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Compatibility of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin with Amblyseius cucumeris Oudemans (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) to Control Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on Cucumber Plants
Abstract
The effects of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin on populations of the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) feeding on cucumbers, and its compatibility with the predatory mite, Amblyseius cucumeris [Neoseiulus cucumeris] Oudemans (Acarina: Phytoseiidae), were studied in laboratory and glasshouse experiments. Two proprietary B. bassiana based mycopesticides were used: Naturalis-L (Troy Biosciences Inc., USA) and BotaniGard WP (Mycotech Corp., USA). Two high volume sprays of Naturalis-L, applied with a six day interval to glasshouse-grown cucumber crops, reduced numbers of immature F. occidentalis by 75% compared to an untreated control during the three weeks following the first application. Glasshouse populations of F. occidentalis were also reduced by 65-87% with three consecutive high volume sprays or low volume mist applications of Naturalis-L or BotaniGard WP, applied at six day intervals. Prophylactic release of A. cucumeris in glasshouse-grown cucumbers prevented population increases of F. occidentalis . Naturalis-L had no detrimental effect on A. cucumeris when sprayed onto excised cucumber leaves in a laboratory bioassay, or when sprayed onto glasshouse-grown cucumbers. There was no evidence that control of F. occidentalis was impaired by application of Naturalis-L onto plants already treated with A. cucumeris . The study suggests that a mycopesticide could be used as a second line of defence to support preventative pest management with A. cucumeris . This strategy provides a way forward for biological control in protected crops.
... In another study, Wakil et al. [32] demonstrated that combining B. bassiana with the neonicotinoid insecticide thiamethoxam and DE led to synergistic effects against Rhyzopertha dominica under laboratory conditions. At present, there are two main strategies for the biological control of WFT: (1) EPF combined with predatory mites [12,13,20,53]; and (2) EPF combined with insecticides [3,6,9,10]. For example, Wu et al. [13] demonstrated that the combination of B. bassiana and the predatory mite Neoseiulus barkeri improved WFT control in greenhouse-grown cucumbers; similarly, Jacobson et al. [53] showed that the simultaneous use of Amblyseius cucumeris and B. bassiana improved WFT control in cucumbers. ...
... At present, there are two main strategies for the biological control of WFT: (1) EPF combined with predatory mites [12,13,20,53]; and (2) EPF combined with insecticides [3,6,9,10]. For example, Wu et al. [13] demonstrated that the combination of B. bassiana and the predatory mite Neoseiulus barkeri improved WFT control in greenhouse-grown cucumbers; similarly, Jacobson et al. [53] showed that the simultaneous use of Amblyseius cucumeris and B. bassiana improved WFT control in cucumbers. In addition, Ansari et al. [9] demonstrated that M. anisopliae combined with sub-lethal doses of conventional insecticides (imidacloprid and fipronil) had a better control effect on WFT than the individual fungal biocontrol agents. ...
... Several studies on integrated pest management (IPM) have focused on the pathogenicity of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae, as well as the combination of B. bassiana with predatory mites or different insecticides against WFT [9,10,13,53]. However, there have been no studies on the effects of different combinations of EPF with adjuvants and compatible insecticides on WFT. ...
Western flower thrips (WFT), Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is a highly invasive pest which is harmful to many cash crops globally and resistant to various insecticides. Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), as biological control agents, have demonstrated a good control effect on WFT. The aim of this study was to evaluate the synergistic and pathogenicity efficacy of the fungal strain Metarhizium flavoviride WSWL51721 when distributed with diatomaceous earth (DE) and the active ingredient imidacloprid using four bioassay methods against adult and second instar larvae of WFT. The data of the four bioassays have been fitted to the time–concentration–mortality (TCM) model. The corrected mortality ranges of WFT adults were 75–100%, 82.69–100%, 78.85–100%, and 92.31–100%, and the corrected mortality ranges of WFT second instar larvae were 72.22–100%, 85.19–100%, 77.77–100%, and 100% in the four bioassays at concentrations of 1.2 × 106 to 1.2 × 108 conidia/mL, respectively. At 1.2 × 108 conidia/mL, assays 2 (M. flavoviride with DE), 3 (M. flavoviride with imidacloprid), and 4 (M. flavoviride with DE and imidacloprid) had the shortest median lethal time (LT50), compared with that of assay 1 (M. flavoviride alone) for adults at 2.26 d, 2.06 d, and 1.53 d, and second instar larvae at 2.45 d, 1.70 d, and 1.41 d, respectively. The median lethal concentration (LC50) in the four bioassays decreased within 3–10 days of inoculation. On the third day, it was found that the lowest median lethal concentrations in assays 2, 3, and 4 were 1.58 × 107, 1.13 × 107, and 3.39 × 106 conidia/mL, respectively, which were significantly different from that in assay 1 for the adults. For the second instar larvae, assays 2, 3, and 4 also had the lowest lethal concentrations and were significantly different from those of assay 1. There were significant differences in sporulation between adults and second instar larvae under the four bioassays. Our results indicate that assays 2 (M. flavoviride with DE), 3 (M. flavoviride with imidacloprid), and 4 (M. flavoviride with DE and imidacloprid) demonstrate synergistic effects on the control of both adult and second instar larvae of WFT under laboratory conditions.
... Direct inoculation of P. persimilis and N. californicus with B. bassiana and M. brunneum increased mortality and reduced fecundity of the predatory mites (Dogan et al., 2017;Duso et al., 2008;Numa Vergel et al., 2011;Ullah and Lim, 2017), while N. cucumeris and N. barkeri were less affected by B. bassiana (Jacobson et al., 2001;Wu et al., 2014). Another strategy that has been employed is the application of EPFs as a supplementary treatment several days after the release of the predatory mites. ...
... Phytoseiulus persimilis was found to be highly susceptible to B. bassiana when fed with T. urticae treated with this entomopathogen (Pozzebon and Duso, 2010). These results were confirmed by Jacobson et al. (2001) and Wu et al., (2014;2016), who showed a significant decrease in adult longevity and fecundity of P. persimilis fed on adult two-spotted spider mites that had been inoculated with B. bassiana 72 h prior. Neioseiulus barkeri also displayed reduced longevity and fecundity when fed on B. bassiana treated F. occidentalis (Wu et al., 2015). ...
... A means of pathogen delivery is by using bees that were reported to be applicable for field crops [33,34]. For instance, strains of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin have been shown to be virulent to F. occidentalis and T. tabaci [35,36]. Bumble bees were used for pepper pollination and could distribute the B. bassiana conidia to flowers and leaves [37]. ...
... Bumble bees were used for pepper pollination and could distribute the B. bassiana conidia to flowers and leaves [37]. Since N. cucumeris is known to be unaffected by B. bassiana, [36], they have been reported to deliver inoculum for days or weeks without compromising other biological control methods. ...
Sweet peppers (Capsicum annuum) (Solanaceae) fruits have been used as a food ingredient in Peru for more than 8,000 years. Then gradually, the plant has been cultivated in several countries worldwide. The fruits of the plant can be added to soups and stews as spices. These were reported to treat fevers, seasickness, muscle sprains, or soreness. Thrips, whiteflies, mites, and aphids were critical pests in sweet peppers. Therefore, effectively managing this important fruit to improve its yields and quality is very important. Pesticides have harmful effects on the environment and health of people. Therefore, alternative pest management strategies become more advisable to control pests of sweet pepper. These strategies including intercropping of sweet pepper with other plants, oviposition deterrents, natural enemy release, use of resistant cultivars, and eliciting plant defenses are implemented as environment-friendly control methods.
... is. Jacobson et al. (2001) revealed that B. bassiana, another entomopathogenic fungus applied for biological control of arthropod pests, had no significant effects on mortality of different lifestages of the predatory mite Neoseiulus cucumeris (Oedemans). Effect of this pathogenic fungus on several non-target organisms was, however, documented by Ludwig and Oetting (2001). ...
... On the other hand, if monitoring efforts revealed noticeable activities of predators/parasitoids, it is better to avoid intentional application of entomopathogens which have the same ecological niche. Such findings will help in accurate decision-making, in order to minimize direct contaminations of predators/parasitoids with pathogenic agents (Jacobson et al. 2001). ...
High reliance on chemical pesticides for controlling phytophagous pests in agro-ecosystems has resulted in different negative effects, and this issue dramatically changed our attitude in pest management programs. Among different safe alternatives for combating pest populations in agro-ecosystems, biological control has considerable potential by utilization of other living organisms including predators, parasitoids and entomopathogens. Pathogenic agents are diverse group of biological operators which exhibit reliable activities in different situations and hence, their application in agro-ecosystems has significantly increased. However, to maximize the benefits and increase the effectiveness of these natural enemies, “Integrated Biological Control” (IBC) could be applied as a promised strategy. This approach not only increases the effectiveness of native natural enemies, but also has confirmed impacts on exotic agents. Furthermore, IBC could reveal actual capacity of these pathogenic agents for regulating population density of target organisms, playing a critical role for successful implementation of biocontrol programs. On the other hand, simultaneous application of entomopathogens and other natural enemies may adversely affects their biological performance, especially in the case of insect predators/parasitoids, as discussed in this chapter.
... As far as we can determine, this idea has been explored only for the western honeybee (A. mellifera) (see Chandler et al. 2001;Shaw et al. 2002;Davidson et al. 2003;Lodeseni et al. 2003;Grobov and Kosmachev 2005;James 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2009a;Hamiduzzaman et al. 2012 and Table 2), mainly for the control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite that carries with it a suite of viral pathogens Chen et al. 2006;Chen and Siede 2007). Hamiduzzaman et al. (2012) report the effects of M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and C. rosea against V. destructor in honey bee hives. ...
... Although the first observations and experiments precede those on managed pollinators as vectors of biological control agents, no commercial technology seems to have been realized. More recent studies have concentrated on the potential for (1) an additive effect when predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi are used together to control Ecological Intensification: Managing Biocomplexity and Biodiversity in Agriculture… insect pest species (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007), and (2) the dissemination of fungal entomopathogens by non-pest insect species on the improved efficacy of the pathogen (Pell et al. 1997;Roy et al. 2001;Bruck and Lewis 2002;Pell and Vandenberg 2002;Bird et al. 2004;Meyling et al. 2006;). The dispersal of entomopathogens by non-target insects often provides a targeted way of dispersing the fungal pathogen directly into the pest population. ...
Insect pollination is an important ecosystem service for the production of many economically valuable crops. Managed honeybees as well as wild bees provide a pollination service for most pollinator dependent crops. Because of intensified agriculture, fragmentation of landscapes, increased use of pesticides, climate change, habitat loss etc. the abundance and species richness of wild bees has decreased and the pollination service is in jeopardy. The decline of pollinators has a direct impact for farmers because the yield of insufficiently pollinated plants decreases. In this chapter we highlight the widespread concerns about pollinator declines and thus the potential loss of pollination services. The public and scientists have realized that the naturally cost-free pollination services like they were available a century ago and not a topic of concern, must today be compensated by providing cost-intensive pollination services in many cases.
... As far as we can determine, this idea has been explored only for the western honeybee (A. mellifera) (see Chandler et al. 2001;Shaw et al. 2002;Davidson et al. 2003;Lodeseni et al. 2003;Grobov and Kosmachev 2005;James 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2009a;Hamiduzzaman et al. 2012 and Table 2), mainly for the control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite that carries with it a suite of viral pathogens Chen et al. 2006;Chen and Siede 2007). Hamiduzzaman et al. (2012) report the effects of M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and C. rosea against V. destructor in honey bee hives. ...
... Although the first observations and experiments precede those on managed pollinators as vectors of biological control agents, no commercial technology seems to have been realized. More recent studies have concentrated on the potential for (1) an additive effect when predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi are used together to control Ecological Intensification: Managing Biocomplexity and Biodiversity in Agriculture… insect pest species (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007), and (2) the dissemination of fungal entomopathogens by non-pest insect species on the improved efficacy of the pathogen (Pell et al. 1997;Roy et al. 2001;Bruck and Lewis 2002;Pell and Vandenberg 2002;Bird et al. 2004;Meyling et al. 2006;). The dispersal of entomopathogens by non-target insects often provides a targeted way of dispersing the fungal pathogen directly into the pest population. ...
