curriculum can provide a potential avenue for Black students to share their truth and knowledge in classroom spaces and attempt to disrupt the historical trend of epistemological erasure of Blackness in the classroom and civic spaces (Scheurich & Young, 1997). ...
In this study, I explored how two Black high school students experienced a food justice curriculum and school-based gardening activities by examining student reflections, interviews, and classroom observations using a critical race theoretical framework. Findings suggested that in addition to learning key agricultural skills and concepts, participants learned more about food justice and considered their roles in the food justice movement. Findings also suggested that the experience may have changed how they view their civic attitudes as they relate to food justice. As a result, I argued that educators must provide Black students space in agricultural education programs and classes to explore pressing issues in their local communities, valuing them as epistemological contributors in classroom spaces.
... Critical Race Theory serves as an appropriate framework for this study by emphasizing that racism is an ordinary, everyday experience suggesting that biases are not isolated incidents but rather reflect broader societal narratives and systemic inequalities (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). Payne and Hannay (2021) argue a context-based perspective on implicit bias that indicates the overall level of bias within an environment-like a workplace or community-reflects the systemic racism present there, thus implicit bias may serve as a product of -and a driver of -systemic inequalities. ...
... By situating an exploration of implicit and explicit biases within the framework of CRT, we can better appreciate how they perpetuate systemic racism and impact the educational environment. Furthermore, by positioning this research within a commitment to social justice (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005), CRT not only seeks to illuminate the nuances of individual biases but also emphasizes the need for actionable pathways to disrupt oppressive structures in education. This approach aligns with CRT's social justice tenet, aiming to catalyze change and foster a more equitable educational landscape. ...
... While there is no universal definition of CRT, the most prevalent assertion is the normalcy of racism in the United States. Critical race theory highlights the enduring pervasiveness of racism, despite notions that the United States is a post-racial society (see Bonilla-Silva, 2015;Delgado & Stefancic, 2017;Dixson & Rousseau, 2006;Yosso, 2005). ...
... CRT exposes the ways in which people of color have historically been, and currently are, silenced, illuminating the strategic and rhetorical workings of power relations. In contrast to historical silencing, by centering counter-narratives CRT highlights the factors that contribute to and perpetuate racial and social injustice, and it proposes strategies for undoing those injustices (Dixson & Rousseau, 2006). Some critical theorists, however, have problematized CRT praxis. ...
The United States has witnessed a public display of outrage toward critical race theory (CRT). This opposition has been buoyed by White evangelical Christian polemics. I conducted a discourse-historical analysis of 21 statements, reflecting a diversity of voices within evangelical discourse (ED). First, ED constructs CRT as both bereft of theoretical validity and evil. Second, the discourse inverts the objectives of CRT by claiming those goals for its own. Third, ED seeks to strip CRT of its transformative and emancipatory power. Fourth, ED constructs CRT in ways that diffuse accountability. Finally, ED questions the faith of Christians who seek to learn from CRT. Reflection is offered for how CRT and Christianity might conspire together toward the aims of addressing racial inequity.
... We recommend exploring the legal foundations of CRT as well as its applications within various disciplines (e.g., Bell, 1992Bell, , 1993Bell, , 1995Crenshaw et al., 1995;Delgado, 1989;Gotanda, 1991;Harris, 1993;Peller, 1990). This means that researchers need to read and make sense of the original legal writings and how specific disciplines, such as education or psychology, have applied the theory (e.g., DeCuir & Dixson, 2004;Dixson & Rousseau, 2005;Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995;Lynn & Dixson, 2021;Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). We highly recommend enrolling in a course on CRT or enrolling in a few short courses or webinars to learn more about the theory as well as to engage in a community of scholars that use the theory. ...
Multiply marginalized youth of color (MMYOC) often experience a barrage of discrimination within schools due to their intersectional identities. In the school psychology field, there is a frequent failure among researchers to employ methodological tools that adequately capture the complexity of their varied intersectional marginalizations. Anti-oppressive approaches that center on race while addressing intersectional systems of oppression, such as Critical Race Mixed Methodology (CRMM), provide a useful approach to interrogating this complexity. Focusing on MMYOC, we explicate the application of CRMM to foster the advancement of socially just and anti-racist research methodologies in school psychology. It includes a discussion of the theoretical foundations of Critical Race Theory and elaborates on the various elements of a CRMM study. Implications for the application of CRMM in the current anti-diversity, equity, and inclusion climate are also considered.
... The second tenet, material determinism, posits that "[b]ecause racism advances the interests of both White elites (materially) and working-class Whites (psychically), large segments of society have little incentive to eradicate it" (Delgado and Stefancic 2017b, 9). This translates into the reality that any step toward racial justice/social change depends on the alignment of the interests of racialized minorities with those of the dominant racial group, and that in sum, "[l]ittle happens out of altruism alone" (Delgado and Stefancic 2017a, 22;Dixson and Rousseau 2005). Therefore, from our perspective, this tenet infers that health equity and social justice goals of public health interventions for older racialized minorities are only achievable if they also serve the (public health) interests of the dominant society. ...
Older racialized minorities were particularly vulnerable during the last pandemic due to the interlocking influences of structural racism and ageism, which are often disregarded in public health planning. This oversight not only compromises the social justice and health equity goals of public health efforts but it also calls for a more inclusive approach that systematically addresses these deficiencies at every stage of a public health response. To achieve this, we propose Age- and Race-conscious Interventions done Equitably (ARIE), a novel analytical framework grounded in critical race theory and critical gerontology. ARIE is based on a four-step approach, which aligns with different stages of public health interventions. It will help ensure that structural discrimination influencing access to healthcare resources during a biological event is not ignored, and that public health authorities work actively toward identifying and addressing ageist and racist biases in their response plans and interventions.
... Notar la diferencia entre categorías lingüísticas marcadas y no marcadas (Myers-Scotton, 1998) es aún más poderoso cuando se pone en conjunción con un análisis sociológico de las formas en que la membresía de un grupo racial funciona en la sociedad. Los teóricos críticos de la raza argumentan que la gente blanca, por virtud de su membresía al grupo dominante en la sociedad, construye identidades definidas como "normales" y consecuentemente establece el estándar por el cual las minorías raciales y étnicas son evaluadas (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005;Ladson-Billngs, 1999). ...
