Article

Abused athletes' perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship

Taylor & Francis
Sport In Society
Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

The coach-athlete relationship is often one of the most important and influential relationships experienced by a young athlete.1 While coaches may have many positive influences on young athletes, emerging literature also indicates problems of abuse. In fact, recent research indicates that athletes are not immune from experiences of physical, sexual and emotional abuse.2 Furthermore, the power of the coach is thought to be a contributing risk factor in abusive relationships.3 The purpose of this study therefore was to investigate abused athletes' perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship. More specifically, we were interested in abused athletes' perceptions of the power held by the coach, and the influence of this power on an athlete's experience of abuse. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine previously abused athletes; four retired elite female gymnasts and five retired elite female swimmers. Consistent with previous research, the participants reflected upon the significant power held by the coach over the athlete. The findings contributed to existing literature by revealing specific ways in which the coach's power influenced the athletes' experiences of abuse and their ability to report incidences of maltreatment. These findings are discussed and recommendations are made for abuse prevention and future research.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Several studies identified the power differential in the coach-athlete relationship, and other relationships between athletes and leaders in sports, as an important aspect maintaining toxic leadership practices (Krieger & Pieper, 2023;McHenry et al., 2021;Stirling & Kerr, 2008, 2009. As an example, athletes in Stirling and Kerr (2009) perceived coaches and other leaders to have significant influence over their future careers. Speaking up against abusive leadership practices was perceived to impact athletic careers in a negative way and several studies found that athletes experienced a significant fear of potential repercussions (Chroni & Kavoura, 2022;Kerr & Stirling, 2012;Krieger & Pieper, 2023;Stirling & Kerr, 2009;Willson et al., 2022a). ...
... As an example, athletes in Stirling and Kerr (2009) perceived coaches and other leaders to have significant influence over their future careers. Speaking up against abusive leadership practices was perceived to impact athletic careers in a negative way and several studies found that athletes experienced a significant fear of potential repercussions (Chroni & Kavoura, 2022;Kerr & Stirling, 2012;Krieger & Pieper, 2023;Stirling & Kerr, 2009;Willson et al., 2022a). The power differential and associated fear of reprisal was also found to significantly contribute to a second, highly prevalent, theme, namely that of a code of silence surrounding toxic leadership practices in elite sports (Nite & Nauright, 2020;Shiakou et al., 2023;Willson et al., 2022a). ...
... However, none of these studies demonstrated an empirical relationship between toxic leadership practices and improved performance. Six studies, however, discussed the possibility that certain darkside leadership behaviors might be related to performance gains (Cruickshank & Collins, 2015;Jacobs et al., 2017;Kerr et al., 2020;Serpell et al., 2021;Smits et al., 2017;Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Specifically, athletes and coaches expressed the view that toxic leadership behaviors may serve to increase mental toughness or 'build character' among athletes, which in turn is assumed to increase performance potential Kerr et al., 2020). ...
Article
Full-text available
This scoping review aimed to identify the current state of knowledge on toxic leadership in high-performance sports and its consequences for mental health and performance at individual, interpersonal, and organizational levels. Abstract screening (n=768) and full-text review (n=83) resulted in the inclusion of 26 studies, predominantly conducted in North America and Europe. Studies used inconsistent defini-tions, theoretical frameworks, and methodological approaches to study darker or toxic leadership. Several antecedents and maintaining factors to toxic leadership were identified, such as individual leader characteristics, a performance-oriented culture, status/power structures, and a lack of reporting processes or consequences within organizations. The empirical literature provided initial support for the negative consequences of toxic leadership on athletes’ mental health, injuries, and motivation to remain in high-performance sports. Few studies have investigated the consequences of toxic leadership on sports organizations, staff or coaches. We conclude that research on toxic leadership in high-performance sports is in its early stages, with an underdeveloped understanding of how problematic leadership can be detected, prevented, and addressed to minimize their impact in sports. Researchers, governing bodies, and sports organizations must intensify their efforts to comprehend the emergence and persistence of toxic leadership within high-performance sports environments.
... When compared with more visible forms that can, for instance, leave physical marks on the body, psychological violence is subject to greater discussion and interpretation. Indeed, qualitative studies with coaches , athletes (Stirling & Kerr, 2009), and other stakeholders (Kerr & Stirling, 2012) made clear that psychological violence is justified and normalized in some cases (e.g., "humiliating athletes is meant to keep them sharp"). This study addresses some of the knowledge gaps that remain around psychological violence, hampering adequate safeguarding in practice. ...
... Coaching style has never been empirically linked to psychological abuse in quantitative studies. Moreover, studies on coaching style are mostly retrospective and typically involve small samples of adult (ex-)elite-level athletes (Brackenridge & Fasting, 2005;Owton & Sparkes, 2017;Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Therefore, findings are not convincing enough to rule out skepticism of coaches and managers alike regarding the risks and downsides of this demotivating coach-leadership style. ...
... First, high-performance gymnastics (i.e., subelite and elite level) is recognized for having some risk factors for psychological abuse (Greither & Ohlert, 2023). It is marked by high training load, both in intensity and training hours; competition pressure; and early specialization, implying power imbalanced relationships between adult coaches and young children (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). The latter are often isolated from their parents and restrained from a normal social life. ...
Article
Athlete well-being and safety is of central importance to the field of sport management. Despite the growing attention of researchers, policy makers, and practitioners on interpersonal violence in sport, the issue remains prevalent. The most occurring form of interpersonal violence—coach-perpetrated psychological abuse of athletes—remains understudied. This gap was addressed in this study by exploring the dynamic interplay between individual coaching behaviors and organizational club characteristics in subelite-level gymnastics in Flanders (Belgium). The findings indicate a relationship between coaching style, club climate, and psychological abuse perpetrated by coaches. Gymnasts that perceived their coaches as more controlling, and/or the club climate as unethical also experienced more psychological abuse by their coaches. Furthermore, the club climate was found to moderate the relation between controlling coaching and psychological abuse, indicating the importance of taking an organizational and management lens to the issue of interpersonal violence in sport.
... Quantitative researchers have highlighted the prevalence of abuse relative to type (e.g., psychologi-cal, sexual), sport levels (e.g., recreational, elite amateur), athletes' ages (e.g., youth, adult), country, and sport, with high prevalence rates reported within elite national, international, and professional contexts (e.g., 70% of active and retired national athletes disclosing psychologically abusive experiences, Leahy et al., 2002;Ohlert et al., 2021). Qualitative researchers have expanded beyond prevalence to understand how abuse develops and impacts athletes across amateur and professional sports contexts (Marsollier & Hauw, 2022;Seanor et al., 2023;Stirling & Kerr, 2009). One common observation is that the development of abuse is contextual, multi-dimensional, and unique to the relationships (see Stirling & Kerr, 2014), organizations (see , type of sport system (e.g., amateur vs. professional sports), and national and sport cultures (see Rodríguez et al., 2011) in which it develops. ...
... An average age was calculated using athletes' age of retirement (see Table 2) to reflect their age when departing sport, meeting criteria (a). Articles where researchers described athletes' experiences throughout their career (see Stirling & Kerr, 2009) were included because they reflected abuse experiences when sport represented athletes' occupations. Cole screened the articles by title, abstract, methodology, and full text, removing articles that did not meet the criteria (n = 2492). ...
... Sexual abuse was pre-meditated and involved coaches selecting, isolating, and abusing athletes when competing at tournaments and in video rooms, suggesting that motivation to abuse is a risk factor (Fasting et al., 2002). Behaviors that characterized sexual abuse included harassment and sexist jokes (Moola & Kraun, 2018;Rodríguez & Gill, 2011) flirting (Stirling & Kerr, 2009), and massages (Fasting et al., 2002;Fasting & Brackenridge, 2009). Psychological and emotional abuse were used to define patterns of non-deliberate and non-contact behaviors occurring within critical relationships, namely coach-athlete relationships, that have potential to harm the victims (Kavanagh et al., 2017;Stirling & Kerr, 2008a;2008b2014). ...