The fungus gnats, Bradysia impatiens (larvae and adults), were either separately or concurrently exposed for 6 h to growing spores of Fusarium oxysporum and Pythium aphanidermatum, and a powder formulation of Clonostachys rosea on leaf discs of strawberry to determine their capacity in laboratory trials for vectoring these three microbes. We determined the number of spores for each fungus species that individual larval or adult fungus gnats carried or ingested. We also assessed the capacity of fungus gnats to carry or ingest the three kinds of spores simultaneously, and to evaluate suppression of growth of F. oxysporum and P. aphanidermatum by C. rosea (a known biological control agent against numerous plant pathogens) 14 days after sampling. When the fungus gnats were exposed to single fungus, larvae ingested about 21 times more spores than did adults. The adults carried twice as many spores externally as did the larvae. When the insects were exposed simultaneously to all three kinds of spores both larvae and adults carried externally more or less the same numbers of each kind of spore. However, when both larvae and adults were exposed to all three kinds of spore simultaneously, the larvae had ingested about ten times the number of spores as the adults. When ingested mixtures of spores were cultured, Clonostachys reduced Fusarium and Pythium sporulation only when the spores were ingested by larvae. That result reflects that adults ingested very few spores of the three microbes, probably too few for suppression of Fusarium or Pythium by Chlonostachys to be expressed. Our results indicate that both larval and adult B. impatiens are indeed likely effective vectors of infections of both F. oxysporum and P. aphanidermatum but may be able to be exploited to vector C. rosea alone and simultaneously for potential control of the two pathogens.
... As far as we can determine, this idea has been explored only for the western honeybee (A. mellifera) (see Chandler et al. 2001;Shaw et al. 2002;Davidson et al. 2003;Lodeseni et al. 2003;Grobov and Kosmachev 2005;James 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2009a;Hamiduzzaman et al. 2012 and Table 2), mainly for the control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite that carries with it a suite of viral pathogens Chen et al. 2006;Chen and Siede 2007). Hamiduzzaman et al. (2012) report the effects of M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and C. rosea against V. destructor in honey bee hives. ...
... Although the first observations and experiments precede those on managed pollinators as vectors of biological control agents, no commercial technology seems to have been realized. More recent studies have concentrated on the potential for (1) an additive effect when predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi are used together to control Ecological Intensification: Managing Biocomplexity and Biodiversity in Agriculture… insect pest species (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007), and (2) the dissemination of fungal entomopathogens by non-pest insect species on the improved efficacy of the pathogen (Pell et al. 1997;Roy et al. 2001;Bruck and Lewis 2002;Pell and Vandenberg 2002;Bird et al. 2004;Meyling et al. 2006;). The dispersal of entomopathogens by non-target insects often provides a targeted way of dispersing the fungal pathogen directly into the pest population. ...
To load pollinators with supplemental pollen or a biocontrol organism (BCO) in an efficient way, the use of a suitable dispenser is crucial. Over the past years, multiple studies have been conducted to optimize dispensers for honey bees, bumble bees and mason bees and test their potential for application with the entomovector technology. Research on dispensers for honey bees started by testing simple one-way dispensers, previously used to load pollinators with pollen, but they soon proved to be inefficient in loading the bees with a BCO. More efficient two-way dispensers, where entrance and exit ways are separated, were developed and improved, ultimately leading to an efficient model that was suitable for commercial use, the BeeTreat dispenser. As behavioral differences between honey bees and bumble bees proved to be a problem in attempts to load bumble bees using the honey bee dispensers, dedicated models were developed to achieve a sufficient loading and use bumble bees as a vector for BCO delivery. Today, two commercial dispensers are available for bumble bees. While the development of dispensers for mason bees is still at an earlier stage, progress on optimizing the dispenser model shows promising forthcoming results. Future effort should be devoted, but not limited to, increasing our knowledge on the pollination and entomovectoring potential of solitary bee species, like those of the genus of Osmia. Alongside with the continued improvement of the dispenser models, the main focus of the research should shift towards improving the powder formulation which can be loaded in the dispenser to increase the efficiency of the entomovector technology.
... As far as we can determine, this idea has been explored only for the western honeybee (A. mellifera) (see Chandler et al. 2001;Shaw et al. 2002;Davidson et al. 2003;Lodeseni et al. 2003;Grobov and Kosmachev 2005;James 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2009a;Hamiduzzaman et al. 2012 and Table 2), mainly for the control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite that carries with it a suite of viral pathogens Chen et al. 2006;Chen and Siede 2007). Hamiduzzaman et al. (2012) report the effects of M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and C. rosea against V. destructor in honey bee hives. ...
... Although the first observations and experiments precede those on managed pollinators as vectors of biological control agents, no commercial technology seems to have been realized. More recent studies have concentrated on the potential for (1) an additive effect when predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi are used together to control Ecological Intensification: Managing Biocomplexity and Biodiversity in Agriculture… insect pest species (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007), and (2) the dissemination of fungal entomopathogens by non-pest insect species on the improved efficacy of the pathogen (Pell et al. 1997;Roy et al. 2001;Bruck and Lewis 2002;Pell and Vandenberg 2002;Bird et al. 2004;Meyling et al. 2006;). The dispersal of entomopathogens by non-target insects often provides a targeted way of dispersing the fungal pathogen directly into the pest population. ...
The ecological compensation areas are hedges, woods, field margins, uncultivated land and the wild nectariferous/polliniferous plants that form the vegetable “non-productive” component within the agro-ecosystems. In intensive agriculture, these components have been described for many years as unhelpful in the productive systems. More recently a different approach, which considers the complex interactions between the crop and the non-productive areas has opened new perspectives. Many studies carried out at the farm-scale and at the landscape-scale resulted in the identification of many non-crop plants that play an important role in the conservation of both pollinators and beneficial arthropods. Knowledge about their role in the multiplication, life cycle and population dynamics of pollinators is crucial in order to select weeds, trees and shrubs for restoring degraded agroecosystems and for the development of wild pollinators conservation programs, or for the selective enhancement of certain pollinator species. Synchronizing pollinators’ presence with the need of pollination of a specific crop requires the management of ecological compensation areas. A crucial role to realize synchronization is represented by non-crop plants, which may allow the nesting and multiplication of the most efficient pollinators of the target crop at the proper period.
... As far as we can determine, this idea has been explored only for the western honeybee (A. mellifera) (see Chandler et al. 2001;Shaw et al. 2002;Davidson et al. 2003;Lodeseni et al. 2003;Grobov and Kosmachev 2005;James 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2009a;Hamiduzzaman et al. 2012 and Table 2), mainly for the control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite that carries with it a suite of viral pathogens Chen et al. 2006;Chen and Siede 2007). Hamiduzzaman et al. (2012) report the effects of M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and C. rosea against V. destructor in honey bee hives. ...
... Although the first observations and experiments precede those on managed pollinators as vectors of biological control agents, no commercial technology seems to have been realized. More recent studies have concentrated on the potential for (1) an additive effect when predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi are used together to control Ecological Intensification: Managing Biocomplexity and Biodiversity in Agriculture… insect pest species (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007), and (2) the dissemination of fungal entomopathogens by non-pest insect species on the improved efficacy of the pathogen (Pell et al. 1997;Roy et al. 2001;Bruck and Lewis 2002;Pell and Vandenberg 2002;Bird et al. 2004;Meyling et al. 2006;). The dispersal of entomopathogens by non-target insects often provides a targeted way of dispersing the fungal pathogen directly into the pest population. ...
This paper reports on the implementation of the Apivectoring Technology for the first time in an experimental strawberry crop (Fragaria x ananassa) in Colombia. Honey bees (Apis mellifera) were used as vector of the bio-pesticide Trichoderma harzianum for the control of Botrytis cinerea in an experimental plot of strawberry, in which 6 treatments were established that overspan different agronomic management systems. This study evaluated the foraging preference of the bees in commercial strawberry crop, the floral visitors density, the acquisition of the bio-pesticide by the vector, the distribution of the bio-pesticide in the flowers, fruits and leaves, as well as the impact of the different treatments in the control of B. cinerea and the quality of the fruits. Complementary, an analysis of the commercial potential of the Apivectoring Technology implementation was made, and finally the experience in the transfer of Apivectoring Technology to agricultural producers in Colombia was reviewed.
... As far as we can determine, this idea has been explored only for the western honeybee (A. mellifera) (see Chandler et al. 2001;Shaw et al. 2002;Davidson et al. 2003;Lodeseni et al. 2003;Grobov and Kosmachev 2005;James 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2009a;Hamiduzzaman et al. 2012 and Table 2), mainly for the control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite that carries with it a suite of viral pathogens Chen et al. 2006;Chen and Siede 2007). Hamiduzzaman et al. (2012) report the effects of M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and C. rosea against V. destructor in honey bee hives. ...
... Although the first observations and experiments precede those on managed pollinators as vectors of biological control agents, no commercial technology seems to have been realized. More recent studies have concentrated on the potential for (1) an additive effect when predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi are used together to control Ecological Intensification: Managing Biocomplexity and Biodiversity in Agriculture… insect pest species (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007), and (2) the dissemination of fungal entomopathogens by non-pest insect species on the improved efficacy of the pathogen (Pell et al. 1997;Roy et al. 2001;Bruck and Lewis 2002;Pell and Vandenberg 2002;Bird et al. 2004;Meyling et al. 2006;). The dispersal of entomopathogens by non-target insects often provides a targeted way of dispersing the fungal pathogen directly into the pest population. ...
Managed pollinators are often used in agriculture and horticulture to increase crop yield in greenhouses and open fields. Over the past 25 years, research has been conducted to investigate the potential of these pollinators to perform a second task, being the dispersal of biological control agents (BCO) alongside with their pollination service. Especially the suppression of grey mould, caused by Botrytis cinerea, has received considerable attention in multiple crops such as strawberries, raspberries and blueberries. Trials to suppress insect pest species, such as tarnished plant bug and western flower thrips, have also been conducted in crops such as tomato, sweet pepper and sunflowers. In this chapter, an overview is provided of the current literature with several case studies investigating the potential of entomovectoring to suppress plant pathogens and pest species under greenhouse and open field conditions.
... As far as we can determine, this idea has been explored only for the western honeybee (A. mellifera) (see Chandler et al. 2001;Shaw et al. 2002;Davidson et al. 2003;Lodeseni et al. 2003;Grobov and Kosmachev 2005;James 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2009a;Hamiduzzaman et al. 2012 and Table 2), mainly for the control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite that carries with it a suite of viral pathogens Chen et al. 2006;Chen and Siede 2007). Hamiduzzaman et al. (2012) report the effects of M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and C. rosea against V. destructor in honey bee hives. ...
... Although the first observations and experiments precede those on managed pollinators as vectors of biological control agents, no commercial technology seems to have been realized. More recent studies have concentrated on the potential for (1) an additive effect when predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi are used together to control Ecological Intensification: Managing Biocomplexity and Biodiversity in Agriculture… insect pest species (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007), and (2) the dissemination of fungal entomopathogens by non-pest insect species on the improved efficacy of the pathogen (Pell et al. 1997;Roy et al. 2001;Bruck and Lewis 2002;Pell and Vandenberg 2002;Bird et al. 2004;Meyling et al. 2006;). The dispersal of entomopathogens by non-target insects often provides a targeted way of dispersing the fungal pathogen directly into the pest population. ...
Ecological intensification refers to the practical management for amelioration of biodiversity and ecosystem management in productivity and sustainability for the benefit of human livelihoods. Pest management is critical for agricultural and forestry production systems and for human health. Chemical pesticides have become increasingly sophisticated and questioned as standard control measures. Biological control technology is a viable option. Biological control agents are living organisms (or parts thereof) that interfere with the productivity of other organisms. They range from vertebrates, insects, mites, plants, fungi, bacteria, to viruses as well as natural chemicals. Biological control works on weeds, plant pathogens, and invertebrate and vertebrate pests of crops, livestock, and human beings. Biological control agents mostly derive from natural ecosystems. They are part of biotechnology practiced within simplified anthropogenic ecosystems. Biological control technology falls under the umbrella of ‘ecological intensification’. The use of biological control agents in conjunction with managed pollinators is successfully proven for plant protection with fungal, bacterial, and viral biocontrol agents against fungal, bacterial, and insect pests deployed through specialized dispensers on the domiciles of managed pollinators. The concept is being tested for protection of managed pollinators themselves. This chapter reviews the extensive literature on both those subjects and addresses public concern for healthy food without synthetic chemical residues, for conservation of natural ecosystem services, and modern rapid expansion of organic farming.
... As far as we can determine, this idea has been explored only for the western honeybee (A. mellifera) (see Chandler et al. 2001;Shaw et al. 2002;Davidson et al. 2003;Lodeseni et al. 2003;Grobov and Kosmachev 2005;James 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2009a;Hamiduzzaman et al. 2012 and Table 2), mainly for the control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite that carries with it a suite of viral pathogens Chen et al. 2006;Chen and Siede 2007). Hamiduzzaman et al. (2012) report the effects of M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and C. rosea against V. destructor in honey bee hives. ...