Existe un silencio persistente en la investigación en alfabetización en cuanto a las cuestiones de raza, especialmente con jóvenes y con blancos. En este artículo mostramos que los niños blancos hablan de raza, racismo y anti-racismo en el contexto del currículo de alfabetización. Mediante un marco reconstruido para analizar el “habla de los blancos” basado en la literatura sobre los estudios de la “blancura”, la teoría crítica de la raza y el análisis crítico del discurso, ilustramos cómo se percibe el hablar sobre la raza entre estudiantes blancos de segundo grado y sus docentes. Esta investigación hace varias contribuciones a la literatura. Proporcionamos un método detallado para codificar los datos de la interacción usando el análisis crítico del discurso y una perspectiva de la teoría crítica de la raza y los estudios de la “blancura”. También ilustramos la inestabilidad de la formación de la identidad racial y las implicaciones para docentes y estudiantes cuando se toca el tema de la raza en la escuela primaria. Por último argumentamos que el desarrollo racial de la alfabetización, como otros procesos educativos en el aula, debe ser guiado.
... CRT posits that racism is deeply embedded within these systems. One of the central tenets of CRT is to confront the dominant narrative, such as challenging the positivist approach to autism research which generalizes results and creates standards based upon research using predominantly white, Western, male, and monolingual participants (Crenshaw, 1989;Dixson & Rousseau, 2005;Steinbrenner et al., 2022). ...
Despite increasing autism prevalence rates across racial and ethnic groups, research has traditionally overlooked the influence of culture on developmental diagnostic conversations. Addressing this gap in research is crucial to understanding and mitigating potential disparities in diagnostic experiences, especially among Black caregivers. Black caregivers encounter frustration and discrimination during the diagnostic process, citing dismissiveness and a lack of cultural competence from healthcare providers. To address these issues, this study centers the perspectives of Black caregivers as they participate in a developmental diagnostic program for toddlers under three years of age. This retrospective qualitative study, conducted exclusively by a Black research team, involved nineteen Black caregivers of thirteen toddlers as they participated in semi-structured interviews conducted by a multidisciplinary clinical team. The research team employed a conceptual content analysis to examine caregivers' descriptions of their children's behaviors and characteristics, as well as the factors and experiences associated with their descriptions. Caregivers provided distinct descriptions of behaviors and characteristics in the categories of language and communication, learning, and temperament, associating them with situational and dispositional factors and experiences. The findings offer valuable insights for implementing culturally responsive diagnostic practices. Additionally, these results may enhance the quality of caregiver-provider interactions during developmental assessment, leading to earlier and more accurate diagnoses for Black children.
... Critical perspectives in education research often draw on Critical Race Theory (CRT), which is predicated on the assumption that racism is the foundation from which all U.S. systems and structures were built (Crenshaw et al., 1995). CRT seeks to promote equity by transforming the relationship between race, racism, and power in schools (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001) by emphasizing the lived experiences of people of color, bringing to light realities that have been obfuscated in White-dominant spaces (Crenshaw et al., 1995), and by situating experiential knowledge of people of color and their communities as valid and essential (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). Building on these tenets, critical data-driven decision-making (cDDDM) is grounded in liberatory practices that seek to disrupt classroom and school-based systemic inequity by using data to reveal opportunity gaps in students' school experiences, identify problematic structures and practices, and promote educators' agency to address them (Dodman et al., 2021(Dodman et al., , 2023. ...
School climate surveys are frequently used to collect information about student experiences in school. Less is known about how educators use survey data after survey administration. This paper explores one school district’s critical use of evidence to promote equitable change. We conducted eight semi-structured interviews with district and school leaders to investigate their uses of evidence. Through our qualitative, reflexive thematic analysis, we generated six themes: (1) using evidence to provide a common language; (2) bringing attention to trends to shift staff understanding of problems, (3) making structural changes, (4) planning for professional learning, (5) following up directly with students, and (6) engaging with the community. Findings illustrate how education leaders can apply a critical lens to their generation and use of evidence. We explore how the strategic use of evidence is needed to advance the broader goal of fostering school change and improving school climate for all students.
... Critical Race Theory Critical race theory (CRT) addresses issues of social justice and racial oppression (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005;Kubota & Lin, 2009). In introducing CRT and its basic tenets, Delgado and Stefancic (2001) specify that "races are categories that society invents, manipulates, or retires when convenient" (p. 7). ...
... Additionally, Sleeter and Delgado-Bernal (2004) argue that race is examined ahead of other physical characters because Eurocentric values and morals place a higher acceptability on race than other factors used to marginalize a person. These scholars (Bell, 1987;Crenshaw, 1988Crenshaw, , 2011Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1994;Dixon & Rousseau, 2005;& Parker, 2000) and their scholarship use CRT to reject the dominant discourse of implicit Eurocentrism and naïveté in regards to embedded power relations in education. Instead, the aforementioned scholars use CRT to assist in the eradication of oppressive devices in education, thus making a more equitable experience for all. ...
... We adopted Critical Race Theory (CRT) as an overarching framework for this study on a macro level in order to focus on structural arrangements of power dynamics in the university as a microcosm of society. The main tenets of CRT are the normality and everydayness of race and racism, counter-storytelling, challenging dominant ideology, interest convergence, commitment to social justice and whiteness as property (Dixson and Rousseau 2005). We acknowledge that individuals engage differently with issues of racial and gender discrimination and differ in the coping strategies they use. ...
... Counterstories, however, centralize the agency, knowledge, and voice of people of color within the intersection of other identities. They defy dominant ideologies and legitimize the experiential knowledge and cultural wealth of otherwise silenced communities (Delgado Bernal 1998; Dixon and Rousseau 2005;Yosso 2005). This is especially true for women of color whose gender and racial identities (among others) can doubly reinforce their marginalization. ...