Article
Occupational health and safety management systems (OHSMS) promote healthy workplace environments through regulating hazards and health promotion activities. Abuse within elite sports is one hazard that threatens the health and safety of elite adult athletes. Despite the widespread existence of evidence-informed guidelines to safeguard youth athletes, few safeguards have been developed for elite adult athletes, despite sport being their primary occupation. Through a critical realist lens, we used a thematic meta-synthesis to search, appraise and synthesize 20 articles conducted with elite adult athletes who have experienced abuse. We present three themes to highlight: (a) how abuse types (sexual, psychology, physical, and financial) are fluid and expand over time, (b) the contextual factors that influence abuse (individual, relational, structural, cultural), and (c) temporal impacts of abuse throughout athletes' early, late, and post-sport careers. The present work is discussed in relation to perceived advancement of OHSMS and safe sport through protecting athletes from the hazards present within their occupational environments.
... Many coaches feel responsible for the well-being and overall development of sports participants they are coaching (Ferguson et al., 2019). Coaches often build close relationships with sports participants, serve as role models and are a first point of contact for young sports participants because they spend a lot of time together (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Therefore, they are considered powerful allies for young sports participants and thus play a crucial role in child safeguarding and the prevention of sexual violence (Nurse, 2018). ...
... However, Ferguson (2019) found that most coaches did not receive any education about responding to situations of (sexual) violence (e.g., knowledge and methods to provide support or help to victims). Subsequently, there is also the normalization of violent behavior in sports, which can play a role in the coaches' ability to recognize incidents of sexual violence (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Moreover, in some countries like the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, coaches are bounded by a mandatory reporting law in case of sexual violence suspicions (Hartill & Lang, 2018;López et al., 2019). ...
... The findings of this study may therefore equally indicate that coaches were still unsuccessful in adequately detecting (signs of) sexual violence, although they had a strong intention to do so. Normalization of violent sexual behavior in sports may have played a role in the coaches' inability to recognize such incidents (Stirling & Kerr, 2009), or the period between the measurements was too short to notice any changes. ...
Article
Full-text available
With current estimates of up to one in three children experiencing some form of sexual violence in sports, the need for effective measures to prevent sexual violence in sports is high. Survivors’ narratives of sexual violence in sports uncover the lack of (adequate) bystander action and the urgent need for stakeholder education to effectively prevent sexual violence in youth sports. This study presents the “All Aboard” educational program, targeting youth sports coaches in Flanders (Belgium). The program aimed to stimulate the intentions of youth coaches to engage in positive bystander behavior to adequately detect, assess, and respond to signs of sexual violence toward young athletes. After two pilot studies, this program was implemented in nine Flemish sports clubs. Coaches’ readiness to change, intentions and attitudes, perceived norms, and perceived behavioral control were measured before and after they participated in the program using the “And what would you do?” questionnaire, constructed according to the Reasoned Action Approach. After the program, positive change was found in coaches’ intentions to be a positive bystander, e.g., they acknowledged the value of being a positive bystander, felt more comfortable being a positive bystander and believed that doing so would improve the situation. This article is one of the first to report on an evidence-based intervention program to prevent sexual violence in sports by fostering positive attitudes toward positive bystander behaviors by coaches. Opportunities and challenges of implementing education to prevent sexual violence in local sports clubs are discussed.
... In this study, interviewees also pointed out that the problematic feature that allows for abuse is generally the hierarchical setting between the teacher as "master" and student as "pupil." However, Stirling and Kerr (2009) write that although power disparities between coach and athlete are often seen as risk factors for emotional abuse, "the coach's degree of power is certainly not the sole determinant of an athlete's vulnerability to abuse" (237). Moreover, they argue that power is also more likely to be used negatively in a sports culture "that often idealizes and prioritizes athletic performance above the best interests or well-being of the athlete" (235). ...
... As another interviewee explained, becoming a professional musician requires taking music lessons and performing very seriously from a young age; i.e., when "you are vulnerable and naïve." These power discrepancies definitely play a role in making individuals vulnerable for abusive behavior (Stirling and Kerr 2009;Bull and Page 2021). However, I argue that feeling responsible for the teacher's emotionally abusive behavior, or feelings of loyalty and sentimentality towards the emotionally abusive teacher, could also be understood as exemplifying how narratives of genius and musical heroes, ready-made images and expectations of classical music musicians, symbols and the way skills symbolize values and status of persons, as well as emerging social imaginaries that contribute to social norms and codes of conduct, can be internalized by individuals and impact the construction of selves and embodied subjectivities (Gatens 2004, 283-85;1996/2003. ...
... On the other hand, both higher music education students' dependance on their instrumental teachers and instrumental teachers' power could be lessened by including other partners and professionals to support students' development, such as performance coaches, discipline-specific counseling, and support to deal with psycho-physical issues (Jääskeläinen et al. 2023, 16;Stirling and Kerr 2009). In children's classical music instrumental education, teachers' power could be balanced by involving parents to support their child's musical development. ...
Article
Based on interviews with fourteen Finnish women classical music students and graduates from Finnish higher music education institutions, this article sheds light on the under-researched subject of emotional abuse in classical music education. Emotional abuse is defined as patterned deliberate non-contact behavior, such as verbal abuse and emotional neglect (Stirling and Kerr 2008). In this research, such behavior included maleficent and/or demeaning comments; unwarranted anger; humiliation; harmful comparison; denial of approval, attention, or support; and intentionally setting up a student for failure. First, I ask in what ways beliefs and values specific to classical music culture partly allow for emotional abuse. Second, I explore how the understandings and theories of Gatens (1996/2003) and Tännsjö (2000) can be applied to explain how beliefs, representations, images, symbols, and narratives specific to classical music culture allow for the prevalence of emotional abuse by impacting norms of behavior that may leave individuals prone to both participating in and accepting emotionally abusive behavior.
... Neglect can be physical, educational and emotional. Emotional neglect consists of inappropriate parenting behaviours and social neglect (Matthews, 2004;Stirling & Kerr, 2009). ...
... Factors such as performance, success and victory are often the most valued criteria in sports, even among children and young people. Regardless of how they are achieved, they can lead to problematic sports practices (Gervis & Dunn, 2004;Stirling & Kerr, 2009), often leading to athletes being victims of mistreatment (Vertommen et al., 2016). ...
... Athletes tend to remain silent in the face of mistreatment behaviour in sports (Bascón-Seda & Ramírez-Macías, 2020;Stirling et al., 2011). Indicators such as the intensity of the Athlete-coach relationship (Bringer, Brackenridge, & Johnston, 2001;A. Stirling & Kerr, 2009), the inherent hierarchy of competitive sports, and the dependence on the coach for achieving sporting success (Brackenridge & Kirby, 1997;Stirling & Kerr, 2014;Tofler et al., 1996) cause the creation, in some cases, of a deep "code of silence" on the part of the athletes (Stirling et al., 2011). Athletes may be afraid of retaliation fro ...
Article
Full-text available
This qualitative study aimed to describe the nature of mistreatment behaviours in the Athlete-coach relationship, in the region of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. For our study, we interviewed 12 athletes of federated sports. We focused on young athletes, aged 13-18 years old, who practiced a collective, combat, or individual sports discipline. The data was then studied through content analysis. In the case of athletes as victims, there were no mistreatment behaviours in the Athlete-coach relationship. However, as observers, the athletes have reported forms of abuse in the Athlete-coach relationship, such as verbal emotional abuse and denial of attention and support. As preventative measures for mistreatment behaviours, the athletes mentioned supervision and even the dismissal of the coach. Respondents stress the need to deepen the topic for the strategies to be effective. They emphasize the need to sensitize clubs for the protection of athletes, through investigations in the area under study, for fighting and preventing mistreatment behaviour in sports practice. Keywords: Emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, neglecting, federated sports.