... Although the first observations and experiments precede those on managed pollinators as vectors of biological control agents, no commercial technology seems to have been realized. More recent studies have concentrated on the potential for (1) an additive effect when predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi are used together to control Ecological Intensification: Managing Biocomplexity and Biodiversity in Agriculture… insect pest species (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007), and (2) the dissemination of fungal entomopathogens by non-pest insect species on the improved efficacy of the pathogen (Pell et al. 1997;Roy et al. 2001;Bruck and Lewis 2002;Pell and Vandenberg 2002;Bird et al. 2004;Meyling et al. 2006;). The dispersal of entomopathogens by non-target insects often provides a targeted way of dispersing the fungal pathogen directly into the pest population. ...
This book examines entomovectoring, which employs crop pollinators to spread biocontrol protections against plant pathogens. The book describes research and development of the process, also known as apivectoring and beevectoring, for use both in pollination and in the delivery of biocontrol agents against crop and pollinator diseases, pests, and parasites.
The opening chapters show how design of agrosystems can support the activity of pollinator networks, and describe bee pollination as a natural and cost-free ecological service. Individual chapters cover bumble bees and solitary bees as pollinators.
The book outlines ways that entomovectoring can be used to increase biocomplexity and biodiversity in agriculture. Also included is a chapter on the threat of Drosophila suzukii, an invasive fruit fly that infests ripening fruit, and the prospect of improved control using entomovectoring. Another chapter discusses the prospect of using a species of fungus gnat as a potential vector of microbial control agents, to suppress pathogens that they also spread. A wide variety of crops are covered, including apples, strawberries, coffee, and sunflowers.
The book describes studies on use of entomovectoring in both open fields and greenhouse settings. Another case study reviews the use of a commercial biofungicide via entomovectoring, to combat storage rot diseases in apples. Coverage also includes Flying Doctors, a precision pollination system that uses pre-collected pollen delivered by bumble bees to replace artificial pollination via dusting or phytohormones.
Entomovectoring for Precision Biocontrol and Enhanced Pollination of Crops benefits graduate-level students in agriculture, plant pathology and entomology, as well as academics, researchers, working horticulturists and apiculturists, and those involved in formulating agricultural policy and regulations.
... As far as we can determine, this idea has been explored only for the western honeybee (A. mellifera) (see Chandler et al. 2001;Shaw et al. 2002;Davidson et al. 2003;Lodeseni et al. 2003;Grobov and Kosmachev 2005;James 2009;Rodriguez et al. 2009a;Hamiduzzaman et al. 2012 and Table 2), mainly for the control of Varroa destructor, a devastating ectoparasite that carries with it a suite of viral pathogens Chen et al. 2006;Chen and Siede 2007). Hamiduzzaman et al. (2012) report the effects of M. anisopliae, B. bassiana and C. rosea against V. destructor in honey bee hives. ...
... Although the first observations and experiments precede those on managed pollinators as vectors of biological control agents, no commercial technology seems to have been realized. More recent studies have concentrated on the potential for (1) an additive effect when predatory insects and entomopathogenic fungi are used together to control Ecological Intensification: Managing Biocomplexity and Biodiversity in Agriculture… insect pest species (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007), and (2) the dissemination of fungal entomopathogens by non-pest insect species on the improved efficacy of the pathogen (Pell et al. 1997;Roy et al. 2001;Bruck and Lewis 2002;Pell and Vandenberg 2002;Bird et al. 2004;Meyling et al. 2006;). The dispersal of entomopathogens by non-target insects often provides a targeted way of dispersing the fungal pathogen directly into the pest population. ...
This chapter describes the efficiency of bumble bees as biocontrol agents and also, which factors should be taken into account when, using them. Bumble bee mediated biocontrol of grey mould (Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr.) decreased the infection up to three times in open field strawberry. The presence of other flower visitors foraging on strawberry aid the dissemination of BCAs. The open conditions set some obstacles, which must be overcome. The flowering stage of target crop and availability of alternative food sources affect the bumble bee foraging. Knowing the bumble bee foraging behaviour helps to find out right solutions.
... However, the isolates SB009 and SP016 of B. bassiana just inhibited 36.25% and 36.21% of M. usitaus. Jacobson et al. (2001) reported that B. bassiana showed remarkable pathogenicity on F. occidentalis and reported 87% mortality. The differences in the values of mortality compared to those obtained in the present study could be explained by the different B. bassiana species and experimental insects hosts (Jacobson et al., 2001). ...
... Jacobson et al. (2001) reported that B. bassiana showed remarkable pathogenicity on F. occidentalis and reported 87% mortality. The differences in the values of mortality compared to those obtained in the present study could be explained by the different B. bassiana species and experimental insects hosts (Jacobson et al., 2001). At present, I. fumosorosea is mainly used to control agricultural pests such as whiteflies, aphids, and thrips (Faria and Wraight, 2007;Kabaluk and Gazdik, 2005). ...
Abstract The bean flower thrips, Megalurothrips usitatus Bagnall (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is a major pest of leguminous crops grown in Southern China. This study reports the isolation, identification (through molecular characterization) and pathogenic potential of 6 fungal isolates belonging to different fungal species. The fungi were isolated from soil samples collected from different areas of Southern China and were identified as Beauveria bassiana (3 isolates; SB010, SB009, SP016), Cordyceps fumosorosea (one isolate; SP535), Akanthomyces attenuatus (one isolate; SCAUDCL-53), and Aspergillus nomius (one isolate; SCAUN-1). Conidial suspension (1 × 108 conidia ml−1), and the crude extract (0.4 mg ml−1) of all the 6 fungal isolates were tested for their pathogenicity against M. usitatus adults. The results showed that A. attenuatus (SCAUDCL-53) and B. bassiana (SB010) were the most effective fungal isolates against M. usitatus out of all the isolates used in this study. At 5 days post-inoculation, conidial suspension of A. attenuatus (SCAUDCL-53) and B. bassiana (isolate SB010) caused 100 and 90% mortality rates, respectively. The median lethal time (LT50) values of fungal isolates SCAUDCL-53, SB010, SB009, SP016, SP535, and SCAUN-1against M. usitatus adults were 1.36, 3.79, 6.51, 8.49, 17.36, and 5.01 days, respectively. The application of crude fungal extracts of SCAUDCL-53, SB010, SB009, SP016, SP535, and SCAUN-1 against the pest resulted in 85, 93.3, 56.7, 33.3, 41.7, and 53.75% mortality rates, respectively after 5 days of application. Respective LT50 values of the crude fungal extracts against M. usitatus were 3.37, 2.85, 4.87, 7.13, 6.43, and 4.64 days. The fungal isolates used in this study showed considerable bioactivity against the M. usitatus and can be used as potential natural pest control agent for the ecofriendly management of M. usitatus.
... Environmental safety and ecosystem stability considerations lead to the conclusion that the use of native isolates in a microbial control program is more convenient (Lockwood 1993) [10] . Also, mycoinsecticides may be most effective in pest managements programmes integrating beneficial arthropods, or in greenhouse crops where favourable environmental conditions (high humidity and low UV exposure) can be manipulated (Jacobson et al., 2001) [7] , (Down et al., 2009) [3] . The oil based formulation used in the present study made from the indigenous fungal strain Bb 112 maintained at the Department of Agricultural Entomology, was proved very effective against tomato whitefly and hence, it can fit very well with the integrated pest management programmes. ...
... Environmental safety and ecosystem stability considerations lead to the conclusion that the use of native isolates in a microbial control program is more convenient (Lockwood 1993) [10] . Also, mycoinsecticides may be most effective in pest managements programmes integrating beneficial arthropods, or in greenhouse crops where favourable environmental conditions (high humidity and low UV exposure) can be manipulated (Jacobson et al., 2001) [7] , (Down et al., 2009) [3] . The oil based formulation used in the present study made from the indigenous fungal strain Bb 112 maintained at the Department of Agricultural Entomology, was proved very effective against tomato whitefly and hence, it can fit very well with the integrated pest management programmes. ...
Investigations were carried out to evaluate the efficacy of formulations of Beauveria bassiana (Bb 112) against whitefly, Bemisia tabaci on tomato under microplot condition. Among the different formulations tested viz., crude, talc and oil formulations, B. bassiana (Bb 112) oil formulation was most effective against whitefly on tomato with 45.86 % reduction in population over control followed by talc (29.62 %) and crude formulations (21.63 %). Present study wide open the scope of using an oil formulation of B. bassiana (Bb 112) against other sucking pests also.
... Limited studies have been conducted to determine the susceptibility of predatory mites to EPF or their combined use in spider mite control. Strains of B. bassiana were found to have no negative effect on the thrips predator Neoseiulus cucumeris (Jacobson et al. 2001) and N. barkeri (Wu et al. 2014). Some researchers reported that predatory mites are less susceptible to EPF than the pest with some predators actively avoiding EPF-infected mites (Seiedy et al. 2013;Wu et al. 2016b). ...
... In general, most research suggested that EPF has high pathogenicity on pest insects and phytophagous mites but no or lower infection on predatory mites (Jacobson et al. 2001;Shi & Feng 2004;Wu et al. 2014;Wekesa et al. 2007). Among these fungi, B. bassiana is widely distributed in nature (St Leger et al. 1992;Gatarayiha et al. 2010a), and Neozygites floridana, N. tanajoae, Metarhizium anisopliae, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus have been reported as well. ...
Five new species of the leafhopper genus Drabescus Stål, D. longispinus, D. bifurcatus, D. bicornis, D. wauensis and D. brevispinus, spp. nov., are described and illustrated from Papua New Guinea. A check-list and key to the species from Papua New Guinea are given.
... Consequently, using biological control agents such as entomopathogenic fungi and predatory mites has been recommended to control insect pests in integrated pest management programs (IPM), because their use is considered to be more environmentally friendly (Jacobson et al., 2001;Zhang, 2003;Maniania et al., 2008). ...
... In order to increase efficiency in controlling T. urticae, it has been suggested that using predatory mites accompanied by applications of B. bassiana may be an alternative to traditional T. urticae management (Chandler et al., 2005). Considering that there are a lot of insect and mite species that are susceptible to B. bassiana, there is a risk that the fungus may be harmful to predatory mites (Jacobson et al., 2001). Therefore, there is a must to evaluating the compatibility of B. bassiana and predatory mites to the success of potential IPM programs designed to control T. urticae. ...
Entomopathogenic fungi and predatory mites can
independently contribute to control the two-spotted spider mite
Tetranychus urticae Koch. It is important to assess the risk of
possible fungal infections in predators when a combination of them
are being considered as a tandem control strategy for T. urticae in
IPM program. The first part of this study tested 4 Beauveria
bassiana isolates and 2 Metarhizium anisopliae for virulence
against T. urticae, egg and adult stages. Strains B4 was found to be
the most potent toward egg and adult stages, causing 88.5%
mortality for the adult stage at a concentration of 108 spores/ml. and
the LC50 was 6.61x 106. When applied on the egg stage the
hatchability was 25.2% compared with the control which reached
99% and the LC50 was 1.14 x107. The second part evaluated the
pathogenicity of the most effective isolates B4, three concentrations
were applied LC25, LC50 and LC90 against the adult of the two
predator mites Phytoseiulus persimilis and Neoseiulus californicus.
The bioassay results indicated that the isolate B4 was harmless
against P. persimilis and slightly harmful against N. californicus.
No viable fungal hyphae were found on predator cadavers.
Observations with scanning electron microscopy revealed that
conidia were attached to the cuticle of predatory mites within 24 h
after spraying with strain B4, and had germinated within 24–48 h.
After 48 h, conidia had gradually been shed from the mites, after
none of the conidia had penetrated the cuticular surfaces. In
contrast, the germinated conidia successfully penetrated the cuticle
of T. urticae, and within 72 h the fungus colonized the mite’s body.
Our study demonstrated that although several B. bassiana strains
displayed a high virulence in T. urticae there was no evident
pathogenicity to phytoseiid mites. These findings support the
potential use of entomopathogenic fungus in combination with
predatory mites in T. urticae control programs
... Consequently, using biological control agents such as entomopathogenic fungi and predatory mites has been recommended to control insect pests in integrated pest management programs (IPM), because their use is considered to be more environmentally friendly (Jacobson et al., 2001;Zhang, 2003;Maniania et al., 2008). ...
... In order to increase efficiency in controlling T. urticae, it has been suggested that using predatory mites accompanied by applications of B. bassiana may be an alternative to traditional T. urticae management (Chandler et al., 2005). Considering that there are a lot of insect and mite species that are susceptible to B. bassiana, there is a risk that the fungus may be harmful to predatory mites (Jacobson et al., 2001). Therefore, there is a must to evaluating the compatibility of B. bassiana and predatory mites to the success of potential IPM programs designed to control T. urticae. ...