Stories can be a powerful medium through which to simultaneously reinforce and counter oppressive discourse. This article examines Gloria Anzaldúa’s children’s book, Prietita y La Llorona, as a counterstory method within the larger genre of Latinx children’s literature. Counterstories are a powerful method used by Critical Race and feminist theorists to center the delegitimized experiences of marginalized communities. Drawing on theories around discourse, representation, and intersectionality, the article explores the ways in which Anzaldúa counters cultural narratives that diminish community cultural wealth and women’s positions as agents of knowledge through the characters of Doña Lola and La Llorona.
... Even within our familiar risk and protective factor framework, often leveraged at the individual level, we do not adequately include experiences with micro-aggressions (i.e. "subtle insults (verbal, nonverbal, and/or visual) directed toward racial minorities, often automatically or unconsciously" [Solarzano et al., 2000quoted in Wong et al., 2014), discrimination, and racial trauma (e.g., Clark, 2001;Comas-Diaz et al., 2019;Trent et al., 2019) as endemic (i.e., universal within a subgroup) risk factors (Dixson & Rousseau, 2014) for poor behavioral health outcomes, nor positive racial and ethnic identity and related constructs as potential protective factors (e.g., Rivas-Drake et al., 2014;Spencer et al., 1991). Many meta-analytic reviews have documented the deleterious effects of microaggressions on a range of physical and mental health outcomes for BIPOC individuals (Choi et al., 2022;Costa et al., 2023;Wong et al., 2014). ...
Prevention Science seeks to advance the prevention research and to translate scientific advances into the promotion of healthy development for all youth. Despite tremendous progress creating a robust evidence-base and set of translational tools, elaborations and expansions for equity are required. Our collective errors of omission as prevention researchers have left prevention practitioners and policy-makers without sufficient information to identify strategies that have been demonstrated to prevent behavioral health problems in young people who identify as Black, Indigenous, or other People of Color (BIPOC). We first describe the current shortcomings of available evidence, and then we call for individual and collective action to conceptualize equity-enhancing prevention, sample more inclusively, and improve analytic approaches such that we can truly promote the healthy development of all youth.
... European American students' negative reaction to the curriculum is not surprising considering teachers report experiencing push-back when they teach information that counters the dominant narrative (Rains, 2003). This cultural intervention is an example of how inclusion of diverse voices disrupts the mainstream narrative by including the critical dialogue and counterstories of experienced oppression (e.g., Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). Although uncomfortable for some European American students, the exclusion of Native history and this reality is harmful to Native students and a disservice to Indigenous and non-Native students alike (Deloria & Wildcat, 2001). ...
This community-based participatory research case study demonstrates how Dakota Wicoḣaƞ utilized Indigenous and feminist epistemologies to create, implement, and evaluate a cultural intervention, the Mni Sota Makoce: Dakota Homelands Curriculum, to increase Native 6th- and 10th-grade social studies students’ peoplehood sense of belonging (Tachine et al., 2017). Findings demonstrate Native students liked the curriculum and reported an increase in support and a decrease in invalidation of their sense of belonging. While the curriculum provided a source of racial-ethnic socialization, some European American students criticized the curriculum, which likely negatively impacted 6th-grade students' psychological sense of school membership (Goodenow, 1993). Results indicate Indigenous culture, epistemologies, and pedagogies should be infused throughout all curricula, teachers need to be prepared to effectively deal with racist and discriminatory behavior, and Indian education is important to Native students’ belonging. Implications and recommendations for funders, schools, researchers, teacher education programs, and Native communities are discussed.
... European American students' negative reaction to the curriculum is not surprising considering teachers report experiencing push-back when they teach information that counters the dominant narrative (Rains, 2003). This cultural intervention is an example of how inclusion of diverse voices disrupts the mainstream narrative by including the critical dialogue and counterstories of experienced oppression (e.g., Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). Although uncomfortable for some European American students, the exclusion of Native history and this reality is harmful to Native students and a disservice to Indigenous and non-Native students alike (Deloria & Wildcat, 2001). ...
This community-based participatory research case study demonstrates how Dakota Wicoḣaƞ utilized Indigenous and feminist epistemologies to create, implement, and evaluate a cultural intervention, the Mni Sota Makoce: Dakota Homelands Curriculum, to increase Native 6th- and 10th-grade social studies students’ peoplehood sense of belonging (Tachine et al., 2017). Findings demonstrate Native students liked the curriculum and reported an increase in support and a decrease in invalidation of their sense of belonging. While the curriculum provided a source of racial-ethnic socialization, some European American students criticized the curriculum, which likely negatively impacted 6th-grade students psychological sense of school membership (Goodenow, 1993). Results indicate Indigenous culture, epistemologies, and pedagogies should be infused throughout all curricula, teachers need to be prepared to effectively deal with racist and discriminatory behavior, and Indian education is important to Native students’ belonging. Implications and recommendations for funders, schools, researchers, teacher education programs, and Native communities are discussed.
... Additionally, the fact that administrative processes aided in the creation and perpetuation of said inequities further lend credence to the notion that public administrators have a distinct responsibility to name and claim those inequities (Gooden, 2014). Thus, there is a central role for public administration to further understand the roots that led to persistent inequities (Gooden, 2015), to engage in decision-making with and on behalf of marginalized communities (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005;Lynn & Parker, 2006), to further promote cultural competency, and foster diversity and inclusion (Mackey & McCandless, 2020). Having public administrators adopt an equity mindset for the deliberative processes of renaming derogatory and offensive toponyms helps prevent the re-creation of systems of disadvantage (Svara & Brunet, 2004) and further moves to remedy previous government actions toward marginalized populations (Frederickson, 2010). ...
... In contrast to prior research which has mainly focused on student perceptions, select grade levels, and geographically narrow samples, we sought to understand variation in an assortment of specific motivating practices and student engagement from the perspective of kindergarten through high school teachers using data from a national teacher survey. Moreover, given a complex history of racism, segregation, discrimination, bias, and unequal schooling that has typically disadvantaged low income students, immigrant students, and students of color relative to counterparts (Darling-Hammond, 2006;Dixson & Rousseau, 2005;Starck, Riddle, Sinclair, & Warikoo, 2020), as well as persistent disparities in measures of academic success by student race and income (e.g., Reardon, 2013;Reardon et al., 2015), we also explored possible inequities. That is, a second purpose of the current ☆ This work was supported by GoGuardian. ...