... Some may even neglect their health to order to keep competing and engage in transgressive behaviours like doping (Nicholls et al., 2020). These health risk behaviours have mainly been studied in light of individual or psychosocial factors, including motivation, self-perceptions, personality traits (Petito et al., 2016) and the coach-athlete relationship (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). This line of research has encouraged the development of specific health risk behaviour prevention programs (Hanlon et al., 2020;Kerr & Kerr, 2020;Pöppel, 2021;Sipavičiūtė et al., 2020) including, for example, the prevention of burnout (Choi et al., 2022) or mental health interventions (Purcell et al., 2019). ...
... Athletes explained that their parents and coaches were the major sources of social support, notably during stress and doubt periods, as previously reported in the literature (Burns et al., 2022;Rosenfeld et al., 1989;Sheridan et al., 2014). Strong interpersonal relationships reduce the stress associated with high-level sport demands (Burns et al., 2022) and a strong coach-athlete relationship is directly correlated with the well-being of athletes (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Many athletes highlighted the importance of this social support, whereas coaches and managers barely expressed themselves on the subject. ...
... Moreover, elite athletes are subjected to a set of constraints that lead to specific risks such as injury (Sghir et al., 2021) anxiety, or burnout (Lin et al., 2022;Gouttebarge et al., 2019). The coach-athlete relationship is crucial for their well-being (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Therefore, it is important for coaches and parents of athletes to benefit from health promotion activities in order to develop more knowledge about the health-related lifestyle conductive to the athlete's health and performance. ...
Article
Full-text available
Elite athletes are continually subjected to a range of constraints specific to high performance, and these can have a negative impact on their health. Although many studies have explored the individual factors related to risky behaviours and disorders in elite sport contexts, few have focused on health promotion. Consequently, the interpersonal, institutional, and policy factors of the health-related behaviours of elite athletes are still poorly explored. Based on the socioecological model, this study aimed to identify the factors involved in the health-related lifestyle of elite athletes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 45 participants: athletes (N = 32), their coaches (N = 6) and the managers of elite sport centres (N = 7). Both deductive and inductive thematic analyses were performed. Our results highlight the views of the actors. Regarding intrapersonal factors, resilience qualities and health literacy appeared as key factors in influencing the health-related lifestyle of elite athletes. At the interpersonal level, parents and coaches emerged as the main sources of educational support. Regarding institutional factors, the health policies of the elite sport centres were key factors in supporting the athletes’ healthy lifestyle. These results encourage the development of health promotion programs at different levels of intervention.
... 88 At this level, coaches sometimes wield immense power over athletes' careers. 83 In extreme cases, athletes may feel pressured to tolerate IV in exchange for the opportunity 20 88 115 198 279 280 Challenging personal relationships (peer, partner, authority figure) 30 50 115 281-283 Non-sport or sport-related injury and illness (accidental) 42 47 88 284 Economic loss 112 Psychological distress 20 112 152 201 218 285 Sport dropout 33 46 50 100 115 184 201 255 279 286 Psychosomatic symptoms/somatisation 203 Stress 255 287 Conformity to social/gender norms 50 Post-traumatic stress disorder 20 88 291 Unhealthy risk taking (alcohol misuse/abuse, substance use, risky sex) 283 Shame 291 298 Cheating (performance-enhancing drugs, rule breaking) 139 Hopelessness 201 ...
... The reviewed literature highlights organisational safeguarding initiatives, many already in practice, such as required trainings and policies, 234 codes of conduct, 167 education, training, 129 167 policy implementation 161 235 and addressing power dynamics and coaching practices related to IV risks. 83 Some initiatives prioritise athlete inclusion. 35 Some studies described specific safeguarding initiatives, 143 160 161 236 237 and only two were evaluated for effectiveness: hazing prevention 236 and the implementation of the 'International Safeguards'. ...
Article
Full-text available
Objective Interpersonal violence (IV) in sport is challenging to define, prevent and remedy due to its subjectivity and complexity. The 2024 International Olympic Committee Consensus on Interpersonal Violence and Safeguarding aimed to synthesise evidence on IV and safeguarding in sport, introduce a new conceptual model of IV in sport and offer more accessible safeguarding guidance to all within the sports ecosystem by merging evidence with insights from Olympic athletes. Methods A 15-member expert panel performed a scoping review following Joanna Briggs Institute methodologies. A seminal works-driven approach was used to identify relevant grey literature. Four writing groups were established focusing on: definitions/ epidemiology, individual/interpersonal determinants, contextual determinants and solutions. Writing groups developed referenced scientific summaries related to their respective topics, which were discussed by all members at the consensus meeting. Recommendations were then developed by each group, presented as voting statements and circulated for confidential voting following a Delphi protocol with ≥80% agreement defined a priori as reaching consensus. Results Of 48 voting statements, 21 reached consensus during first-round voting. Second-round and third-round voting saw 22 statements reach consensus, 5 statements get discontinued and 2 statements receive minority dissension after failing to reach agreement. A total of 43 statements reached consensus, presented as overarching (n=5) and topical (n=33) consensus recommendations, and actionable consensus guidelines (n=5). Conclusion This evidence review and consensus process elucidated the characterisation and complexity of IV and safeguarding in sport and demonstrates that a whole-of-system approach is needed to fully comprehend and prevent IV. Sport settings that emphasise mutual care, are athlete centred, promote healthy relationships, embed trauma and violence- informed care principles, integrate diverse perspectives and measure IV prevention and response effectiveness willexemplifysafesport.Asharedresponsibilitybetween all within the sports ecosystem is required to advance effective safeguarding through future research, policy and practice.
... There are three types of closeness: physical (nonsport-related touches/behaviors, such as hugging and driving together), emotional (coach and athlete liking one another, coach taking on maternal/paternal role), and social (developing a friendship, going to dinner, attending social events together; Owton & Sparkes, 2017;Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Although closeness is a desired component of the coach-athlete relationship, it also carries specific risks, including negative dependencies, the misuse of trust, and athlete abuse (Gaedicke et al., 2021). ...
... Indeed, the coaches in this study highlighted examples of when they feared others may misunderstand their intentions (e.g., athlete hugs coach after performance success, coach drives athlete to school, and athlete eats dinner at coach's house with family members also present). While these coaches had different types and amounts of closeness (e.g., social, emotional, and physical) in each of their relationships, such closeness also carries a specific risk for the abuse of trust (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). ...
Article
The purpose of this study was to understand why and how experienced tennis coaches developed quality relationships with their high-performance adolescent athletes that prioritized athletes’ needs and well-being. Five highly regarded Canadian tennis coaches of internationally ranked adolescent players engaged in two semistructured interviews and three story completion tasks. The data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Findings outlined that coaches unanimously believed establishing a close, trusting relationship with their adolescent athletes was fundamental to creating a caring environment in which empathy for athletes’ athletic, academic, and personal demands could be demonstrated. Coaches also described the difficulties of navigating these close relationships in a climate that is under severe scrutiny because of athlete maltreatment allegations. Examples of coaching behaviors that fostered closeness and maintained athlete safety included demonstrating care towards athletes’ social, emotional, academic, and athletic challenges, encouraging dialogue in which athletes expressed their wants and needs, and involving parents to help maintain transparency regarding the establishment of closeness. Uniquely, this study provides practical suggestions for how coaches can nurture closeness while promoting safe environments that prioritize athletes’ welfare.