Entomopathogenic fungi and predatory mites can
independently contribute to control the two-spotted spider mite
Tetranychus urticae Koch. It is important to assess the risk of
possible fungal infections in predators when a combination of them
are being considered as a tandem control strategy for T. urticae in
IPM program. The first part of this study tested 4 Beauveria
bassiana isolates and 2 Metarhizium anisopliae for virulence
against T. urticae, egg and adult stages. Strains B4 was found to be
the most potent toward egg and adult stages, causing 88.5%
mortality for the adult stage at a concentration of 108 spores/ml. and
the LC50 was 6.61x 106. When applied on the egg stage the
hatchability was 25.2% compared with the control which reached
99% and the LC50 was 1.14 x107. The second part evaluated the
pathogenicity of the most effective isolates B4, three concentrations
were applied LC25, LC50 and LC90 against the adult of the two
predator mites Phytoseiulus persimilis and Neoseiulus californicus.
The bioassay results indicated that the isolate B4 was harmless
against P. persimilis and slightly harmful against N. californicus.
No viable fungal hyphae were found on predator cadavers.
Observations with scanning electron microscopy revealed that
conidia were attached to the cuticle of predatory mites within 24 h
after spraying with strain B4, and had germinated within 24–48 h.
After 48 h, conidia had gradually been shed from the mites, after
none of the conidia had penetrated the cuticular surfaces. In
contrast, the germinated conidia successfully penetrated the cuticle
of T. urticae, and within 72 h the fungus colonized the mite’s body.
Our study demonstrated that although several B. bassiana strains
displayed a high virulence in T. urticae there was no evident
pathogenicity to phytoseiid mites. These findings support the
potential use of entomopathogenic fungus in combination with
predatory mites in T. urticae control programs
... Limited studies have been conducted to determine the susceptibility of predatory mites to EPF or their combined use in spider mite control. Strains of B. bassiana were found to have no negative effect on the thrips predator Neoseiulus cucumeris (Jacobson et al. 2001) and N. barkeri (Wu et al. 2014). Some researchers reported that predatory mites are less susceptible to EPF than the pest with some predators actively avoiding EPF-infected mites (Seiedy et al. 2013;Wu et al. 2016b). ...
... In general, most research suggested that EPF has high pathogenicity on pest insects and phytophagous mites but no or lower infection on predatory mites (Jacobson et al. 2001;Shi & Feng 2004;Wu et al. 2014;Wekesa et al. 2007). Among these fungi, B. bassiana is widely distributed in nature (St Leger et al. 1992;Gatarayiha et al. 2010a), and Neozygites floridana, N. tanajoae, Metarhizium anisopliae, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus have been reported as well. ...
The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, is an important mite pest worldwide. It often leads to reduced crop yields or poor marketability of the produce and has already developed resistance to many acaricides. In this study, the pathogenicity of the entomopathogenic fungus (EPF), Acremonium hansfordii, to T. urticae and its side effects on the predatory mite Neoseiulus barkeri were compared. The toxicity of A. hansfordii was evaluated on T. urticae at 1.0×104, 1.0×106, 1.0×108 conidia/mL concentrations and predatory mite N. barkeri at 1.0×108 conidia/mL under experimental conditions at 25±1°C, 75±5% RH and 16L: 8D photoperiod. The effects of EPF on the development of the F0 and F1 generation of predatory mites were also assessed at 1.0×108 conidia/mL concentration. The results showed that the corrected mortality of T. urticae at three tested concentrations were 36.67%, 53.67% and 66.33% within 11d, and the median lethal time were 14.39 d, 9.84d and 7.99d, respectively. The corrected mortality of N. barkeri was only 3.9% after 11d at 1×108 conidia/mL concentration. Some hyphae of A. hansfordii were detected on the surface of treated T. urticae but not on N. barkeri body after 7d. After N. barkeri females were treated with 1.0×108 conidia/mL, the preoviposition period of the F0 generation was prolonged 1.56 times and the other life history parameters have no significant differences; similar patterns were also shown in the F1 generation. A. hansfordii showed strong pathogenicity against T. urticae but did not significantly adversely influence N. barkeri. Therefore, the combination of A. hansfordii and N. barkeri has the potential to be used for the control of T. urticae in the future.
... Consequently, using biological control agents such as entomopathogenic fungi and predatory mites has been recommended to control insect pests in integrated pest management programs (IPM), because their use is considered to be more environmentally friendly (Jacobson et al., 2001;Zhang, 2003;Maniania et al., 2008). ...
... In order to increase efficiency in controlling T. urticae, it has been suggested that using predatory mites accompanied by applications of B. bassiana may be an alternative to traditional T. urticae management (Chandler et al., 2005). Considering that there are a lot of insect and mite species that are susceptible to B. bassiana, there is a risk that the fungus may be harmful to predatory mites (Jacobson et al., 2001). Therefore, there is a must to evaluating the compatibility of B. bassiana and predatory mites to the success of potential IPM programs designed to control T. urticae. ...
... Environmental safety and ecosystem stability considerations lead to the conclusion that the use of native isolates in a microbial control program is more convenient (Lockwood, 1993). Moreover, mycoinsecticides may be most effective in pest management programmes integrating beneficial arthropods, or in greenhouse crops where favourable environmental conditions (high humidity and low UV exposure) can be manipulated (Jacobson et al., 2001;Down et al., 2009). The oil based formulation used in the present study made from the indigenous fungal strain Bb 112 maintained at the Department of Agricultural Entomology, was proved very effective against chilli thrips and mites and hence, it can fit very well with the integrated pest management programmes. ...
The investigations were carried out on the shelf life of oil based formulation of B. bassiana (Bb 112) under different storage conditions. The formulation stored under ambient temperature (28 ± 2°C) recorded 587.00 and 216.66 × 108 CFU ml-1, respectively on the day of preparation and after 28 weeks of storage. Pathogenicity
tests were performed with oil based formulation of B. bassiana (Bb 112) stored at ambient temperature against S. dorsalis and P. latus. LC50 values against S. dorsalis and P. latus revealed that formulation showed highest virulence with the lowest LC50 values of 1.58 × 105 and 5.20 × 106 spores ml-1, respectively. LT50 values of oil based formulation of B. bassiana (Bb 112) against S. dorsalis and P. latus showed the lowest LT50 value of 78.79 h and 83.39 h, respectively.
... Those data led to a conclusion that the two biocontrol agents are compatible. In field experiments, Jacobson et al. (2001) showed that the predatory mite N. cucumeris is compatible with B. bassiana, but their combined use did not increase the relative effectiveness of a thrips control strategy on cucumber. Metarhizium brunneum (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) and Neozygites foridana (Entomophthoromycota: Neozygitaceae) did not affect the behavior and feeding of the predator P. persimilis, allowing their concurrent use for control of T. urticae (Jacobsen et al., 2019). ...
The present study evaluated effects of the fungus Lecanicillium muscarium (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) and an organic extract from its mycelium on the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and its predator, mite Amblyseius swirskii (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Mites were exposed to fungal spores or organic extract prepared from L. muscarium mycelium. No negative effect was shown on the predator feeding on T. vaporariorum nymphs treated with fungal conidia at a concentration of 5 × 107 spores/ml; by day six the number of mite eggs and nymphs was 18.7 % higher than on leaves treated with Tween 80. In contrast, treatment of leaves with a 0.5 % alcohol extract derived from L. muscarium mycelium caused 35 % mortality of A. swirskii adults by day two. In a trial conducted in a commercial greenhouse on rose plants, the application of L. muscarium conidia followed by the release of A. swirskii suppressed T. vaporariorum more effectively than each of the control agents applied separately.
... Similarly, the reduction% of egg lying increased steadily during the whole period of study. Similar results were obtained by Jacobson et al. (2001) who stated that Amblyseius cucumeris Oudemans was unaffected by spray of the fungi-bioagent B. bassiana (Naturalis-L). Contradicted results obtained by Seyed-Talebi et al. (2014) who reviewed that the female longevity, oviposition period and fecundity of spider mite species, T. urticae were significantly lower by the subjection of B. bassiana. ...
... For example, Zafar et al. [24] showed that Metarhizium anisopliae can kill up to 90% of the population of diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), a pathogen that affects cabbage culture, by weakening the immune system of hosts through reduced synthesis of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and phenoloxidase. Beauveria bassiana has been used successfully as a biological agent to control western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) and was efficient in plants such as impatiens and cucumbers [25,26]. Moreover, Beauveria bassiana has been shown to be effective in combating western flower thrips at different life stages [27]. ...
The development of organic farming as a result of increasing consumer preference for organic food has led to the development and registration of new pest-control products for certified organic production. In this study, the effects of three biocontrol products containing spores and mycelium of Arthrobotrys oligospora—Artis®, Beauveria bassiana—Bora®, and Coniothyrium minitans—Öko-ni® were tested on four basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) cultivars: ‘Aromat de Buzau’, ‘Serafim’, ‘Macedon’ and ‘Cuisoare’. The application of Öko-ni® increased basil yields by 8% relative to Control. The application of Bora® increased chlorophyll content of basil leaves by 2% and the activity of photosynthesis by 66% relative to the Control. Basil essential oil (EO) content was increased by 18% with the application of Artis® and by 34% with the application of Bora® and Öko-ni®, respectively. The content of phenolic compounds analyzed by HPLC varied; caffeic acid concentration was higher in the plants treated with Öko-ni®, hyperoside, isoquercitrin and rutin concentrations were higher in those treated with Artis®, while the quercitrin content was higher in Bora®-treated plants. The two main EO constituents that were identified were linalool and methyl chavicol in ‘Aromat de Buzau’, linalool and eugenol in ‘Serafim’, neral and geranial in ‘Macedon’, also linalool and eugenol in ‘Cuisoare’. The investigated myco-biocontrol products had positive effects on basil fresh biomass and EO content and also influenced the content of phenolic compounds.
... Apart from Lepidoptera, B. thuringiensis was reported to exhibit insecticidal effects on many other insect orders [161], making it ideal for sustainable integrated management. Indeed, both B. bassiana and B. thuringiensis have been used to control an array of pest insects, including whiteflies, thrips and termites [162,163]. Bacillus thuringiensis has already been widely used in T. absoluta control [160,161]. Efficacy studies of B. bassiana and B. thuringiensis on T. absoluta showed that third instar larvae were most susceptible [60]. ...
The South American tomato pinworm Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) has aggressively invaded
the African continent. Since its first detection in North Africa in Morocco and Tunisia in 2008, it has successfully invaded the entire southern, eastern and western Africa, where it has been on the offfensive, causing significant damage to Solanaceous food crops. While control of this prolific invader is primarily based on conventional synthetic pesticides, this form of control is consistently losing societal approval owing to (1) pesticide resistance development and consequential loss of field efficacy; (2) growing public health concerns; (3) environmental contamination and loss of biological diversity and its associated ecological services; and (4) unsustainable costs, particularly
for resource-poor African farmers. As such, more ecologically sound pest management strategies, e.g., the use of natural substances (NSs), may offer a more sustainable approach to tackling this offensive. A systematic literature search through digital libraries and online databases (JSTOR, PubMed, Web of Science, SCOPUS and Google Scholar) was conducted using predetermined keywords on T. absoluta, e.g., South American tomato pinworm. We use this to explain the invasion of T. absoluta in Africa, citing mechanisms facilitating African invasion and exploring the potential of its control using diverse biological control agents, natural and low-risk substances. Specifically,
we explore how botanicals, entomopathogens, semiochemicals, predators, parasitoids, host plant resistance, sterile insect technique and others have been spatially employed to control T. absoluta and discuss the potential of these control agents in African landscapes using more integrated approaches. We discuss the use of NSs as assets to general insect pest control, some potential associated liabilities and explain the potential use and barriers to adoption in African systems from a legislative, economic,
ecological and social standpoint.
... Also, B. bassiana offers a way forward for the biological control of greenhouse crops. According to Jacobson et al. (2010), B. bassiana-based mycopesticide could be used as a second line of defense to support the preventive control of Amblyseius cucumeris (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) against berry thrips populations, Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) feeding on cucumbers in a greenhouse. Combined application of B. bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin and predatory mite Neoseiulus barkeri Hughes were effective against Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) (Wu et al. 2015). ...
Background
For controlling the resistance to insects, in particular carpophagous and phyllophagous caterpillars, using chemical pesticides has led to contamination of cotton area in Benin. Facing this problem, alternative methods including the use of entomopathogenic fungi as biopesticide could be a sound measure to preserve the environment, biodiversity and ensure good quality of crops. Previous studies have revealed the insecticidal potential of the entomopathogenic Beauveria bassiana on some insect pest species. However, little is known about its effectiveness on cotton Lepidopteran pests. This review is done to learn more about B. bassina for its application in controlling cotton insect pests, especially Lepidopteran species.
Main body
Different sections of the current review deal with the related description and action modes of B. bassiana against insects, multi-trophic interactions between B. bassiana and plants, arthropods, soil and other microbes, and biological control programs including B. bassiana during last decade. Advantages and constraints in applying B. bassiana and challenges in commercialization of B. bassiana- based biopesticide have been addressed. In this review, emphasis is put on the application methods and targeted insects in various studies with regard to their applicability in cotton.