This paper reports on a research study in which seven New York City high school mathematics teachers participated in a professional development opportunity around the teaching of mathematics for social justice. The teachers saw value in teaching math for social justice and were philosophically aligned with the pedagogy. Despite this and despite recognizing various benefits of its use, they all indicated that going forward they would implement the pedagogy infrequently if at all. This paper explores the reasons the teachers gave for why they would not implement the pedagogy fully as it explores barriers to teacher implementation of teaching mathematics for social justice.
Purpose: In this mixed methods study, we delve into the complex realm of perceptions of critical race theory (CRT) in the United States. The public perspective of CRT has implications for K12 education, particularly as it relates to teaching literature and social studies. In our investigation, we focus on school district superintendents’ perception of the impact on schools and education. Research Approach: Using quantitative (a Likert-type survey with open-ended items) and qualitative instruments (a semi-structured interview protocol), the study aims to unravel superintendents’ awareness, views, and understanding of CRT. Findings: Data revealed a range of superintendent perceived familiarity levels, with some leaders possessing an in-depth understanding of CRT while others are less acquainted. Concerns surrounding the potential divisiveness, politicization, and suitability for CRT in K12 settings emerged as significant themes. Implications: The research underscores the need for professional development and reliable information to enhance educational leaders’ comprehension of CRT. It also highlights the importance of approaching CRT cautiously in light of its complex and contested nature. The study advocates for inclusive and accurate history education and recommends effective integration of CRT, leader preparation, and policy implications. The recommendations consider the intricate landscape of CRT in K-12 educational leadership. It emphasizes the significance of promoting inclusive environments to address racial disparities and promote equitable learning.
The Critical Race Theory, the Malthusian paradigm and demography as a science under construction, provide tools for understanding the present contexts. A review of the current panorama of Latin America, North America and Cuba in particular is necessary in light of the times of the so-called post-pandemic stage. A wide number of edges can be found to approach reality by starting from history as the basis for understanding. The inequalities and social ills that affect today's societies and the development of nations must necessarily be studied to promote actions that materialize in timely actions and duly supported by scientific arguments.
This chapter introduces the theoretical framework for the book, beginning with the basic tenets of Critical Race Theory (CRT) and its application in teacher education, arguing that CRT should play a vital role in preparing White teachers capable of recognizing the institutional Whiteness of the US educational system. We suggest that teacher education programs need a praxis model of critical reflection and generative change for transformative learning to assist White teachers in challenging racist policies and practices within education, and more importantly, to aid in implementing anti-racist teaching for educational equity. We further suggest that transformative praxis needs to emphasize changing both habits of mind (thinking about race and racism) as well as patterns of acting (inside and outside the classroom). To link these elements together we propose the metaphor of travel, in which CRT provides the roadmap to social justice and educational equity through anti-racist teaching, culturally relevant and sustaining community-based teacher education provides the vehicle, and critical reflection and generative change for transformative action provides the engine. The chapter concludes with a brief explanation of the research context, including descriptions of the three research sites, their teacher education programs, the prospective teachers who participated in our study, and data collection and analysis.
Florida’s Banyan School District attempts to implement culturally responsive teaching (CRt) in the midst of critical race theory (CRT) challenges. This case illustrates how negotiations among the superintendent and stakeholders are multifaceted and fraught with the dynamics of political pressures, funding issues, personal beliefs, professional goals, and students’ preferences. When given the opportunity to listen and respond to the requests of students of color and their families while implementing new state policies, what factors influence educators’ abilities to serve all stakeholders well? This case explores CRt and CRT as frames for educators to use as they reflect on personal and systemic beliefs and practices at their school site.
Critical race methodologies (CRM), which prioritise the experiences and knowledge of racialised peoples, have become a useful tool to identify and acknowledge racialised power relations in all aspects of the research process. However, engaging with these methodologies requires researchers to not only move away from western scientific research methodologies, which have historically excluded the knowledges and lived experiences of racialised peoples, but confront the legacy of methodological Whiteness. To explore this further, this article takes a self-reflexive account on why International Non-Governmental Organisations [(I)NGOs], who have a long history of (re)producing harmful images of racialised peoples, fear the adoption of CRM based on this tension. Drawing on Bantu Steve Biko’s and Lewis Gordon’s conceptualisation of racism, fear and Black Consciousness, this paper argues that CRM should not be seen as an attack on methodological Whiteness, but an opportunity to advocate for a sector-wide introspection on the methodological choices which not only centre on the inclusion of marginalised voices, but recognise the need for a redistribution of power to challenge prevailing hierarchies within (I)NGOs.
The Making Us Matter Workbook was designed to inspire communities to initiate and organize a small Clapback Collective that is well-informed and has developed a collective strategy to deal with racism and anti-Blackness in the culture and curriculum of their educational institutions. The author aims to help students and educators develop understanding, utilize tools, and employ strategies needed to effectively combat anti-blackness and racial injustice in their schools. This multi-media resource serves as both syllabus and workbook by providing structure, source material, exercises, discussion questions, and vocabulary needed to turn this knowledge into a comprehensive and collective plan toward educational liberation.
Narratives that dominant the discourse of the experiences of people of color, specifically in education settings, are incomplete. Therefore, identifying methodological approaches that emphasize the perspectives of minoritized groups is essential. Counternarratives have been applied to help (re)tell stories of the oppressed to challenge dominant and racialized perspectives. This short take provides one example of a step-by-step guide that draws on critical race theory and the use of counternarratives as a methodology to incorporate an ethnic and racial perspective in research.
Rural education researchers have long been interested in the impact of increasing urbanization, with its attendant shifts in policy, culture, and capital mobility, on rural people and communities, but their findings have existed largely to the side of “mainstream” research examining urban and suburban populations. With the publication in 2011 of Critical Rural Theory: Structure, Space, Culture , scholars acquired a new theoretical tool for inquiring into processes of place‐making, identity formation, curricular design, and policy implementation. This article establishes key elements of the theory as they have been applied in both K‐12 and higher education research, giving attention to current gaps in the literature as well as future directions for theoretical elaboration. Essential areas of focus include critical rural theory's applications in K‐12 curricula and policy studies as well as research on community capitals, college transitions, and intersectional identity in higher education contexts.