... al. 2021;Sabaliauskas and Poteliūnienė 2010;Sand et. al. 2011;Stirling and Kerr 2009;Prewitt-White 2019;Fasting et. al. 2018) and examines some of the major factors. ...
... al. 2011;Sherman et al. 2000;Fejgin et al. 2001). Coaching roles are frequently held by men, while women coaches are underrepresented, and this unequal gender distribution in coaching positions could be interpreted as a general risk (or, at the very least, a warning sign) of sexual violence, paving the way for male coaches to abuse their positions (Stirling and Kerr 2009). ...
Article
Full-text available
Sexual harassment and sexual abuse are not uncommon in the world of sports. Many athletes, especially female athletes, have been victims of violence, intimidation and abuse. For many years, victims remained silent and hid their experiences for fear of condemnation by society and the media, but recent trends show that the situation is improving. More and more athletes are speaking out against sexual harassment and abuse in the world of sport. From a legal point of view, the main feature of sexual harassment cases is that the burden of proof can be shifted to the accused. In criminal law, this mechanism raises concerns about a possible violation of the presumption of innocence. However, as international sports federations apply a lower standard of proof in disciplinary cases, this procedural feature is viewed favourably. At the same time, it should be noted that a lower standard of proof does not in any way mean that sexual harassment and abuse cases can be investigated with less responsibility or sensitivity. On the contrary, the legal and criminological specificity of this phenomenon implies that the boundaries between sexual abuse, sexual harassment, unprofessional conduct, and mere flirting must be clearly defined. Appropriate delimitation ensures, on the one hand, that perpetrators do not escape responsibility, even if it is relatively minor, and, on the other hand, protects the innocent against unfounded accusations.
... Athletes who have experienced violence from their coaches refer to the influence of their coaches' power. For example, athletes have referred to their coaches as "parentfigures" [41] or "God" [42], expressing their unquestioned commitment to their coach: "You are somebody if you are coached by him, he coaches the best people in the country so no-one questions him" [39]. Another athlete said, "she was the best coach around so I had to tolerate the abuse", referring to the expertise power that led to their continued experiences of abuse [41]. ...
... For example, athletes have referred to their coaches as "parentfigures" [41] or "God" [42], expressing their unquestioned commitment to their coach: "You are somebody if you are coached by him, he coaches the best people in the country so no-one questions him" [39]. Another athlete said, "she was the best coach around so I had to tolerate the abuse", referring to the expertise power that led to their continued experiences of abuse [41]. In fact, the coach-athlete relationship has been equated to a master-slave relationship [43]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Millions of girls and young women participate in organized sports annually as a vehicle for developing a strong sense of self, social bonds, a positive body image and a sense of agency. Although the benefits of sport engagement are experienced by many girls, the overwhelming evidence of experiences of gender-based violence in sport cannot be ignored (e.g., USA Gymnastics, Hockey Canada). This paper will address gender-based violence experienced by adolescents in sport with a focus on psychological violence. The literature is replete with evidence that girls experience higher rates of gender-based psychological violence in sport than boys, and as a result, incur developmental costs. Psychological violence is experienced by girls in sport in the form of demeaning comments, body shaming, inequitable media coverage and funding and the ongoing policing of women’s bodies in sport through sexualized sport attire and physiological testing. The causes and effects of psychological violence will be addressed along with recommendations to prevent and address gender-based violence in sport.
... Antrenör, sporcuların beslenme ve uyku alışkanlıklarına bile müdahale edebilme kapasitesine sahiptir. Bu bağlamda, antrenörler diyetisyen, danışman ve sağlık uzmanı gibi roller üstlenebilmektedir (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Bu durum, antrenörlerin sadece teknik bilgi sunmakla kalmayıp, sporcuların genel yaşam tarzlarını da etkileyebileceklerini göstermektedir. ...
... In addition, the analyses did not focus on perceptions of abusive coaching behaviors depending on success or performance. Yet, as revealed by Marsollier and Hauw (2022) and Stirling and Kerr (2009), experiences of abuse may be dependent on the moment in a given career and athletic outcomes. Future qualitative studies should go further by exploring the dynamic of the experience of coaching behaviors and the coach-athlete interactions that can turn a normal sports situation (e.g., asking an athlete to lose weight to make the category) into an abusive one (lack of support leading to eating disorders, see Marsollier & Hauw, 2022). ...
Article
The present study aimed to conduct an in-depth analysis of adolescent competitive athletes’ perceptions on abusive coaching behaviors. Our aims were thus to (a) identify the acceptable abusive coaching behaviors and (b) characterize qualitatively the criteria for the acceptance of abusive coaching behaviors. Based on the study goal, an Abusive Coaching Behavior Grid was developed and completed by 356 French-speaking athletes, among which 10 were interviewed to justify where they draw the line between acceptable and unacceptable coaching behaviors. Quantitative analysis showed that shaking, shouting at, or asking athletes to perform until exhaustion were considered acceptable. Quebec and female athletes tended to accept fewer different abusive behaviors, but there were no differences by sport characteristics. The perception on abusive coaching behaviors was influenced by expectations about the coaching role, negative effects of coaching behaviors, circumstances in which the behaviors occur, and the nature of behaviors. The present study raises the importance of questioning cognitive schemas shared by groups of athletes as well as the norms coaches convey and the behaviors they adopt.
... This indicates that coaches who are seldom interested in an athlete's well-being may miss out on opportunities to provide support for the athletes' need, potentially affecting their overall psychological state. Indeed, coaches who fail to check with an athlete on their well-being on a regular basis may create a situation, in which athletes feel unable to voice their concerns or to seek help when needed (Stirling et al., 2009). This can potentially lead to decreased motivation, increased anxiety, and even a higher risk of burnout (Isoard-Gautheur et al., 2016). ...
... The prevalence of emotionally abusive coaching practices reported here is consistent with findings from a study of Canadian national team athletes (Willson, Kerr, Stirling, & Buono, 2022). However, it may underestimate the problem, given that these practices are often normalized in a sporting environment and are under-reported by athletes (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Action needs to be taken to target this and other forms of maltreatment by improving methods of identifying and protecting athletes at risk, increasing their power and autonomy, and promoting reporting of abuse (Stirling & Kerr, 2008;Willson et al., 2022), as well as by using findings such as those reported here to tailor intervention efforts. ...
... There are multiple shades in the quality of the relationship that can vary from bright, reflecting high-quality, functional, and healthy relationships to fair, murky, and ambivalent, through to very dark reflecting, dysfunctional and unhealthy relationships (Slade et al 2024). Once a coach's and athlete's relationship has reached a dark shade, their connection can cease to exist, and the potential positive aspects of the relationship are no longer evident (Stirling & Kerr, 2009;Kavanagh et al., 2017). The relationship morphs into a spiral of difficult interactions, abuse and exploitation, lacking authenticity and genuineness. ...
Article
Coaching is a process that guides development and is shaped by sound relationships between athletes and coaches. Interpersonal communication represents a mechanism for developing functional relationships. However, not all interactions between coaches and athletes are optimal, and limited research has attempted to understand the factors that impede the ability to engage in effective communication. This study aimed to contribute to the literature by exploring the barriers experienced by high-performance coaches and athletes that hinder interpersonal communication within the coach–athlete relationship. A qualitative design grounded in a pragmatic philosophical position was utilised, and 20 semistructured interviews with 12 coaches and eight athletes participating in elite team sports were carried out. Interviews were conducted either in person or digitally via an online platform and analysed through content analysis. Barriers were identified for either coaches, athletes, or both and categorised as follows: (a) intrapersonal (e.g., lack of skills and negative experiences), (b) interpersonal (e.g., lack of concern/interest and power imbalance), and (c) environmental factors (e.g., hierarchy and toxic culture). These results suggest efforts should be focused on equipping coaches and athletes with intra- and interpersonal skills and empowering them to co-create a safe and united culture for themselves and their sport.