Conclusion
This review helps us to identify the knowledge gaps related to application of B. bassiana on cotton pest in general and especially in Lepidopteran species in Benin. This work should be supported by complementary laboratory bioassays, station and/or fields experiments for effective management of cotton Lepidopteran pests in Benin.
... Additionally, the entomopathogenic fungi can only infect larvae of insect pests, but have no effect on eggs. Thus, the entomopathogenic microorganisms carried by natural enemies to realize attractive pest management measure was considered as a good solution [35,36]. In present study, the two worldwidely used biocontrol agents T. dendrolimi and B. bassiana have different mechanism were combined and applied against ACB, lead to a significantly enhance on control efficiency against the pest compared to that of sole T. dendrolimi application by making cooperative use of their mechanism on pest control. ...
The combined application of natural enemies and entomopathogens as an alternative pest-control may act synergistically, additively or antagonistically. The objective of this study is to determine the efficacy of the combined application by parasitic Trichogramma dendrolimi ( Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae ) carrying insect-pathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. (TCB) against Asian corn borer (ACB), Ostrinia furnacalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). 0.1% (w/v) starch solution was selected from several adjuvants due to its highest ability to carry fungal conidia, over 3.60 × 10 ⁴ conidia per wasp. The fungal conidia adsorbed on the surface of factitious host, Antheraea pernyi eggs, subsequently adhered on new emerged T. dendrolimi as a vector, which carried the conidia onto eggs’ surface of ACB. The B. bassiana had no influence on T. dendrolimi ’s parasitic rate, whereas resulting in fungal conidia adhering on over 60.00% of hatched larvae, which consequently caused 27.00 ± 5.70% percent of muscardine cadaver rate of pest’s larvae in a screen house test. In field trial, it showed significantly lower incidence parameters regarded as number of damaged plants, wormholes, and living pests, per 100 plants in TCB treatment compared to that of sole T. dendrolimi release (non-TCB) and non-treatment as control, respectively, especially the number of muscardine cadaver per 100 plants was 6-fold amount higher than that of non-TCB treatment. In this study, the suitable adjuvant of cost-effective and safe to T. dendrolimi emergence was selected for fungal conidia adhering for TCB, and the fungal conidia transmitting process from host eggs to pest infection was visualized by fluorescence observation, on the basis, it was proved in both screen house and field experiments that the TCB was a synergistic ACB control program with labor saving, low cost and high efficient advantage compared to sole biocontrol agent application.
... El bioplaguicida se recomienda para el control de etapas larvarias y adultas de especies de mosca blanca (Hemiptera) que pertenecen a la familia Aleyrodidae, incluidas las moscas blancas de invernadero Trialeurodes vaporariorum y Bemisia spp ., plagas agrícolas con una alta tasa de reproducción, muy importantes en cultivos bajo invernadero y en campo, con una amplia gama de hospederos, incluyendo malezas, y que además actúan como vectores de varios virus importantes de plantas (Martin, Mifsud, & Rapisarda, 2000;efsa, 2013) . El biocontrolador también actúa sobre estadios larvales y adultos de trips, como Frankliniella occidentalis ( Jacobson, Chandler, Fenlon, & Russell, 2001) . ...
El objetivo final de un producto de biocontrol es su comercialización y uso por parte de los agricultores. El desarrollo y la puesta en el mercado de un nuevo producto es un proceso complejo que debe ser manejado de forma estructurada; en este proceso, los desarrolladores de bioplaguicidas deben integrar toda la cadena, desde la investigación básica y el desarrollo del producto hasta su comercialización. Es muy importante que los usuarios finales del futuro producto de biocontrol se encuentren en el centro del proceso de innovación, y con ese fin deben incluirse desde la concepción de la idea de un nuevo proyecto de investigación —en la que se hace el desarrollo conceptual del producto potencial—, durante la prueba de concepto, hasta el desarrollo del bioplaguicida. Conocer a los clientes objetivo, comprender sus prácticas actuales e identificar las tecnologías competitivas existentes y futuras proporciona al equipo de desarrollo pautas sólidas para enfocar su programa de investigación y desarrollo en las características del producto que tengan el potencial para entregar el mayor valor agregado a los usuarios finales de la tecnología. En el desarrollo de un nuevo bioplaguicida, es necesario evaluar un gran número de microorganismos candidatos para el control biológico en los programas de cribado (screening), pero la selección de agentes de control biológico para uso comercial debe cumplir muchos requisitos diferentes. Además de ser agentes activos contra un fitopatógeno específico o un insecto plaga, deben ser seguros, adecuados
para el registro y rentables. En etapas tempranas, además de la eficacia, se deben considerar criterios importantes como el tamaño del mercado potencial, las características ecológicas del microorganismo, su capacidad preliminar de producción masiva en medios de bajo costo, los riesgos potenciales para usuarios y el medioambiente, así como las posibilidades de protección de los
derechos de propiedad intelectual. El sistema de screening por etapas propuesto tiene como objetivo el uso comercial de los bioplaguicidas microbianos, el cual depende de los resultados de la investigación tanto fundamental como aplicada en el control biológico. Todas estas evaluaciones deben ser desarrolladas por un equipo interdisciplinario y altamente motivado, que incluya tanto a científicos con diferentes especialidades como a expertos en economía y mercadeo con
experiencia industrial.
... The authors related this little impact late in the season to the prevailing temperature which exceeded 25˚C. In a greenhouse experiment, enhanced control was recorded against the thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on pepper when the adult of the predatory mite, Neoseiulus (=Amblyseius) cucumeris (Oudemans) was combined with B. bassina with no significant effects of the fungus on the predator [38]. Similarly, in a greenhouse trial on tomato, the simultaneous use of the predator, Dicyphus Hesperus and the fungus, P. fumosoroseus resulted in additive whitefly mortality; they reduced the whitefly densities by 62% relative to the control plants in 6 weeks [24] The combined effect of the dipteran predator, Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani) (Fam.: Cicedomyiidae) and the fungus, L. longisporum on the aphid, Myzus persicae was estimated in cages in a greenhouse [15]. ...
... Either insecticide maximizing the toxicity of B. bassiana GHA strain or vice versa is still needed for further elucidation. Nevertheless, entomopathogenic fungi, particularly that of B. bassiana and its related strains, are well-studied models exploring their insecticidal potential against a vast array of pests such as whiteflies, [40][41][42] spider mites, 24,[43][44][45] thrips, [46][47][48] sugarcane stalkborers, 49 and locusts. 50 Mixture tests of B. bassiana GHA strain with insecticides as well as fungicides against B. tabaci at laboratory and field level, to our knowledge remains scarce. ...
Background: Bemisia tabaci is a notorious agricultural pest that causes serious damage to many crops via herbivory and spread of viral diseases. Effective control measures are, therefore, required. Integrating entomopathogenic fungi into the chemical control system offers promise for B. tabaci management.
Results: In-vitro assays on the augmentative effect of Beauveria bassiana GHA strain with insecticides, and its compatibility with fungicides were tested. Varying egg mortality was observed for most insecticides except for milbemectin. Pyrifluquinazon was less effective against the nymphs. Flonicamid showed no insecticidal effect on either nymphs or adults. However, increased mortality in nymphs and adults was observed when flonicamid was mixed with Beauveria bassiana GHA strain. Furthermore, no significant synergistic effect of mixing pesticides with B. bassiana GHA strain was observed. Most insecticides (when not mixed with B. bassiana) showed high (>80%) mortality against B. tabaci nymphs and adults. Most fungicides tested showed no inhibitory effects on B. bassiana GHA strain against B. tabaci nymphs and adults. Fungistatic effect was observed in the mycelial and spore germination inhibition studies. Weekly rotation of some pesticides with B. bassiana GHA strain in greenhouse conditions yielded significant reduction in different growth stages of B. tabaci. However, no significant difference in viral incidence was observed.
Conclusion: Laboratory and field tests showed positive effects of augmenting pesticides and B. bassiana GHA strain against B. tabaci nymphs and adults. Therefore, augmentation of pesticides and B. bassiana GHA strain is one prospect towards developing an effective B. tabaci IPM system.
... Use of these biocontrol agents together with entomopathogenic fungi is dependent on their compatibility, including lack of susceptibility to the fungus, and the absence of any other negative impacts such as competition for shared hosts. Early work by Jacobson et al. (2001) showed that two to three consecutive sprays of B. bassiana (Naturalis-L® or Botanigard® 22WP) reduced numbers of immature western flower thrips by 65-87% on glasshouse-grown cucumbers compared to an untreated control. Treatments had no adverse effect on commercially reared predatory mites (Neoseiulus cucumeris) which had been previously released into the crop. ...
... El bioplaguicida se recomienda para el control de etapas larvarias y adultas de especies de mosca blanca (Hemiptera) que pertenecen a la familia Aleyrodidae, incluidas las moscas blancas de invernadero Trialeurodes vaporariorum y Bemisia spp ., plagas agrícolas con una alta tasa de reproducción, muy importantes en cultivos bajo invernadero y en campo, con una amplia gama de hospederos, incluyendo malezas, y que además actúan como vectores de varios virus importantes de plantas (Martin, Mifsud, & Rapisarda, 2000;efsa, 2013) . El biocontrolador también actúa sobre estadios larvales y adultos de trips, como Frankliniella occidentalis ( Jacobson, Chandler, Fenlon, & Russell, 2001) . ...
The endophytes constitute a group of microorganisms living inside plant
tissues which maintain slightly perceptible associations with their host
plants for at least part of their life cycle. Its wide biodiversity, as well as its
ability to synthesize secondary metabolites, growth promotion, systemic
induced resistance, among other characteristics, make endophytic fungi as
a high potential alternative for its application in the management of pests
and diseases in crops of agricultural importance in Colombia and the rest of
the world. However, the study of endophytic microorganisms is a relatively
new area in research, and its biology and the molecular basis of the plantendophyte
interaction are still hardly explored for the case of those fungi that
can colonize vascular plants, which in turn reduces the spectrum of fungal
species used for the development of new products based on endophytes given
the difficulty of developing a formulation that guarantees the permanence of
the fungus outside the plant and allows the penetration at different times of
development of the host plant. In this chapter, issues related to endophytes
mechanisms of action, colonization patterns, formulation and application
techniques in the field and some successful cases of the use of endophyte
fungi commercially available for the management of some phytopathogens
and insect pests will be addressed.
... Either insecticide maximizing the toxicity of B. bassiana GHA strain or vice versa is still needed for further elucidation. Nevertheless, entomopathogenic fungi, particularly that of B. bassiana and its related strains, are well-studied models exploring their insecticidal potential against a vast array of pests such as whiteflies, [40][41][42] spider mites, 24,[43][44][45] thrips, [46][47][48] sugarcane stalkborers, 49 and locusts. 50 Mixture tests of B. bassiana GHA strain with insecticides as well as fungicides against B. tabaci at laboratory and field level, to our knowledge remains scarce. ...
Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV) causes serious economic damages to tomato production in Ibaraki Prefecture. Alternative to conventional control methods in suppressing TYLCV, use of tolerant cultivars can be an effective control measure however, lack of awareness in the TYLCV incidences may incur serious risks. In this study, we evaluated the dynamics of TYLCV in the commercially produced tomato cultivars and its vector, tobacco whitely (Bemisia tabaci) to clarify the effective use of tolerant cultivars. TYLCV accumulation was observed to have higher concentrations in the upper leaves of all the cultivars tested, however, TYLCV copy numbers in the tolerant cultivar did not exceed 10% as compared to the TYLCV susceptible cultivar. This phenomenon, known as virus growth-inhibitory effect was also observed in the graft of the tolerant cultivar grafted onto the TYLCV infected rootstock from of the susceptible cultivar. However, almost all whiteflies became virulent in a 3-day acquisition feeding period from the tolerant and susceptible TYLCV infected leaves. These viluferous whiteflies feeding on TYLCV infected tolerant cultivar leaves transmitted TYLCV to new healthy tolerant cultivar at a rate of 26% comparative to 60% from TYLCV infected susceptible cultivar leaves to new healthy tolerant cultivar. Furthermore, the copy number of TYLCV in the viluferous whiteflies feeding on the tolerant cultivar leaves did not exceed 10% comparative to those fed on the susceptible cultivars leaves. This phenomenon accounts for the difference at which the rate of viral transmission by viruliferous whiteflies differs when feeding either on tolerant or susceptible cultivars. The data generated from this study therefore indicates that the use of tolerant cultivars should be effective in suppressing the spread of TYLCV however, there are possibilities that the tolerant cultivars could be the potential source of infection therefore, it is essentially vital to control whiteflies as vectors as in the case with the cultivation of usual (susceptible) cultivars.
... The use of multiple natural enemies has been recommended to control insect pests in integrated pest management programs (IPM) (Jacobson et al., 2001). Predatory mites are often used as an alternative to conventional pest management on a variety of plants (Gerson and Weintraub, 2007). ...