Many African American parents enroll their children in boarding schools in search of stellar academic exposure, extracurricular activities, and college preparation. Students adapt themselves to the new academic rigor that abounds in the boarding schools, amidst other challenges. This study used a phenomenological research design that was rooted in critical race theory, culturally responsive pedagogy, and constructivism worldview to examine how African American graduates of boarding schools perceived the college readiness they received from their boarding
schools. Five African Americans who graduated from boarding schools in the U.S. were selected through purposive and snowball sampling techniques. The collected data were analyzed using van Manen's six-step interpretive phenomenological approach. Participants expressed a lack of intentional college preparation. The boarding school academic programs enriched the students, but college readiness was neither well-planned nor culturally responsive to the unique needs of Black students. In this study, college readiness was not limited to academic rigor. Participants identified college preparation needs that their boarding schools did not meet, including, not interfacing with their college counselors early enough, not taking prerequisite high school courses, and lack of exposure to important scholarship. This study found that college counseling must be planned effectively to support African American students to ensure success in college.
Keywords: boarding schools, African Americans, college readiness, college counseling, critical race theory, culturally responsive pedagogy, constructivism
Although the COVID pandemic dramatically expanded K–12 remote learning in its first years, little is known about the lasting effects on virtual schooling policies and practices. Drawing on evolutionary theories of change and qualitative data from 2019 to 2022, we explore this topic in Oregon, a state with a long history of virtual schools. We find that the pandemic contributed to limited change in state virtual schooling policy and some shifts in local organizational practices. Our data also raise questions about the durability of any changes and the implications for marginalized students. Ultimately, this study provides much-needed insights on the impact of the pandemic on policy and practice, and the utility of multi-disciplinary, equity-oriented theory to understand change processes in K–12 education.
Recently there has been an uptake in the call for research that explores race and racism within the context of psychology. Researchers can use Critical Race Theory (CRT) to do so. However, scholars within the field of psychology may confront growing pains when integrating psychology research with CRT due to their respective inquiry worldviews—postpositivism and critical—which result in several tensions pertaining to the framing of research and methods. These tensions may limit the uptake of CRT in psychology and may cause people to struggle to understand CRT. Therefore in this article, we describe (a) CRT and related frameworks, (b) tensions when integrating CRT into psychology, and (c) strategies to attenuate the tensions. Additionally, we highlight the importance of identity and the political choice of using CRT. It is critical for psychology researchers to challenge dominant postpositivist research inquiry worldviews and deconstruct what is considered “legitimate knowledge.” By doing so, we can (a) validate experiences and vast forms of knowledge that shape the reality of People of Color and our families, communities, and cultures and (b) challenge systems of oppression.
I argue that an analysis of antiblack racism in music education discourse is crucial in identifying and addressing potential for harm in the music classroom. I contend that Black children are particularly, and regularly, subjected to poor stereotypical depictions of their identity in digital media. Furthermore, I contend that this digital socialization has far-reaching implications in school. I use the framework of Black Critical Theory (BlackCrit) to explore interpersonal, curricular, and environmental sites of antiblack assault that are commonplace in schools and, specifically, music classrooms. Using a selection of Janelle Monáe’s music, I explore themes of resistance and affirmation through an Afrofuturist lens. I conclude my paper by proposing that Afrofuturism can serve as a disruption that may create sites of affirmation for Black children.
This case was written for practitioners and researchers to help educators engage in the important work of providing culturally responsive instructional supervision within the U.S. education system. Through the intersection of culturally responsive teaching and culturally responsive school leadership, formative feedback about instruction can focus on the role privileged sociocultural identities have on learning, teaching, as well as receiving and providing feedback about instructional practices. However, there are highly organized efforts in U.S. society to disrupt these efforts in education systems. Teachers, administrators, and faculty members in educational leadership preparation programs can use this case to examine how education is neither ahistorical nor apolitical, and the work yet to be accomplished to implement culturally responsive instructional practices within the schoolhouse.
Relationships between students and teachers are a critical protective factor for all students, especially for Black, Indigenous, and youth of color (BIYOC). Critical racial consciousness is the ability to recognize and resist racism. This study explores how teacher critical racial consciousness contributes to shaping learning environments, how teachers perceive their interactions with BIYOC, and BIYOC perceptions of their relationships with their teachers and how their teachers create environments that foster belonging. Data collection consisted of interviews with school teachers (White, n = 7; Black, Indigenous, and people of color, n = 4) and BIYOC ( n = 5). Conventional content analysis was used to analyze data. Results indicated that teachers who demonstrated evidence of critical racial consciousness did so by acknowledging their privileged identities, approaching and participating in racial conversations, and handling concerns of race and racism from both BIYOC and other teachers. In turn, students reported feeling a sense of school belonging when teachers created opportunities for BIYOC to raise any concerns surrounding racism and included positive racial/ethnic representation in classroom activities. Study findings provide insights into the importance of teacher critical racial consciousness in creating racially/ethnically inclusive environments that promote school belonging and enhance the quality of relationships between BIYOC and their teachers.
Racism permeates postsecondary language classrooms around the world which affects the experiences and learning outcomes of language students, namely those who study English as an additional language and English as a foreign language, referred to as additional language learners (ALLs), English as a second language (ESL), or English language learners (ELLs). Through an interrogation of the connection between race and language instruction, this chapter discusses anti-racist practices that interfere with language teaching in higher education. It presents a systematized review that aims to critically examine existing literature on the interrogation of racism within higher education with a focus on anti-racist pedagogical strategies. Critical Race Theory (CRT) guides the analysis and highlights the underlying power structures and systemic racism that shape language education. This review finds evidence of epistemological racism, linguistic biases, White supremacy, and English language dominance in the higher education language classroom. Recommendations for teacher practice are made.
This chapter is about introducing critical race design (CRD), a research methodology that centers race and equity at the center of educational opportunities by design. First, the authors define design-based implementation research (DBIR) as an equity-oriented education research methodology where teaching and learning is informed by robust, iterative, evidence-based research conducted by multiple stakeholders. Next, they provide a brief overview of critical race theory in education (CRT) as a theoretical and methodological approach that aims to unpack and disrupt the structural inequities experienced by disenfranchised racial groups. The authors then describe how both education methodologies inform CRD, and their emerging anti-racist critical design methodology.