... There are multiple behaviours associated with sexual violence in sport (Fernández, 2000). The selected instruments allow us to identify unacceptable situations, attitudes and behaviours in the coach-athlete relationship and to prevent such situations by taking into account the perceptions and experiences of athletes (Poczwardowski et al., 2006;Stirling and Kerr, 2009). In addition, the SHSCS and CASD instruments have items differentiating between instruction-related and noninstruction-related but instruction-dependent behaviours, which allows for the analysis of sexual violence in its entirety, as it takes into account the different manifestations of sexual violence as well as the different possible locations (Roberts et al., 2020). ...
Article
Full-text available
The increasing number of cases of sexual violence in sports practiced by minors justifies the need to have valid and reliable instruments to identify these violent behaviors and know their incidence. The objective of this systematic review was to analyze the psychometric characteristics of retrospective questionnaires assessing perceptions and experiences of sexual violence in school sport (12-17 years). A review of the literature was conducted between 1960 and 2023 in Pubmed, Dialnet, Eric, Scopus and Psycinfo, five studies (questionnaires) were selected and, after evaluating their methodological quality using the Qualitative Attributes and Measurement Properties of Physical Activity Questionnaires (QAPAQ) checklist, they were analyzed its general, structural characteristics and psychometric properties. The results showed that the few questionnaires found are of acceptable methodological quality, providing values of internal consistency (except one study) and content validity. The questionnaires were developed to evaluate sexual violence behaviors in sports perpetrated by coaches or other athletes using Likert scales and in a self-administered manner. We believe that it is still necessary to evaluate the measurement properties of sexual harassment in sport questionnaires and try to unify the questionnaires in order to contrast the results on perceptions and experiences.
... 9 The coach-athlete balance of power is also considered a key contributing risk factor in sport-related abusive relationships. 286 In elite sports, where the coach-athlete relationship is central and progressively more complex, youth athletes are notably vulnerable to abuse. 19 Moreover, there is a widely recognised and accepted increased dependence of youth athletes on their coaches (and expanded entourage) as they progress athletically and commit to greater levels and frequency of training and international competition. ...
Article
With the pronounced ongoing growth of global youth sports, opportunities for and participation of youth athletes on the world sports stage, including the Olympic Games, are expected to escalate. Yet, adolescence is a vulnerable period of development and inherently dynamic, with non-linear and asynchronous progression of physical, physiological, psychological and social attributes. These non-concurrent changes within and between individuals are accompanied by irregular and unpredictable threats and impediments. Likewise, the evident age-based criteria and conventional path for those youth athletes deemed eligible candidates for the Olympic Games are not well or consistently defined. Furthermore, the unstructured and largely varying policies and practices across the sporting International Federations specific to youth participation underscore the need to establish a contemporary universal paradigm that would enable elite youth athletes to navigate an individualised healthy pathway to personal, athletic and sport success. First, we reviewed and summarised key challenges facing elite youth athletes and the relevant evidence fundamental to facilitating and supporting central aspects of health and well-being, while empowering safe, sustainable and positive engagement during athletic and personal advancement and competition. Second, we developed and present a modern elite youth athlete model that emphasises a child-centred, practical framework with corresponding guidelines and recommendations to protect health and well-being while safely and favourably managing international sport competition. Our proposed evidence-informed paradigm will enable and support individualised pathways for healthy, well-rounded and sustainable positive engagement while achieving sport success for youth contending or aiming to compete at world-class international sporting events.
... While judgements about who tends to perpetrate abuse remain somewhat inconclusive, multiple studies suggest that adults, particularly coaches, are significant sources of emotionally harmful behaviour towards young athletes (Wilinsky & McCabe, 2020). With coaches exerting evident power and control over young athletes (Eliasson, 2015;Stirling & Kerr, 2009), the potential risk of abuse may increase. Based on quantitative data from more than 1,800 adolescents aged 14 and older, Parent et al. (2023) found that most reported perpetrators were coaches (41%), though closely followed by peers (38%) and then parents (25%). ...
Article
Full-text available
Child abuse in sports is a significant threat to the well-being of young athletes. The aim of this study was to create in-depth knowledge of children’s perspectives and relational situations regarding the manifestation and effects of emotional abuse towards athletes in children’s sports. Based on interviews with 15 children aged 12–18 and five coaches, five themes of emotionally abusive interactions were identified: (a) scolding by coaches; (b) negative criticism from coaches and children; (c) expression of aggression and disappointment by coaches; (d) teasing and joking by children; and (e) denial of attention and support from coaches. These interactions lead to emotionally harmful effects for some of the children, which were not always recognized by coaches and were sometimes downplayed. The findings have implications for identifying situations and behaviours that may constitute emotional abuse in children’s sports, paving the way for proactive measures aimed at preventing emotional abuse.
... Participants also described feeling "fearful" of direct recriminations by the perpetrator, of others finding out about the abuse, and of the impact on their sporting career (Fasting et al., 2007;Kirby et al., 2000;Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Many of these fears were realized, with participants describing that after they rejected sexual advances or reported sexual harassment or assault, they lost their place on the team, or were subject to unfair treatment by the perpetrator and other members of the sporting family (Way, 2023). ...
Article
Full-text available
Violence against women in sport is pervasive. Prevalence rates of interpersonal violence range from 26% to 74% across psychological, physical, and sexual violence. This review synthesizes adult women’s experiences of gender-based interpersonal violence in sport. A systematic review of qualitative studies was conducted. Five databases were searched, including CINAHL, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, and Sociological Abstracts. In total, 1,617 records were retrieved and screened. Twenty-five records representing 24 studies were eligible for inclusion. Following a meta-ethnographic approach, both authors synthesized first- (participants) and second-(researcher) order constructs to create a new interpretation (third-order construct) beyond the individual studies reviewed. A feminist socio-ecological lens was applied. Five themes were constructed: women’s safety work, the normalization of abusive behaviors in the sports context, sport family violence, organizational impotence and hostility, and women’s status in a patriarchal system. Women’s experiences of abuse are mapped within and across the individual, relational, organizational, and cultural levels of the socio-ecological model, with (lack of) power being a central factor within each level as well as flowing between the levels. A fifth socio-ecological level was developed pertaining to the unique context of sport—that of the sport family. This sits between the relational and organizational levels of the model and covers both intense familial relationships and patriarchal familial organizational structures in sport that facilitate and silence the abuse. Sporting bodies must co-design interventions encompassing all socio-ecological levels to address gender-based violence in sport.
... Through awareness of power as a circulating concept, coaches can positively contribute to the child's pedagogical development. For example, by applying power in the coach-athlete relationship as a social function in a shared power arrangement to enhance the athlete's well-being and performance, for example, stimulating the athlete's autonomy [66]. However, negative consequences for athletes occur once coaches see power as an inclusive entity of being a coach. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
A positive, caring and safe sports climate is essential for the healthy development of young people. One of the responsibilities of parties involved in organised sports is to create a safe sports climate, but in practice, difficulties in creating such a climate are still experienced nowadays. Implementing prevention programmes solely focused on coaches or the environment is not a comprehensive approach. Therefore, the biopsychosocial profile of athletes representing potential risks of experiencing sexual violence in sports can serve as a base to develop prevention programmes aimed at empowering athletes and stimulating their resistance towards sexual violence. In practice, this requires measures to make (young) athletes more resilient against the dominant position of coaches and other authority figures within sports. But how? To answer this question, the psychology of resilience will be reviewed to gain insights into the future development of these practical measures to safeguard athletes.