Results of the present study are based on the ability of the
predator mites Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot (Acari:
Phytoseiidae) and Neoseiulus californicus that used as biological
control agents to recognize if the prey Tetranychus urticae (Acari:
Tetranychidae) is treated with entomopathogenic fungi, and measure
their preference toward untreated and treated T. urticae with Beauveria
bassiana. In the early stages of the fungus infection predators were
able to consume T. urticae treated with the fungus. While after 48 and
72h. P. persimilis and N. californicus were able to determine the
treated prey with the entomopathogenic fungi B. bassiana, and prefer
to prey on the untreated mites. This avoidance behaviour of the
predator mites permits to use them as complementary biological
control agents with entomopathogenic fungi in Integrate Pest
Management (IPM) program.
... Successful applications include the use of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), Metarhizium brunneum (Metchnikoff) Sorokin, Isaria fumosorosea (Wize) A.H.S. Br. and G. Sm and Lecanicillium lecanii R. Zare and W. Gams targeting Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Diptera [19]. For example, B. bassiana has been shown to be a highly effective biological control agent against the different life stages of WFT under laboratory, greenhouse and open-field conditions [20][21][22]. ...
Western flower thrips (WFT) is one of the most important pests of horticultural crops worldwide because it can damage many different crops and transmit various plant viruses. Given these significant impacts on plant production, novel methodologies are required to maximize regulation of WFT to minimize crop losses. One particular approach is to develop control strategies for the non-feeding, soil-dwelling stages of WFT. Control of these stages could be enhanced through the use of granules impregnated with entomopathogenic fungi mixed in the soil. The use of soil-applied fungi contrasts with existing approaches in which entomopathogenic fungi are formulated as oil-based suspensions or water-based wettable powders for foliar applications against the feeding stages of WFT. To examine the efficacy of this approach, we evaluated the effects of a granular formulation of Beauveria bassiana on the soil-dwelling, pupal phases of Frankliniella occidentalis in laboratory bioassays and greenhouse experiments. Based on micromorphological observations of fungal conidia during the infection process after treatment of WFT with a B. bassiana suspension, fungal conidia complete the process of surface attachment, germination, and penetration of the body wall of the WFT pupa and enter the host within 60 h of treatment. Given these results, we undertook a controlled greenhouse experiment and applied B. bassiana granules to soil used to cultivate eggplants. Populations of F. occidentalis on eggplants grown in treated soil were 70% lower than those on plants grown in the untreated soil after 8 weeks. Furthermore, when measuring the survival and growth of B. bassiana on granules under different soil moisture conditions, survival was greatest when the soil moisture content was kept at 20%. These results indicate that the application of B. bassiana-impregnated granules could prove to be an effective biological control strategy for use against F. occidentalis under greenhouse conditions.
... Successful microbial control of crop pests will ultimately depend on how carefully the fungal strains are screened (virulence, stress tolerance and persistence), on the scale of the production, formulation, compatibility with other biological control agents and on the efficacy of the delivery system, and the timing of the application. Although many isolates of fungal pathogens have been found to be highly virulent against thrips, very few strains, such as B. bassiana GHA (Botanigard ® , Laverlam International and Naturalis-L ® , Troy BioSciences) were registered as a commercial products (Cloyd and Sadof, 2003;Jacobson et al., 2001). Growers are more hopeful to see more fungal strains registered and cost-effective products available for use against thrips, including greenhouse and outdoor plantings. ...
Polyphagous thrips are among the most important economically pests that cause serious damage in various ornamental and vegetable crops throughout the world. Because of their small size and cryptic habits, a number of thrips species are easy to invade into new areas. For a long period, thrips control has mainly relied on frequent use of insecticides, which lead to a series of ecological problems. Although a number of alternative management tactics have been developed in many cropping systems, many invasive thrips continue to spread internationally and display vast damage potential. This chapter reviews microbial control of thrips with focus on the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Isaria fumosorosea and Lecanicillium lecanii. The strains of fungal pathogens that were screened and proven to be effective for control of thrips should be developed worldwide and available for growers. We also discuss three areas of future research that will be necessary in improving management programs of thrips.
... The use of multiple natural enemies has been recommended to control insect pests in integrated pest management programs (IPM) (Jacobson et al., 2001). Predatory mites are often used as an alternative to conventional pest management on a variety of plants (Gerson and Weintraub, 2007). ...
... The use of multiple natural enemies has been recommended to control insect pests in integrated pest management programs (IPM) (Jacobson et al., 2001). Predatory mites are often used as an alternative to conventional pest management on a variety of plants (Gerson and Weintraub, 2007). ...
... When Ifr was sprayed on the croton plants first and then the beetle larvae were released, there was a subsequent higher mortality of the scale insects compared to fungus applied alone; however, the combined efficacy of these two agents was similar to that of the larvae released alone. This variance in efficacy has been noted by other authors when observing predators (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007;Down et al. 2009;Bayissa et al. 2016), parasitoids (Avery et al. 2008;Pick et al. 2012) or both agents in combination with entomopathogenic fungi (Labbé et al. 2009) for biocontrol of arthropod pests on various host plants. Other examples of intraguild interactions between insect natural enemies and entomopathogenic fungi were reviewed by Roy and Pell (2000), Gillespie et al. (2006), and Roy and Cottrell (2008). ...
... When Ifr was sprayed on the croton plants first and then the beetle larvae were released, there was a subsequent higher mortality of the scale insects compared to fungus applied alone; however, the combined efficacy of these two agents was similar to that of the larvae released alone. This variance in efficacy has been noted by other authors when observing predators (Jacobson et al. 2001;Alma et al. 2007;Down et al. 2009;Bayissa et al. 2016), parasitoids (Avery et al. 2008;Pick et al. 2012) or both agents in combination with entomopathogenic fungi (Labbé et al. 2009) for biocontrol of arthropod pests on various host plants. Other examples of intraguild interactions between insect natural enemies and entomopathogenic fungi were reviewed by Roy and Pell (2000), Gillespie et al. (2006), and Roy and Cottrell (2008). ...
The lady beetle Thalassa montezumae and the entomopathogenic fungus Isaria fumosorosea (Ifr) were assessed alone and in combination to suppress green croton scale, Phalacrococcus howertoni, populations on croton plants using laboratory bioassays and greenhouse cage studies. The acquisition of Ifr blastospores by beetle larvae (3rd instar) and adults during contamination in well plates was used to simulate exposure to direct spraying and subsequent possible fungal infection was assessed. Spore dispersal by the insects was determined after the blastospore-contaminated T. montezumae life stages roamed on agar plates for 24 h by counting the number of colony-forming units (CFUs) produced in the plates. There were no significant differences in survival times at 14 days post-treatment between beetle larvae and adults exposed to Ifr and those exposed to water only. Mean survival time of larvae exposed to Ifr was 14 days and water 12 days, whereas for adults it was 13 days compared to 13 days, respectively. Plates with Ifr blastospore-contaminated T. montezumae adults roaming on the agar surface displayed significantly more fungal trails as CFUs compared to plates with larvae. In greenhouse cage studies, the mean mortality rates of the scale exposed to beetle larvae, either alone (80.8%) or in combination with Ifr (89.1%), were not significantly different. Scale mortality rates in the fungus-only (60.5%) and beetle larvae-only treatments were statistically similar. The treatment with both biocontrol agents had a significantly higher scale mortality rate compared to the treatment with Ifr only. Therefore, spraying Ifr prior to releasing T. montezumae is an effective and compatible biological control strategy for management of the green croton scale on croton plants.
Background:
Western flower thrips (WFT), Franklinella occidentalis (Pergande), is an economically damaging pest of greenhouse ornamentals. A 'guardian plant system' (GPS) that targeted WFT was evaluated under controlled and commercial greenhouse conditions. This system used mycotized millet grains with the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin applied to soil of potted marigolds, Tagetes patula (L.), combined with the foliar-dwelling predatory mite Neoseiulus (=Amblyseius) cucumeris (Oudemans) in slow-release sachets under controlled greenhouse conditions, and with the addition of a pheromone lure under commercial settings.
Results:
Significantly fewer WFT and less foliar damage on GPS was observed over the 10- and 12-week experimental periods compared to the untreated controls. Predatory mites were maintained up to 10 weeks with one release under controlled greenhouse conditions and 12 weeks with two releases in commercial greenhouses. In commercial greenhouses, greater numbers of WFT were found on marigolds than on crop plants within 1 meter of the system. Fungal granules persisted for 12 weeks up to 2.5 × 105 CFU/g in the GPS soil.
Conclusion:
The use of biological control agents to suppress WFT within a GPS could be a useful IPM strategy for greenhouse production. The marigold GPS attracted WFT which were suppressed primarily through predation by foliar-dwelling predatory mites and to a lesser extent, infection from conidia produced by the granular fungal formulation in the soil. Further investigations into system deployment and fungal granular application rates and new fungal formulations are suggested to improve system efficacy.
Predatory mites and invertebrate-pathogenic fungi have been used as biological control agents in a complementary way to suppress two-spotted spider mite (TSM) populations, which are a key pest of horticultural crops worldwide. However, their performance can be lowered by both biotic (e.g., intraguild interactions) and abiotic stress (especially relative humidity - RH). The present study evaluated the susceptibility of three predatory phytoseiid mite species in the genus Neoseiulus – N. californicus, N. idaeus, and N. barkeri – to infection by selected spider mite-pathogenic Beauveria bassiana strains as well as their predation capacity and resilience under simulated drought conditions. The two selected B. bassiana strains induced TSM mortality above 70 %. All three Neoseiulus mite species also showed susceptibility to both strains; however, N. barkeri was less susceptible to fungal infections than the other Neoseiulus species (with mortality < 65 % and without reduction of oviposition). All three Neoseiulus species were negatively affected by low RH conditions. Neoseiulus barkeri was the most affected with a drastic reduction in TSM egg consumption (about 40 %) and preventing the deposition of eggs by females. The egg consumption by N. californicus and N. idaeus was not affected by low RH conditions; however, both predatory mites reduced the number of eggs laid per female. Thus, the efficiency of the conversion of food into egg biomass for all three Neoseiulus species decreased under low RH conditions, dropping to zero for N. barkeri. We showed that the simultaneous use of B. bassiana and Neoseiulus had a detrimental effect on predatory mite survival and progeny, indicating the need for further development of new strategies which combine these biological control agents.
Insects being the most diverse group, host a broad range of microorganisms. These insect–microbe associations not only account for basic nutritional deficiencies and biochemical needs but also play an essential role in sexual compatibility among mates. Besides these, over a hundred and thousands of bacteria, fungi, and entomopathogenic viruses have been isolated and identified from different insect orders, which is known to produce natural toxins. From diverse insect order, around one percent of insect pests are known to cause severe economic damage to humans and their domesticated animals and plants. Generations of chemical pesticides have been developed and given up owing to their broad range of toxicity, bioaccumulation, and development of resistance. With increased resistance of pest population to chemical pesticides, and negative impact on both environment and human health, there is an urgent need of a more natural and eco-friendly substitute. In this chapter, we have discussed the major microbial sources, i.e. fungi, bacteria, and viruses which are known to produce insect-toxic proteins that can be utilized for the production of biopesticides that are safer, cost-effective, and eco-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides to control pest population.
Due to increased demand for food to feed the ever-growing population
leads to the development and adoption of synthetic chemicals as an effective
strategy for controlling crop pests and diseases. However, overreliance on
synthetic pesticide chemicals is discouraged due to their detrimental effects
on humans and environment. Pesticides are chemical substances, even defined
as poisons targeted to kill harmful insect pests. Developing countries consider
them as powerful weapons in order to enhance crop yields and to reduce the
vector borne disease burden. It has been estimated that about 2.5 million
tonnes of pesticides are used on crops each year and the worldwide damage
caused by pesticides reaches $100 billion annually. Identification of novel
effective insecticidal compounds is essential to combat increasing resistance
rates of pests. Botanicals are effective alternatives for synthetic pesticide
chemicals, because they are efficacious in managing different crop pests,
inexpensive, easily biodegraded, have varied modes of action, their sources
are easily available and have low toxicity to non-target organisms. Botanicals
have been in use for a long time for pest control. However, their uses during
the 20th century are marginal when compared with other bio-control methods
for controlling pests.
Keywords: synthetic, pesticides, botanicals, pests
A single leaf bioassay was developed to investigate the entomopathogenic efficacy of Isaria fumosorosea, Bacillus thuringiensis and the interactions of those bioinsecticides on mortality of Helicoverpa (=Heliothis) armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Tomato leaves were removed from the plants and sprayed tested concentrations for mortality tests. The present study suggests that those combined bioinsecticides have good potential for controlling H. armigera.