This article asserts that despite the salience of race in U.S. society, as a topic of scholarly inquiry, it remains untheorized. The article argues for a critical race theoretical perspective in education analogous to that of critical race theory in legal scholarship by developing three propositions: (1) race continues to be significant in the United States; (2) U.S. society is based on property rights rather than human rights; and (3) the intersection of race and property creates an analytical tool for understanding inequity. The article concludes with a look at the limitations of the current multicultural paradigm.
This article addresses how critical race theory can inform a critical race methodology in education. The authors challenge the intercentricity of racism with other forms of subordination and exposes deficit-informed research that silences and distorts epistemologies of people of color. Although social scientists tell stories under the guise of “objective” research, these stories actually uphold deficit, racialized notions about people of color. For the authors, a critical race methodology provides a tool to “counter” deficit storytelling. Specifically, a critical race methodology offers space to conduct and present research grounded in the experiences and knowledge of people of color. As they describe how they compose counter-stories, the authors discuss how the stories can be used as theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical tools to challenge racism, sexism, and classism and work toward social justice.
In this article, Audrey Thompson offers a critique of the "colorblindness"folnn both in the psychological literature on caring and in theories of caring in education, Thompson argues that, insofar as theories of care fail to acknowledge and address the Whiteness of their political and cultural assumptions, they are in effect colorblind. She calls for a reexamination of the Whiteness embedded in these colorblind theories, which have been universally framed and have thus sidestepped the issues of racial imbalance implicit in colorblindness. She adds to the critique of these theories by showing how differently some of the themes have proved generative for theories of care might have been interpreted if a Black feminist perspective rather than a liberal White feminist perspective had been assumed. Following her critique of four key themes - the moral relevance of the situation, the primacy of survival, the significance of the standpoint from which values are understood, and the moral power of narrative - Thompson calls our attention to how we think about, develop, and implement an anti-racist curriculum and practice in classrooms. Her point is that colorblindness in teaching and learning situations limits us from benefiting from other perspectives that may inform educational practice. To overcome these limitations, Thompson suggests that theorists and teachers reexamine their approaches and ideologies, and include perspectives of caring that are based in non-White and/or poor cultures in their work.
"Michael Vavrus provides theoretical perspectives and practical considerations to guide teacher education programs in transforming how they educate teachers. In these pages, multicultural education becomes a lived experience rather than simply an unrealized ideal."
—Sonia Nieto, School of Education, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
"This is theory with heart and broad social vision. Teacher educators who care about equity and justice should pay close attention to Vavrus's important insights."
—Bill Bigelow, co-editor of Rethinking Globalization: Teaching for Justice in an Unjust World
"Michael Vavrus has created an essential guide for any educator or policymaker seeking to transform traditional paradigms for teacher preparation and multicultural education."
—Diana Lam, Superintendent, Providence (RI) Public School District
"Vavrus not only knows what is necessary to make multicultural education a reality in our schools, but he offers insights into ways of deepening multicultural education’s project of social justice . . . an indispensable book"
—Peter McLaren, Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles
Recognizing the responsibility institutions have to prepare teachers for today’s diverse classrooms, Vavrus shows us how to incorporate transformative multicultural education into teacher education curriculum, pedagogy, and evaluation. Placing race, racism, anti-racism, and democracy at the center of his analyses and recommendations, this volume provides:
Concrete structural suggestions for including transformative multicultural education in higher education and K–12 in-service programs.
A multicultural critique of new NCATE accreditation standards for teacher education programs that offers re-conceptualized assessment procedures.
Recognizing the responsibility institutions have to prepare teachers for today’s diverse classrooms, Vavrus shows us how to incorporate transformative multicultural education into teacher education curriculum, pedagogy, and evaluation. Places race, racism, anti-racism, and democracy at the center of his analyses and recommendations
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North American critical race theorists maintain race is a central feature in the social and economic organization of the United States. Rather than describing an objective reality or a psychological operation, according to these theorists, race is best understood as power relationships that define dominant and subjugated positions in society. In this article, the author situates a discussion of the theoretical and practical applications of critical race theory in ethnographic methodology within an analysis of its usefulness in rendering visible racialized relationships that researchers take for granted. Specifically, he analyzes data, generated during a 3-year period, to explicate how these relationships play out in a qualitative methods course at a large Midwest research university with an urban elementary educational facility field site. This analysis renders the mechanisms of race explicit in ways to subject them to critique and to lay foundations for alternative ways to imagine and do qualitative research.
This article addresses how critical race theory can inform a critical race methodology in education. The authors challenge the intercentricity of racism with other forms of subordination and exposes deficit-informed research that silences and distorts epistemologies of people of color. Although social scientists tell stories under the guise of “objective” research, these stories actually uphold deficit, racialized notions about people of color. For the authors, a critical race methodology provides a tool to “counter” deficit storytelling. Specifically, a critical race methodology offers space to conduct and present research grounded in the experiences and knowledge of people of color. As they describe how they compose counter-stories, the authors discuss how the stories can be used as theoretical, methodological, and pedagogical tools to challenge racism, sexism, and classism and work toward social justice.
The author draws on principles of critical race theory to reflect on his elementary education at a successful urban Catholic school. He contends that his education was built on the integration of two epistemological pillars: centric and conflict theories. The implementation of this matrix of theories served as the necessary ingredients to foster his movement from the inner city to the ivory tower and a career in mathematics education research. The article concludes with a discussion of the tension created by his "voice" within traditional academic discourse.