... For the latter, athletes are often considered to be aspirational role models and studies indicate that fan behaviors during sporting matches may emulate that of players [35]. Additionally, the inter-relational aspects of the athlete-coach relationship could contribute to the development and/or expression of certain characteristics, which may have multifaceted implications [36]. Hence, taken together, elevated levels of psychopathic traits could have complex outcomes in sporting environments for athletes, coaches, and spectators. ...
Article
Full-text available
There has been a growing interest around the broader effects of psychopathic traits, particularly in relation to deviant behaviors and the notion of so-called “successful psychopathy”. As significant sociocultural touchstones, sporting events are often characterized by competitiveness and a sense of prestige. However, there has been limited attention towards psychopathic traits across recreational, amateur, and elite sports. Accordingly, we conducted a narrative review synthesizing primary observations on this topic, searching keywords in Scopus, APA PsychNet, and PubMed. Twenty-four academic papers were included in our results, which we thematized around demographic groups, namely: athletes and sport-adjacent non-athletes (i.e., coaches and spectators). Based on empirical findings from the reviewed papers, psychopathic traits could have medicolegal and forensic implications in relation to substance use, aggression, and violence. These could intersect with wider issues around doping, cheating, foul play, and have adverse outcomes for fellow participants, team dynamics, and spectators. Interestingly, our review also indicates that psychopathic traits may have correlations with determination and achievement in sport, echoing developing ideas around “successful psychopathy” in other domains. As such, increased awareness from all stakeholders and further multidisciplinary exchanges are vital to better understand the effects of psychopathic traits in sporting frameworks and their wider consequences.
... Sport specific research is merited because different sports will likely have different cultures (20). Elite gymnasts can specialize at a relatively young age and can develop relationships within the sport which are similar to that between a child and their parent/guardian (21). Gymnastics involves a high volume of training hours and ensures that athletes will spend a lot of time within this context (22)(23). ...
Article
Full-text available
The need to create healthy cultures within Gymnastics has been demonstrated by a rseies of high profile cases which are illustrative of unhealthy cultures. The present study interviewed 6 international level gymnasts to explore their perceptions as to what constitutes a healthy culture. Inductive thematic analysis highlighted the need to adopt a socio-ecological approach which recognizes the influences of factors at the individual (i.e., developing ability and achieving personal goals), interpersonal (i.e., supportive peer relationships and effective coach-athlete relationship)and institutional (i.e., sense of community and a focus on developing psychosocial skills) levels. The findings from the present study can be used to inform coaches and national governing bodies on the importance of these factors, especially when considering the prioritisation of gymnasts ’psychological wellbeing in the context of elite sport.
... Specific forms of IV against athletes have been examined including those on sexual violence (Fasting et al. 2011;Parent et al. 2016), sexual harassment (Fasting et al. 2011), gender-based violence (Mergaert et al. 2016), psychological violence and emotional abuse (Gervis, Rhind, and Luzar 2016;Kerr, Kidd, and Donnelly 2020), physical abuse (McPherson et al. 2016), maltreatment (Fortier & Parent, 2020;Stirling and Kerr 2009), bullying (Nery et al. 2019), hazing (Jeckell, Copenhaver, and Diamond 2018), aggression/assault (Young 2019), all of which can be present in both physical and virtual spaces (Kavanagh and Brown 2020;Kavanagh et al. 2020). This body of knowledge presents a global pattern of violence against athletes; violence that can occur in sporting contexts ranging from community through to high performance sport (Kavanagh et al. 2021). ...
... In qualitative studies, it has been demonstrated that coaches may gain significant control over diverse areas of athletes' lives, e.g., nutrition, recovery, education, or social relationships Pinheiro et al., 2014). In elite sports, immense trust is put into the coach by athletes and parents alike, which, especially when combined with a lack of parental supervision (e.g., when parents' attendance is prohibited), constitutes a risk factor as well Stirling & Kerr, 2009). On a sociocultural level, psychological abuse is often accepted or normalized by coaches, parents, athletes, and even managers or authorities responsible for coaches' conduct, as they view this kind of treatment as necessary to achieve success Pinheiro et al., 2014;Stirling & Kerr, 2013). ...
Article
Full-text available
In light of the continuing debate about coach-perpetrated violence and the maltreatment of athletes in the elite sports context, empowering and ethical approaches to coaching need to be investigated and proposed as evidence-based effective alternatives. This study aims to investigate the associations between motivational coaching climates and athletes’ experiences of psychological violence, as well as their effects on well-being. Using an anonymous cross-sectional online survey, artistic gymnasts’ perceptions of empowering and disempowering coach-created motivational climates, experiences of psychological violence in sport, well-being, and depressive symptoms were recorded quantitatively. Results indicate that a more disempowering climate predicts psychological violence, while an empowering climate was not a significant predictor. Regarding mental health outcomes, an effect of psychological violence on depressive symptoms and well-being was found, but no effect was found for the disempowering climate. Explorative analysis suggested that psychological violence mediates the relationship between disempowering coaching and mental health outcomes. Based on these findings, coach education should focus on prevention of psychological violence and minimization of disempowering climates. Further research should investigate the relations and effects of psychological violence and coaching climates more thoroughly, including the role of an empowering climate as a potential beneficiary alternative coaching method.
... In a study of female physique athletes (athletes judged on symmetrical appearance and low-fat mass, rather than physical performance), 31 the coach was identified as the greatest influence on dieting behaviour and bodyweight loss. 32 Multiple studies (e.g., 33,34 ) have demonstrated the potentially harmful power the coach holds in the coach-athlete relationship, and the pressure athletes can feel when trying to speak out on sensitive topics. Furthermore, athletes' maladaptive eating approaches, including disordered eating, have been attributed to pressure from coaches, with the aim of manipulating body size or shape. ...
Article
Full-text available
Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) is a complex syndrome that occurs as a result of prolonged Low Energy Availability (LEA) leading to health and performance impairments. However, whilst the coach plays an important role when working with athletes with RED-S, no research exists specifically exploring their role. Therefore, this study investigates the role of the coach from the athletes’ perspective within an ultrarunning context. Ultrarunners are at risk of LEA due to large training volumes and record high incidences of psychological and physiological conditions linked to RED-S, such as disordered eating and bone stress injuries. Two female ultrarunners who had experience with RED-S each participated in three semi-structured interviews. The findings highlight the multifaceted role of the coach which changes depending on the stage of the athletes’ RED-S Journey. Of primary importance was that the coach should be educated on RED-S in order to provide value throughout. Secondly, for effective recovery, the coach should embrace working with a multidisciplinary support team of experts. Thirdly, the coach should actively work on establishing strong relationships with the athlete and their support network. This will propagate trust and honest conversations, a key requirement for recovery from, and ongoing training post, RED-S.
... According to Jarvie (2013) and Gems and Pfister (2009), it is impossible to completely understand any society or culture without acknowledging the place of sport. Stirling and Kerr (2009) further contend that the relationships between coaches and players depends upon social structures in place and the connections that come with having regular contact on and off the field or court. ...