Dendrothrips minowai Priesner (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is the main pest thrips in tea (Camellia sinensis) plantations in Guizhou Province, damaging tea shoots and leaves. In this study, we tested the control of the predatory mite Amblyseius cucumeris Oudermans and the ladybeetle Harmonia axyridis Pallas against D. minowai in the laboratory and tea plantations in Guizhou, China. The results showed that D. minowai suppression by A. cucumeris was 29.0% at the predator to prey ratio of 1:10 and 45.3% at 1:5, and by H. axyridis it was 45.0% at the 1:10 ratio and 67.2% at 1:5 in the laboratory. After the introduction of these two predators in tea plantations, during the period of highest density of D. minowai (between May and August), the release of A. cucumeris and H. axyridis reduced D. minowai by 26.3 and 56.7% in 2015 and by 40.3 and 54.5% in 2016, respectively. Densities of A. cucumeris and H. axyridis per 100 tea leaves ranged from 50.3 to 137.5 for the mite and from 18.0 to 65.0 for the ladybird beetle. Thus, A. cucumeris and H. axyridis can be used as effective predators in controlling D. minowai in Chinese tea plantations.
The two biological control agents, predatory mite Amblydromalus limonicus Garman & McGregor (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), have the potential to independently suppress the invasive tomato potato psyllid (TPP), Bactericera cockerelli (Šulc), in New Zealand. The integrated strategy of combining the release of predatory mites and EPF may further promote biocontrol of pests. To examine the compatibility of A. limonicus and B. bassiana, we tested the lethal effects of B. bassiana on A. limonicus females on B. cockerelli and calculated the sublethal concentrations of B. bassiana. The effects of sublethal concentrations (LC10 and LC30) of EPF on predatory mite females were assessed on the reproduction parameters of the parental generation (F0). We also evaluated the transgenerational effects of EPF on life table parameters and predation rates of the offspring generation (F1) that was fed on the psyllids. Our results showed that A. limonicus females were susceptible to B. bassiana and the LC50 was 2.2 × 105 conidia mL-1. Sublethal concentrations of EPF (LC30) significantly reduced the fecundity, longevity, oviposition period and predation rates of F0 predatory mite females. However, life table and predation rates of F1 predatory mites were not influenced by sublethal concentrations (LC30), except for the reduction of the preadult and total pre-oviposition period, and the predation rate of F1 males. Also, F1 population parameters including the intrinsic rate of increase (rm), finite rate of increase (λ), gross reproduction rate (GRR), and net reproduction rate (R0) were not significantly influenced by sublethal concentrations (LC10 and LC30). This result suggests that the transgenerational effects of entomopathogenic fungi cannot be carried over to F1. In conclusion, the simultaneous application of both biological control agents does have the potential to control TPP at appropriate intervals during the crop season. Further evaluation in the field will be needed to confirm the viability of this approach to control TPP.
As the demand for sustainably produced food is increasing, the use of biopesticides has also been increasing in the recent years. While biopesticides based on entomopathogens have been successfully employed for pest management around the world for decades, there are still some concerns about their efficacy relative to chemical pesticides, limiting their widespread adaptation. Microbial pesticides could be an important part of all integrated pest management (IPM) strategies and understanding their interactions with other control options can help promote their use. Several studies demonstrated improved pest control efficacy when different kinds of entomopathogens were used. Entomopathogens were combined or rotated with chemical or botanical pesticides, or virulence of certain entomopathogens was synergized by chemical pesticides. Certain fungicides are also compatible with entomopathogenic fungi enabling pest and disease management treatments at the same time. Improved microbial control can help reduce chemical pesticide use and the associated environmental and human health risks.
The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, is one of the most important phytophagous pests where high reliance on chemical pesticides to subsidize its population density resulted in undesirable effects. The use of natural enemies could be considered promising in reducing the negative impacts of earlier methods. In the present study, the LC50 (1.3 × 107 spore/ml) of entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. (strain MZ) was used in on a choice and no-choice predation test, feeding preference and switching behavior of predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis Athias-Henriot feeding on different life stages of the two-spotted spider mite (egg, larvae, protonymph, deutonymph, adult male and adult female) in laboratory condition. According to results obtained, in no-choice test (i.e. without B. bassiana), the highest predation rate of predatory mite was observed to egg stage (15.22 ± 0.57 egg). In the test (with B. bassiana), the highest predation rate was recorded on the larvae of T. urticae (4.90 ± 0.64 larvae). In choice test (without B. bassiana), the highest predation was observed on egg stage (14.75 ± 0.56 egg). In the test (with B. bassiana), the highest predation was recorded on larvae (9.90 ± 0.53 larvae). The highest calculated value of Manly’s β index (without B. bassiana) was obtained on egg stage (0.89 ± 0.03). The estimated value of this parameter after treatment of different stages of prey with B. bassiana had the highest value on larval stage (0.61 ± 0.05). Switching behavior of P. persimilis was not observed in both with and without B. bassiana conditions. The present findings revealed that while using two natural enemies simultaneously, more attention should be devoted to evaluate their possible interactions.
Insect attack is a serious agricultural problem, both in the field and during storage, leading to substantial yield losses and reduced product quality. Annually, insect pests destroy about 25% of food crops worldwide. Intense use of insecticides in pest management systems has caused several ecological complications. Of them, the development of resistance to insecticides amongst the target insect pests is the major impediment in agricultural pest management programme. To date, more than 645 species of phytophagous insects and mite pests have developed high degree of resistance to several classes of insecticides mediated through a complex of biological and physiochemical mechanisms mediated via a complex of enzymatic induction. Resistance management strategies employing combination of insecticides or alternation of insecticides are suggested to improve the sustainability and to prevent/delay the development of resistance, but with potentialities of cross resistance between the currently approved insecticides, practical options are few. Naturally occurring insect pathogenic fungi are widely prevalent amongst insect species in diverse agroecosystems. Many species of entomopathogenic strains derived from Hyphomycetes and Zygomycetes classes have potential to control a range of pest insects with their unique contact action. Novel strategies employing myco-insecticides derived from fungi are advantageous in dealing with insecticide resistance management (IRM). The Hyphomycete species, viz. Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin, Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin, Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Wize) Brown and Smith, Lecanicillium (=Cephalosporium = Verticillium) lecanii (Zimmermann) Viegas and Hirsutella thompsonii Fisher, and Zygomycete species, viz. Entomophthora virulenta Hall and Dunn, Erynia neoaphidis Remaudiere and Hennebert and Zoophthora radicans (Brefeld) Batko, are being employed to counter insect resistance to insecticides against diverse insect pests. Many of these fungi induce quick mortality of target pests by inhibiting enzymatic detoxification mechanisms which in turn predispose the target pest insects for fungal infection. Instances of joint application of promising isolates of fungal entomopathogens with selective insecticides have been employed against a diverse suite of pests to slash down the selection pressure to insecticides and to overcome concurrent resistance risks in target pests. Integration of promising strains of insect pathogenic fungi with selective insecticides tends to improve the pest control efficiency, besides decrease the amount of insecticides required and minimize the risks associated with hazards involved in environmental and health issues, which further render delayed expression of insecticide resistance in insect pests. This review focuses on the potentials for employing some promising stains of fungal entomopathogens for complementing existing insect pest management measures with insecticide resistance management for agriculturally important insect pests.
In order to be most effective, components of integrated pest management programs should act in concert with minimal antagonistic interaction between natural enemy groups and other interventions. Entomopathogenic fungi and insect natural enemies have the potential to complement or interfere with one another, depending on environmental conditions. The acute and sublethal effects of the hyphomycete fungus, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Wize) Brown & Smith, on adult female Aphelinus asychis Walker, a common parasitoid of the Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Mordvilko), were studied under conditions of low (≈55% RH) and high (≥95% RH) humidity at 24°C. Parasites exposed to dosages of P. fumosoroseus ranging from 3.75 to 3.75 × 103 conidiaper square centimeter and incubated at 24°C in low or high relative humidity responded with mortality ranges of 20-33% and 33-88%, respectively. The effect of treatment with P. fumosoroseus at 5.2 × 104 spores per square centimeter (2× LC95 for D. noxia) on foraging behavior of the parasitoid was studied with video image analysis 24-96 h after treatment with the fungus and incubation at low or high relative humidity. There was no significant difference between control and fungus-treated females that were incubated at the lower humidity in terms of percentage of time walking, turning, resting, and average walking speed. However, fungus-treated insects that were incubated at high relative humidity were significantly less active than their respective controls for percentage of time walking, walking speed, and distance covered. Also, average walking speed and distance walked by treated parasitoids incubated at low relative humidity for 96 h following treatment was significantly greater than treated insects incubated at the high relative humidity. Females treated with 2.6 × 104 spores per square centimeter and held in ≥95% RH for 24 h followed by incubation at 60% RH survived for an average of 5.7 d relative to 9 d for untreated females. The number of mummies produced per female per day was not significantly different between treated and untreated females, but more aphids were parasitized by the control insects due to longer survival. The limited untoward effect of P. fumosoroseus on adult A. asychis under conditions of lower humidity indicates good potential for their combined use for control of the Russian wheat aphid.
In laboratory and greenhouse studies, the compatibility of a spore suspension of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) with insect growth regulators (IGRs) was determined. When B. bassiana was applied over residues of 7 different IGRs, infectivity of greater wax moth larvae, Galleria mellonella (L), exposed to leaf rinsates was reduced by two of the IGRs. Azadirachtin and diflubenzuron reduced the infectivity of B. bassiana by up to 50%. Fenoxycarb, cyromazine, S-kinoprene, pyriproxyfen, and buprofezin did not significantly reduce the infectivity of B. bassiana. Under greenhouse conditions, the population levels of green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer), on chrysanthemums, were not significantly different when Botanigard® (B. bassiana strain GHA) was used independently or in combination with the IGR S-kinoprene. In laboratory tests, 100% of wax moth larvae were infected with B. bassiana when they were exposed to leaf washes 24 h post Botanigard application to chrysanthemum foliage. Infectivity decreased rapidly with less than 15% of the larvae infected with B. bassiana when exposed to leaf washes 48 hr post Botanigard application to foliage.
Publisher Summary
This chapter presents the basic skills and information needed to allow nonmycologists to identify the major genera and the most common species of fungal entomopathogens to the generic. Major species of fungal entomopathogens have basic diagnostic characters making them quickly identifiable. The identification of most entomopathogenic fungi necessarily depends on the observation of microscopic characters. Vegetative states of most fungi have little taxonomic value and are not characterized in the key. It is suggested that if no spores are seen in a collection, specimens should be incubated for a further time in room conditions of temperature, humidity and light. Outside the Entomophthorales, the only other significant associations with arthropods are found in the Trichomycetes, a diverse group of fungi that are mainly endocommensal in the guts of insects or crustaceans. Watermolds produce uni- or biflagellate zoospores that are both dispersive and infective units. Flagellate zoospores may be released from two possible sorts of sporangia, those with either thin or thick walls. It would be unusual to detect hosts infected by these fungi during their vegetative states, as these fungi are usually only detected when sporangia have been formed or are releasing zoospores.
Treatment of the hymenopteran parasitoidsDiadegma semiclausumandCotesia plutellaewith a strain of the entomopathogenic fungusZoophthora radicans,which was initially isolated fromPlutella xylostella,showed thatD. semiclausumwas susceptible to the pathogen but thatC. plutellaewas not. In leaf shower bioassays, the susceptibility ofD. semiclausumadults toZ. radicanswas 70- and 133-fold less than the susceptibility ofP. xylostellalarvae and adults, respectively. When adultD. semiclausumwere held in petri dishes withP. xylostellacadavers producingZ. radicansconidia the subsequent level of fungal infection in the parasitoids (20.3% became infected) was independent of the number of cadavers to which they were exposed. Female parasitoids were not shown to vector conidia ofZ. radicansdirectly from sporulating cadavers to the susceptibleP. xylostellalarvae upon which they foraged. However, the presence of a foragingD. semiclausumfemale enhanced the level ofZ. radicansinfection inP. xylostellalarvae feeding in proximity to a source ofZ. radicansinoculum. Video analysis of the movement ofP. xylostellalarvae in the presence and absence of the parasitoids indicated that the increased levels of fungal infection in the presence of foragingD. semiclausumcould be accounted for by the greater movement of larvae (in terms of both the total distance moved and the number of new “infective units” visited) when disturbed by this parasitoid. AlthoughC. plutellaeforaging also increased larval movement when compared with larvae not foraged upon, the increase was not sufficient to exceed a presumed threshold level required to enhance the fungal infection level of the larvae. The results are discussed in terms of the likely interactions betweenZ. radicansand field populations ofD. semiclausum.