When the landmark Supreme Court case of Brown vs. Board of Education was handed down in 1954, many civil rights advocates believed that the decision, which declared public school segregation unconstitutional, would become the Holy Grail of racial justice. Fifty years later, despite its legal irrelevance and the racially separate and educationally ineffective state of public schooling for most black children, Brown is still viewed by many as the perfect precedent. Here, Derrick Bell shatters the shining image of this celebrated ruling. He notes that, despite the onerous burdens of segregation, many black schools functioned well and racial bigotry had not rendered blacks a damaged race. He maintains that, given what we now know about the pervasive nature of racism, the Court should have determined instead to rigorously enforce the "equal" component of the "separate but equal" standard. Racial policy, Bell maintains, is made through silent covenants--unspoken convergences of interest and involuntary sacrifices of rights--that ensure that policies conform to priorities set by policy-makers. Blacks and whites are the fortuitous winners or losers in these unspoken agreements. The experience with Brown, Bell urges, should teach us that meaningful progress in the quest for racial justice requires more than the assertion of harms. Strategies must recognize and utilize the interest-convergence factors that strongly influence racial policy decisions. In Silent Covenants, Bell condenses more than four decades of thought and action into a powerful and eye-opening book.
After Brown v. Board of Education was decided, Professor Herbert Wechsler questioned whether the Supreme Court's decision could be justified on the basis of "neutral" principles. To him Brown arbitrarily traded the rights of whites not to associate with blacks in favor of the rights of blacks to associate with whites. In this Comment, Prof. Derrick Bell suggests that no conflict of interest actually existed; for a brief period, the interests of the races converged to make the Brown decision inevitable. More recent Supreme Court decisions, however, suggest to Professor Bell a growing divergence of interests that makes integration less feasible. He suggests the interest of blacks in quality education might now be better served by concentration on improving the quality of existing schools, whether desegregated or all-black.
Recent works by neoconservatives and by Critical legal scholars have suggested that civil rights reforms have been an unsuccessful means of achieving racial equality in America. In this Article, Professor Crenshaw considers these critiques and analyzes the continuing role of racism in the subordination of Black Americans. The neoconservative emphasis on formal colorblindness, she argues, fails to recognize the indeterminacy of civil rights laws and the force of lingering racial disparities. The Critical scholars, who emphasize the legitimating role of legal ideology and legal rights rhetoric, are substantially correct, according to Professor Crenshaw, but they fail to appreciate the choices and possibilities available to an oppressed group such as Blacks. The Critics, she suggests, ignore the singular power of racism as a hegemonic force in American society. Blacks have been created as a subordinated "other," and formal reform has merely repackaged racism. Antidiscrimination law, she argues, has largely succeeded in eliminating the symbolic manifestations of racial oppression, but has allowed the perpetuation of material subordination of Blacks. Professor Crenshaw concludes by demonstrating the importance of exposing the racist nature of ostensibly neutral norms, and of devising strategies for change that include the pragmatic use of legal rights.
The conceptualization and implementation of desegregation educational policies are incomplete when they ignore the voices of Black educators. Through in-depth interviews with 21 African American educators in St. Louis, this article highlights how elements of what is being defined today as critical race theory were embedded in these educators' analyses of a 1983 court settlement that resulted in a 16-year desegregation plan. Through rich and detailed accounts, these educators illustrate how the desegregation plan ultimately protected the overall interests of Whites. Their analyses of the plan-seemingly pessimistic-were realistic. The ending of the plan in 1999 continued to place the onus on Black people to rectify the inequitable education in the city. Suggested is the need for courts and policy makers to begin listening to the voices of African American educators when framing educational policies' intent on improving the education of African American students.
Analyzes and responds to an article criticizing the idea that some scholars of color write in a distinctive "voice" by virtue of their experience and background. Summarizes how conventional liberal discourse views the issue of voice. Contrasts that view with outsider perspectives and illuminates the paradigmatic gap between critical race theory and mainstream scholarship.
Almost 40 years after the landmark Brown vs. Board of Education decision, African-Americans are still attempting to understand its meaning and significance in their daily lives. Unaware of the potential for divergent constructions of equality, citizens who were barred from equal access to schooling continue to struggle with poor-quality schooling. This article argues that a restrictive form of equality, rather than an expansive one, limits the ability of African-Americans to benefit equally from schooling in the nation `public schools. The article also suggests that the Brown decision represents the Supreme Court's attempt to apply a largely mathematical solution to a social problem. The failure of the court to provide a verbal interpretation of the mathematical model it constructed left individual school districts free to develop educational responses that failed to address the needs of African-American students. The article concludes with an expansive vision of a desegregated/integrated school that reconsiders student diversity, curriculum, instruction, and parent-community involvement.
The backlash against affirmative action is gaining political momentum as liberalism's defenses are overwhelmed. This article utilizes critical race theory (CRT) to present a counter-argument to both conservative calls for color blindness and the incrementalism of traditional liberalism. Using Washington State's Initiative 200 as a case study, it argues that CRT not only can inform the debate over affirmitive action, but has the potential to reinvigorate multiculturalism's social activist roots.
The University as an institution is a key arena where "legitimate" knowledge is established. While discourses of power may have qualities of constraint and repression, they are not, nor have they ever been, uncontested. Indeed, the process of determining what is "legitimate knowledge" and for what purpose that knowledge should be produced is a political debate that rages in the University. Our presence, as working-class people of color (especially women of color), in an institution which values itself on its elitist criteria for admission, forces the debates and challenges previously sacred canons of objective truth.
It is probably for this reason that our presence here is so complex--and so important (Córdova, 1998, p. 18).
This article will provide the theoretical and conceptual grounding for forthcoming discussions regarding how critical race theory (CRT), as a discourse of liberation, can be used as a methodological and epistemological tool to expose the ways race and racism affect the education and lives of racial minorities in the United States. To that extent, the goal is threefold. First, the authors seek to adequately define CRT by situating it within a specific socio-historical context. Second, they seek to present an argument for why there is a need for CRT in educational and qualitative research. In doing so, they discuss the ways concerns regarding race and racism have or have not been addressed previously in educational research. Finally, they speculate about what lies ahead. In doing so, they fully assess the possible points of agreement and conflicts between CRT and qualitative research in education.
Education researchers have increasingly begun to use critical race theory (CRT) and Latino critical theory (LatCrit) in their qualitative studies. This article draws on those methodological and theoretical frameworks to examine the educational experience of a Latino student in a public high school in Chicago, Illinois. By exploring this student’s narrative, the author gained insight into how the student understood his own personal educational experience as well as that of his fellow Latina/Latino classmates. Moreover, this narrative highlights how he and his classmates resisted inadequate schooling by sometimes choosing alternative activities or practices over attending school. The author argues that it is of critical importance to use Latina/Latino students’ stories, not as accessories to our research but as the centerpiece of qualitative studies that aim for a better understanding of the issues these students face in contemporary schooling.