... Youth sport situations which are characterized by verbal anger, such as parents yelling at coaches, or physical anger may be exclusively stressful to children, leading a poor performance [25]. Stirling and Kerr [43] found reduced performance effects in athletes from a range of different sports regarding their experiences of emotional abuse. Sporting success is generally determined by the performance outcome, and then the notion of "the end justifies the means" is frequently reported inside sport contexts. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Youth sport provides regular physical activity for millions of children. It is a global system, which includes coaches, referees, athletes, and parent spectators; consequently, the behavior of each member can influence the experiences of others. This study aimed to investigate the mediating role of self-efficacy and assertiveness in the relationship between the degree of anger expression and the performance children's score in a group of parents and coaches. Methods: 200 parents (96 fathers, 104 mothers) and 200 coaches (119 males, 81 females) responded to the General Self-efficacy Scale, The Scale for Interpersonal Behavior, and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2; an indicator of performance was asked of each coach. The age range of parents was 28-59 years (M = 41.39, SD = 7.07), while that of coaches was 27-43 years (M = 35.91, SD = 3.35). Results: Results revealed that self-efficacy and assertiveness were the direct and indirect predictors of performance score. Conclusions: The study provided an understanding of the nature and magnitude of this profoundly interpersonal experience. Future studies may advance relevant education programs and effective interventions aimed at reducing angry expressions and lack of communication.
Article
The aim of the research was to understand how prominent sociocultural discourses influenced how coaches construct athletes’ transition out of sport and position themselves within the process of retirement. Interviews with eight male elite coaches were analysed using a Foucauldian Discourse Analysis. Coaches’ talk about athletes’ transitions out of sport was constructed within the dominant performance discourse in sport. This suggests years of adhering to disciplinary practices of elite sport left athletes underprepared for the next steps in their life. Even when constructing retirement in more positive terms, this was done in ways that drew on ideas of high performance and objective success. Coaches’ own positions within transitions were discussed by drawing on ideas from a patriarchal construction of the coach–athlete relationship. Here, coaches are positioned as father figures with responsibility for guiding athletes through their careers and transitions out of sport. However, coaches suggested that the policies, procedures, and processes within wider networks of power inside sport often restricted their capacity to support athletes during their transitions. Future research and practice are aimed at helping coaches to navigate the power dynamics of sporting structures and organisations.
Article
Numerous empirical efforts have sought to understand the emotional abuse experiences of female athletes, but less is known about how emotional abuse is experienced by males in sport. To address this gap, the present study was designed to explore how four male former NCAA student-athletes ( M age = 32 years) experienced emotionally abusive coaching behaviors and how those behaviors were influenced by masculine socialization pressures. A multiple case study design and inductive-deductive thematic approach were utilized to collect and analyze retrospective data. Results highlight socialization pressures related to orthodox masculinity influenced participant experiences and recollections of emotional abuse.
Article
Sport governing bodies, such as the International Olympic Committee, have recommended youth sport organizations develop policies, procedures, and/or ethical guidelines to prevent and respond to sexual harassment and abuse (SHA) experienced by young athletes. To our knowledge, no studies have investigated SHA policies or procedures in U.S. youth sport programs. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine U.S. youth sport programs’ policies regarding SHA. The results are based on a cross-sectional survey completed by youth sport coaches ( n = 200) from various organizations (e.g., public recreation organizations, private nonprofit organizations, and interscholastic sports). Findings suggest that most organizations have several SHA policies, such as education and training requirements, written policies and codes of conduct regarding coach-athlete sexual relationships, and formal complaint and disclosure procedures for investigating SHA. A bivariate analysis suggests that the presence of several SHA policies was associated with an increased number of self-reported SHA incidents. Moreover, youth sport programs located in urban areas had a greater extent of SHA policies compared to those located in suburban or rural areas. These results are discussed with respect to the potential relationships between the presence of policies and increased cases of SHA. Also, we discussed advocating for equitable resources among youth sport programs regardless of geographic and/or demographic factors. Future research should identify social and cultural barriers that inhibit the successful implementation of SHA policies. While developing and implementing SHA policies is a step in the right direction, it may not be used as the only means to address this complex, systematic, and structural issue.
Article
Les auteures présentent leur étude qui aborde les violences sexuelles commises envers les étudiantes et les étudiants athlètes en milieu collégial. Leur principal objectif est de documenter les situations de violence sexuelle en milieu collégial (VSMC) subies par des athlètes qui fréquentent cinq cégeps francophones au Québec, en examinant les données selon le genre. Un questionnaire en ligne a été rempli par 218 athlètes aux études au collégial, dont 39,9 % rapportent avoir subi au moins un évènement de VSMC, les femmes étant plus nombreuses que les hommes à faire l’objet de comportements de VSMC. Plus de 9 victimes sur 10 n’ont pas dénoncé la situation à leur cégep.
Article
Full-text available
Importance Concern about interpersonal violence (IV) in sport is increasing, yet its implications remain poorly understood, particularly among currently competing college athletes. Objective To document the self-reported prevalence of IV in college sports; identify associated risk factors; examine potential consequences associated with athletes’ psychosocial well-being, emotional connection to their sport, and willingness to seek help; and explore the associations between IV reporting and perceived variations in coaching styles. Design, Setting, and Participants This survey study analyzes results of the 2021 to 2022 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) myPlaybook survey, which was administered from July to December 2021 to 123 colleges and universities across the US. Participants were NCAA athletes aged 18 to 25 years who were current players on an NCAA-sanctioned team. Exposures Self-reported demographic characteristics (eg, athlete gender identity and sexual orientation) and perceived differences in supportive vs abusive coaching styles (eg, athlete autonomy, team culture, and extent of abusive supervision). Main Outcomes and Measures The primary outcome was self-reported experiences of IV in sport during the college sports career of currently competing college athletes. Types of IV considered were physical abuse, financial abuse, sexual abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, and neglect or abandonment. Outcomes potentially affected by IV were assessed with 4 questionnaires. Results A total of 4119 athletes (mean [SD] age, 19.3 [1.5] years; 2302 males [55.9%]) completed the survey (response rate, 21.2%). One in 10 athletes (404 of 4119 [9.8%]) reported experiencing at least 1 type of IV during their college sports career, of whom two-thirds (267 [6.5%]) experienced IV within the past 6 weeks. On multivariable analysis, female gender identity (odds ratio [OR], 2.14; 95% CI, 1.46-3.13), nonheterosexual sexual orientation (OR, 1.56; 95% CI, 1.01-2.42), increasing age beyond 18 years (OR, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.01-1.30), increasing year of NCAA eligibility beyond the first year (OR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.02-1.39), and participation in select sports (eg, volleyball: OR, 2.77 [95% CI, 1.34-5.72]; ice hockey: OR, 2.86 [95% CI, 1.17-6.95]) were independently associated with IV. When exposed to IV, college athletes reported experiencing consistently worse psychosocial outcomes, including increased burnout (mean difference on a 5-point Likert scale, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.63-0.86; P < .001) and an expressed desire to consider quitting their sport (mean difference, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.70-0.92; P < .001). They were not, however, less willing to seek help. Differences in coaching style were associated with differences in IV reporting. In risk-adjusted linear regression models, having a more supportive coach was associated with a 7.4 (95% CI, 6.4-8.4) absolute percentage point decrease in athletes’ probability of reporting experiencing IV. In contrast, having a more abusive coach was associated with up to a 15.4 (95% CI, 13.8-17.1) absolute percentage point increase in athletes’ probability of reporting experiencing IV. Conclusions and Relevance Results of this survey study suggest that IV is associated with marked changes in the psychosocial health and emotional well-being of college athletes, particularly those who identify as female and with nonheterosexual sexual orientations. Variations in coaching style have the potential to alter these associations. Ongoing efforts are needed to leverage the unique position that coaches hold to help reduce IV and create safe places where all college athletes can thrive.