Interactions between the pea aphid,Acyrthosiphon pisum,and two of its natural enemies, the ladybirdCoccinella septempunctataand the fungusErynia neoaphidis,were examined in the laboratory. AdultC. septempunctatastarved for 48 or 24 hr or nonstarved were presented with aphid prey items at different stages of infection withE. neoaphidisand their feeding behaviors monitored. This demonstrated that, under laboratory conditions,C. septempunctataadults, particularly when starved for 48 hr, perceivedA. pisuminfected withE. neoaphidisas acceptable food sources. This is a potentially antagonistic interaction as inoculum necessary for further transmission and the development of epizootics would be removed from aphid populations. However, less time was spent feeding, except by 48-hr-starved individuals, on infected than on uninfected aphids and the number of “feeding” versus “ignore” mouthpart encounters was greater for uninfected than infected aphids, thus limiting the severity of this antagonism. In addition, under laboratory conditions,C. septempunctataadults were able to passively vector infective conidia ofE. neoaphidisto susceptible aphids and initiate infection in 10–11% of the population. Ladybird foraging onE. neoaphidis-infected aphids and their ability to vector infective conidia to susceptible aphid populations is discussed in relation to the epizootiology of the fungus and its implications for the manipulation of natural enemies in integrated management strategies.
The lethal and sublethal effects of the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Wize) Brown & Smith against the coccinellid predator Serangium parcesetosum Sicard were studied in the laboratory. We also tested if the ingestion of whiteflies contaminated with B. bassiana affected predator survivorship in 3 tests: (1) S. parcesetosum larvae were fed contaminated whiteflies for a 10-d period; (2) larvae were fed 1 time-only prey contaminated 24-, 48-, 72-, or 96-h previously; and (3) larvae were fed prey after the conidia were washed off the leaves and prey cuticles. The predator had significantly lower survivorship when sprayed with B. bassiana than with P. fumosoroseus. However, survivorship was not affected by the dosage rates for each pathogen. Survivorship curves for P. fumosoroseus treatments also did not differ significantly from blank and carrier controls. Mean larval duration was longest (≈22.5 d) in S. parcesetosum sprayed at the medium and high dosages of B. bassiana, intermediate (≈20 d) for the low dosage of B. bassiana, and lowest (≈18 d) for the blank and carrier controls and theP. fumosoroseus treatments. The pupal stages averaged 6.6-8.0 d. Mean adult body weights ranged from 0.97 mg (B. bassiana low dosage) to 1.54 mg (P. fumosoroseus medium dosage), but were not significantly different. Analysis of cumulative predation showed that predators sprayed with P. fumosoroseus consumed prey at a rate similar to that of the controls (≈130 prey daily per predator), which was significantly higher than that of predators sprayed with B. bassiana (≈60 prey daily per predator). Again, dosage was not a significant factor. Feeding on B. bassiana-contaminated prey caused ≈86% mortality in S. parcesetosum immatures, compared with ≈13% in the controls. Prey contaminated 24-, 48-, 72-, and 96-h previously induced mortalities of 92.5, 71.4, 71.4, and 44.4%, respectively. Washing conidia off the leaves and the cuticle of whiteflies did not result in lowered mortality of the predator relative to the other treatments.
Arthropod abundance on mixed-grass rangeland was determined before and after spray treatments for grasshopper suppression. These evaluations were made in field plots (16.2 ha) treated with either Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin strain GHA at 1 × 1013 conidia in 1.89 liter oil per 0.405 ha, carbaryl at 559.88 g (AI) in 0.59 liter total volume per hectare, or no insecticide (untreated controls). Infectivity of B. bassiana was determined by capturing grasshoppers from treatment plots 7 d after application and monitoring them for external growth of the fungus. Major predators, parasitoids, and pollinators were captured with pitfall and malaise traps weekly throughout the summer season. About one-half of the grasshoppers collected from B. bassiana treatment plots exhibited external growth of the fungus. Formicidae, Araneae, and Carabidae decreased in all plots during periods of heavy precipitation after the treatment date, but these declines were not caused by mortality as a result of B. bassiana or carbaryl spray treatments. Ground-dwelling arthropod abundance rebounded to pretreatment levels ≈2 wk after treatments. No statistical differences in the abundance of aerial insects were detected with respect to treatment effects; however, natural increases in abundance in all plots were observed as the season progressed.
Single- and multiple-dose bioassays and field trials were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of various isolates of entomopathogenic fungi against the brown citrus aphid, Toxoptera citricida (Kirkaldy). Single-dose bioassays demonstrated that brown citrus aphid is susceptible to several isolates of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Wize) Brown & Smith, and Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin. Overt mycosis ranged from 23.1% (M. anisopliae ARSEF 759) to 78.0% (B. bassiana SARC 6000). In multiple-dose bioassays, good dose--response was obtained with 3 B. bassiana isolates. The 6-d LD50 values for these isolates ranged from 119 to 995 conidia per square millimeter. There was a strong correlation (slopes >1.30) between rapid rise in mortality and dosage increase for all 3 isolates. Replicated field trials of the B. bassiana (strain GHA)-based mycoinsecticide Mycotrol ES provided relatively rapid kill at the application rates. The 5-d Abbott percentage efficacies of Mycotrol ES were, respectively, 79.8 and 94.4% at the half and full rates (2.5 × 1013 and 5 × 1013 conidia per hectare). Proportions of overt mycosis ranged from 0.67 at the half rate to 0.80 at the full rate. Mycotrol ES could be an important component of integrated brown citrus aphid management in the future.
Naturalis-L, which contains conidia of an insect-specific fungus, Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (ATCC 74040, ARSEF 3097, FCI 7744), was evaluated in field trials for activity against boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis Boheman. Effectiveness was evaluated against overwintered adults in the spring and throughout the cotton production season for control of adults in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. In 1991, Naturalis-L was as effective as azinphosmethyl in protection of the cotton crop; lint production was 247.2 and 223.1 kg/0.4ha, respectively. In 1992, lint production in cotton protected by Naturalis-L was 373.1 kg compared with 469.5 kg lint production in cotton protected by a combination of bifenthrin and acephate. In 1991 and 1992, the integration of Naturalis-L for early-season boll weevil protection and insecticides for boll weevil infestations occurring after bloom provided the best protection and lint yields (302.1 and 469.5 kg/0.4hal, respectively.
Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is the most damaging pest of protected cucumbers in the UK and reliable control measures are required that are compatible with other components in the IPM programme. Although the predatory mite, Amblyseius cucumeris Oudemans (Acarina: Phytoseiidae), has been used for thrips control for many years, results against F.occidentalis in cucumbers during the early 1990s were frequently unacceptable. Three experiments in 1994/95 evaluated a prophylactic approach to the control of F.occidentalis. This involved placing one A. cucumeris culture sachet on each plant immediately after planting. F. occidentalis was released in all crops to ensure that the biocontrol measure received a severe test. Treatment was compared to untreated controls and the delayed release of culture sachets. The cultures remained active and produced populations of A. cucumeris on leaves for at least nine weeks. Establishment of F. occidentalis populations was almost entirely suppressed when the culture sachets were placed immediately after planting. Thrips damage was reduced compared to untreated controls when introduction of culture sachets was delayed by 2-4 weeks but this increased the risk of control failure.
Integrated pest control on chrysanthemum is now a possibility. Verticillium lecanii (Zimm.) Viegas is one of the key components as, under the right conditions, it will provide good control of pests such as aphids, thrips and whitefly. High humidity for a number of nights per week is critical for reliable pest control with this fungal pathogen. These conditions can be easily and safely obtained by fogging water over the crop at night. Four consecutive nights of high humidity per week or a cycle of two nights of high humidity and two nights ambient have given excellent pest control with no adverse effect to the crop.
The interaction between the entomopathogenic fungusAschersonia aleyrodis and the parasitoidEncarsia formosa on greenhouse whitefly as a host organism was studied, in particular, the survival of the parasitoid after treatment of parasitized
hosts with fungal spores. The mean number of parasitized black pupae per parasitoid produced at 25°C was significantly reduced
after spore treatment in the first three days following parasitization. Spore treatment four, seven or ten days after parasitization
resulted in a mean number of parasitized pupae not significantly different from the number of black pupae in the control.
The rather sudden change from low to high survival of parasitized hosts when treated with spores four days after parasitization
in spite of high numbers of infected unparasitized larvae, coincided with the hatching of the parasitoid larva from the egg
inside the host. Possible reasons for this decrease in susceptibility to infection after parasitoid egg hatch, such as induced
changes in host cuticle or haemolymph, are discussed. Parasitoids emerged from treated hosts did not show differences in reproduction
compared with parasitoids emerging from untreated hosts. Both natural enemeies of whitefly are compatible to a great extent.
Some strains ofBeauveria bassiana, B. tenella, Metarrhizium anisopliae andNomuraea rileyi were tested for specificity toCetonia aurata, Oryctes rhinoceros, Melolontha melolontha andLeptinotarsa decemlineata larvae. The contaminations were carried out by surface spray on larvae or by injection in the haemolymph with titrated spores suspensions. The experiments were conducted in blocks, each sequence of biossays was repeated 4 times. The results obtained were statistically interpreted after transformation of the mortality rates into angular values, which allowed the two-way analysis of variance and the comparison of the means by theDuncan & Staude's test. In the case of larvae ofL. decemlineata we have considered the time-mortality curves.
By spraying it has been shown thatC. aurata, O. rhinoceros orM. melolontha larvae were susceptible only to the fungus strain isolated from insects of the same species. In the same conditions all twenty isolates were active on larvae ofL. decemlineata, but at a different degree. The host specialization of entomogenous Hyphomycetes strains cannot be considered as alone taxonomic criterion. According to epidemic works in plant infection it was appeared that host resistance of larvae ofScarabaeidae was vertical and that Colorado beetle larvae showed a horizontal susceptibility. After injection in the haemolymph ofC. aurata orO. rhinoceros larvae, the cryptogamic pathotypes were active only on their original host. The role of the defense reaction was discussed. Such investigations provided informations about the different modalities of the specificity of Hyphomycetes on insects.
The foraging behavior of starved and nonstarved second and fourth instar Coccinella septempunctata larvae on dead Acyrthosiphon pisum aphids, either infected with the entomopathogenic fungus Erynia neoaphidis (sporulating) or uninfected, was examined. Larvae searched for longer and fed less when presented with infected rather than uninfected A. pisum. Although no sporulating infected aphids were completely consumed, both adult and larval ladybirds can still be considered as intraguild predators. In a further study, fourth instar larvae fed on dying infected, dead infected (not sporulating), and dead uninfected aphids for similar periods of time but again the infected aphids were seldom entirely consumed. Live uninfected aphids were fed upon for significantly longer than any other prey. Infected aphids which were damaged at an early stage of infection (0, 1, or 2 days after inoculation) did not sporulate, whereas damaged moribund aphids (3 days after inoculation) did subsequently sporulate. Damaged sporulating cadavers continued to sporulate. However, damage to moribund and sporulating infected aphids, both mechanical or due to C. septempunctata feeding, reduced the number of conidia subsequently produced. Larval feeding caused the most significant reduction. Under laboratory conditions, C. septempunctata foraging on infected aphids did, therefore, reduce the pathogen density. However, conidia produced from a damaged cadaver resulted in levels of transmission to healthy aphids comparable to that resulting from an intact cadaver. Furthermore, the presence of a foraging adult ladybird resulted in a significant increase in transmission of the fungus to healthy aphids. Preliminary studies to assess the potential of other aphid natural enemies as intraguild predators illustrated that adults of the generalist carabid, Pterostichus madidus, entirely consumed sporulating cadavers. Third instar lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea, and hoverfly, Episyrphus balteatus, larvae never fed on sporulating cadavers. The ecological implications of these results are discussed.
In large-scale field trials in Mali, formulated conidia of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin strain GHA were tested against unconfined grasshopper populations in field plots of 10 ha each. The trials compared B. bassiana conidia formulated in a mineral oil carrier, formulated diflubenzuron, a combination of B. bassiana plus formulated diflubenzuron, and fenitrothion. A total of 30 different species of grasshoppers occurred in the experimental plots, of which 3 were dominant in all plots, namely, Cryptocatantops haemorrhoidalis (Krauss), Acrotylus blondeli (Saussure), and Hieroglyphus daganensis (Krauss). The density of grasshopper populations in the plots was determined by the number of grasshoppers counted in 0.1-m2 rings laid out in repeated transects. All treatments significantly reduced the grasshopper densities in the experimental plots compared to the untreated controls. After 14 days posttreatment the grasshopper populations decreased by 38.1% in plots treated with B. bassiana alone, 29.4% in plots treated with diflubenzuron alone, and 55.6% in plots treated with the B. bassiana plus diflubenzuron. Effects of the diflubenzuron-B. bassiana mixture were additive and not synergistic. In the fenitrothion plots, after a drop of 95.5% within the first 48 h after the treatment, the grasshopper population steadily increased at a rate of 12.4% per day for the remainder of the 14-day period, whereas densities in the other treated plots continued to decrease. These trials suggest that B. bassiana, with or without a diflubenzuron additive, exerts a continuous effect over a prolonged period.
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