Mathematics education has traditionally paid little
attention to teacher reflection about equity. In this article, we argue
that the time has come to move equity from the margins to the mainstream
in mathematics education and make it a focus of teacher reflection. To
illustrate the need for a focus on equity, we describe the beliefs of a
group of high school mathematics teachers. We argue that the teachers'
views of equity and race blocked substantive reflection about the nature
of their instructional practices and the impact of those practices on
students of color in their classes. We submit that this case is important
because it highlights some of the assumptions that must be challenged in
an effort to promote the kind of reflective practice that can contribute
to the realization of opportunity to learn school mathematics.
Using critical race theory as a framework, this article provides an examination of how racial and gender microaggressions affect the career paths of Chicana and Chicano scholars. This paper reports on open-ended survey and interview data of a purposive sample of six Chicana and six Chicano Ford Foundation Predoctoral, Dissertation, and Postdoctoral Minority Fellows. There are three objectives for this study: (a) to extend and apply a critical race theory to the field of education, (b) to ''recognize,'' ''document,'' and analyze racial and gender microaggressions of Chicana and Chicano scholars, and (c) to ''hear'' the voice of ''discrimination's victims'' by examining the effect of race and gender microaggressions on the lives of Chicana and Chicano scholars. Three patterns of racial and gender microaggressions were found: (a) scholars who felt out of place in the academy because of their race and or gender, (b) scholars who felt their teachers professors had lower expectations for them, and (c) scholars' accounts of subtle and not so subtle racial and gender incidents. The article ends with possible directions for continued critical race theory research with scholars of color.
This is one of the earliest pieces to address legal storytelling or narrative analysis. It explains why it is helpful both to tell and analyze legal stories. A middle section tells a story of a single event – a black lawyer interviews for a position at a top school and is rejected – from several points of view. The article thus is both an exemplar of legal storytelling as well as an effort to analyze and defend the genre.
Issues regarding race and racial identity as well as questions pertaining to property rights and ownership have been prominent in much public discourse in the United States. In this article, Professor Harris contributes to this discussion by positing that racial identity and property are deeply interrelated concepts. Professor Harris examines how whiteness, initially constructed as a form of racial identity, evolved into a form of property, historically and presently acknowledged and protected in American law. Professor Harris traces the origins of whiteness as property in the parallel systems of domination of Black and Native American peoples out of which were created racially contingent forms of property and property rights. Following the period of slavery and conquest, whiteness became the basis of racialized privilege - a type of status in which white racial identity provided the basis for allocating societal benefits both private and public in character. These arrangements were ratified and legitimated in law as a type of status property. Even as legal segregation was overturned, whiteness as property continued to serve as a barrier to effective change as the system of racial classification operated to protect entrenched power. Next, Professor Harris examines how the concept of whiteness as property persists in current perceptions of racial identity, in the law's misperception of group identity and in the Court's reasoning and decisions in the arena of affirmative action. Professor Harris concludes by arguing that distortions in affirmative action doctrine can only be addressed by confronting and exposing the property interest in whiteness and by acknowledging the distributive justification and function of affirmative action as central to that task.
Words that wound: critical race theory, assualtive speech and the first amendment
- M Matsuda
- C Lawrence
- R Delgado
- K Crenshaw
Matsuda, M., Lawrence, C., Delgado, R. & Crenshaw, K. (Eds) (1993) Words that wound: critical race theory, assualtive speech and the first amendment (Boulder, CO, Westview Press).
Conclusion Race is … race isn't: critical race theory and qualitative studies in education
- W Tate
Tate, W. (1999) Conclusion, in: L. Parker, D. Deyhle & S. Villenas (Eds) Race is … race isn't: critical race theory and qualitative studies in education (Boulder, CO, Westview Press), 251–271.
The word and the river: pedagogy as scholarship as struggle Critical race theory: the key writings that formed the movement
- C Lawrence
Lawrence, C. (1995) The word and the river: pedagogy as scholarship as struggle, in: K. Crenshaw, N. Gotanda, G. Peller & K. Thomas (Eds) Critical race theory: the key writings that formed the movement (New York, The New Press), 336–351.
The word and the river: pedagogy as scholarship as struggle
- C Lawrence
Lawrence, C. (1992) The word and the river: pedagogy as scholarship as struggle, Southern California Law Review, 65, 2231–2298.
And we are not saved: the elusive quest for racial justice
- A D Dixson
- C K Rousseau Bell
A. D. Dixson and C. K. Rousseau Bell, D. (1987) And we are not saved: the elusive quest for racial justice (New York, Basic Books).
Looking to the bottom: critical legal studies and reparations Critical race theory: the key writings that formed the movement
- M Matsuda
Matsuda, M. (1995) Looking to the bottom: critical legal studies and reparations, in: K. Crenshaw, N. Gotanda, G. Peller & K. Thomas (Eds) Critical race theory: the key writings that formed the movement (New York, The New Press), 63–79.
Coursetaking and achievement in mathematics and science: Inequalities that endure and change
- J Oakes
- K Muir
- R Joseph
Oakes, J., Muir, K. & Joseph, R. (2000) Coursetaking and achievement in mathematics and science: Inequalities that endure and change (Madison, WI, National Institute of Science Education).
Schools emerge worlds apart, seeking an ideal, The Commercial Appeal Forgotten voices of black educations: critical race perspectives on the implemen-tation of a desegregation plan
- K Mckenzie
- A19 A
- J Morris
McKenzie, K. (2004) Schools emerge worlds apart, seeking an ideal, The Commercial Appeal, 16 May, A1, A19. Morris, J. (2001) Forgotten voices of black educations: critical race perspectives on the implemen-tation of a desegregation plan, Educational Policy, 15(4), 575–600.
Access and opportunity: the political and social context of mathematics education Handbook of international research in mathematics education
- W Tate
- C Rousseau
Tate, W. & Rousseau, C. (2002) Access and opportunity: the political and social context of mathematics education, in: L. English (Ed.) Handbook of international research in mathematics education (Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum), 271–299.