Chapter
This chapter addresses disempowerment and empowerment in girls’ and women’s sports from a sociohistorical perspective with a focus on the United States. First, we discuss the historical exclusion of girls and women in sport in the U.S. from the nineteenth century to the twentieth century. Second, we explain a contemporary practice that serves to limit the public’s interest in women’s sport: scant media coverage as compared to men’s sport. By reviewing historical perspectives and media practices, we highlight ways in which girls and women are often disempowered in sporting contexts. We then turn to a discussion of girls’ and women’s experiences in sport from the youth sport through the professional levels. In this discussion, we highlight how sport can be an empowering context for girls and women despite ongoing systemic problems, such as unequal funding and abuse, that contribute to the disempowerment of female athletes. Finally, we close the chapter by offering some ideas on how sport could be more empowering, rather than disempowering, for girls and women through educational efforts and professional development for athletes, parents, and coaches in conjunction with policy and systemic changes within sport leagues, governance bodies, and educational institutions.
Article
Full-text available
Araştırma kapsamında taekwondo branşındaki sporcuların sporda zihinsel dayanıklılık düzeylerinin antrenör-sporcu ilişkisine etkisinde temel psikolojik ihtiyaçların aracılık rolünün belirlenmesi ve bu değişkenlerin arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bağımsız ve bağımlı değişkenler arasındaki olası ilişkileri gösteren bir model kurulmuş ve yapısal eşitlik modellemesi kullanılarak model test edilmiştir. Araştırmada, katılımcıların psikolojik ihtiyaçları Deci ve Ryan (2000) tarafından geliştirilen; Kesici, Üre, Bozgeyikli ve Sünbül (2003) tarafından Türkçe’ye uyarlanan “Temel Psikolojik İhtiyaçlar Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Sheard, Golby ve Van Wersch (2009) tarafından geliştirilen; Altınbaş (2015) tarafından Türkçe’ye uyarlaması yapılan “Sporda Zihinsel Dayanıklılık Ölçeği” ile zihinsel dayanıklılık ölçülmüştür. Jowett ve Ntoumanis (2004) tarafından geliştirilen; Altıntaş, Kazak Çetinkalp ve Aşçı (2012) tarafından Türkçeye uyarlaması yapılan “Antrenör-Sporcu İlişki Ölçeği”, uygulanmıştır. Araştırmada toplamda 458 Taekwondo sporcusundan anket yöntemiyle veri toplanmıştır. Katılımcıların sporda zihinsel dayanıklılık, temel psikolojik ihtiyaçları ve antrenör-sporcu ilişkisi düzeylerine yönelik betimsel istatistikler ile hesaplanmıştır. Bağımlı ve bağımsız değişkenler arasındaki ilişki düzeyini incelemek için yapısal eşitlik modellemesi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda taekwondo sporcularının sporda zihinsel dayanıklılıkları, temel psikolojik ihtiyaçları ve antrenör-sporcu ilişki düzeylerinin yüksek seviyede olduğu belirlenmiştir. Taekwondo sporcularının sporda zihinsel dayanıklılık düzeylerinin temel psikolojik ihtiyaçlar aracı değişken olarak kullanıldığında antrenör-sporcu ilişkisini etkilediği tespit edilmiştir.
Article
Tanınmak, bilinmek, istenilir olmak ve hatırlanmak antrenörlük mesleği için en temel özelliklerdendir. Antrenörler ile kurulan ilişki sonucunda elde edilen bilgi ve deneyim, yeniden hatırlanmak üzere sporcu belleğinde depolanır. Her sporcu, kendi adına önemli olduğunu düşündüğü her şeyi belleğinde saklar. Sezon sonuna kadar devam eden bu sürecin sonunda sporcular tarafından antrenörlerin hangi özelliklerinin hatırlandığı antrenör kimliği açısından önemli yer tutmaktadır. Çünkü antrenörlerin hatırlanmasını istediği özellikleri, kendilerinin mesleklerine verdikleri değerin temellerini de göstermektedir. Dolayısıyla bu araştırmanın temel amacı, Türkiye’deki kadın voleybolunun en üst ligi olan Sultanlar Ligi’nde çalışan antrenörlerin hangi özellikleri ile voleybolcular tarafından hatırlanmak istediklerini ve bunların nedenlerini belirlemektir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubu, kolay ulaşılabilir durum örneklemesi yöntemiyle seçilen ve araştırmaya gönüllü olarak katılan 17 Türk erkek antrenörden oluşmaktadır. Antrenörlerin hatırlanmak ile ilgili görüşlerini belirlemek için veri toplama aracı olarak iki adet açık uçlu sorudan oluşan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. Görüşme sonunda toplanan veriler, içerik analizi tekniği yardımı ile yorumlanmış ve alıntılarla desteklenerek sunulmuştur. Araştırmanın sonucunda katılımcı voleybol antrenörlerinin hatırlanmak kavramına ilişkin görüşleri incelendiğinde; iz bırakma, akılda kalma, vefalı olma, özlenme, olumlu anılma olmak üzere beş kavramı öne çıkardıkları belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmanın bulgularının, antrenörler açısından sporcular tarafından hatırlanma konusunda hangi kavramların önemli olduğunun belirlenmesinde yararlı olacağı düşünülmektedir. Ayrıca bu çalışmanın hatırlanma olgusunun spor insanları ile olan ilgisi üzerine benzer çalışmalara örnek olacağı tahmin edilmektedir.
Article
Full-text available
Bu çalışmada, sporcular tarafından algılanan antrenör davranışlarının spora bağlılık düzeylerini yordama etkisinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma nicel araştırma yaklaşımlarından, ilişkisel araştırma deseni ile yürütülmüştür. Araştırma grubu, amaçlı örnekleme yöntemlerinden ölçüt örnekleme ile belirlenen Sivas ilinde aktif olarak spor yapan, 18-27 yaş aralığında, 227’si erkek ve 166’sı kadın olmak üzere 393 sporcudan oluşmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak, kişisel bilgi formu, antrenör davranış algısı ölçeği ve spora bağlılık ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler JAMOVI (2.2.5) programı ile analiz edilmiştir. Verilerin analizinde frekans, yüzde, ortalama, standart sapma, çarpıklık ve basıklık gibi betimsel istatistikler, Pearson korelasyon analizi, basit ve çoklu doğrusal regresyon analizlerinden faydalanılmıştır. Bulgulara göre sporcuların antrenör davranış stillerine yönelik algıları ile spora bağlılık (odaklanma, dinç olma) düzeyleri arasında anlamlı pozitif ilişkiler bulunmuştur. Ödüllendirici antrenör davranış algısının spora bağlılığın odaklanma boyutunu yordama etkisi anlamlıdır. Ödüllendirici davranış algısındaki 1 birimlik artış, odaklanma düzeyinde ,26 birimlik artışa karşılık gelmektedir ve odaklanma boyutundaki varyansın %11’ini açıklamaktadır. Eğitim-öğretim davranış algısının spora bağlılığın dinç olma boyutunu yordama etkisi anlamlıdır. Eğitim-öğretim davranış algısındaki 1 birimlik artış dinç olma düzeyinde ,17 birimlik artışa karşılık gelmektedir ve dinç olma boyutundaki varyansın yaklaşık olarak %14’ünü açıklamaktadır. Diğer boyutların spora bağlılığın boyutları üzerinde yordama etkisi anlamlı bulunmamıştır. Sonuç olarak, sporcuların antrenör davranış stillerine yönelik algıları ile spora bağlılık düzeyleri arasında anlamlı ilişki gözlenmiş olsa da yalnızca ödüllendirici ve eğitim-öğretim alt boyutlarındaki davranış algısı yordayıcıdır.
Article
Spor kurumunda antrenör ve sporcular arasındaki ilişkiler son derece önemli olmakla birlikte birtakım olumsuzluklar barındırmaktadır. Bu olumsuz ilişki biçimlerinden biri de antrenörlerin sporculara yönelik gerçekleştirdiği kötü muameledir. Bu çalışma, genç sporcuların antrenörlerinden deneyimledikleri duygusal kötü muameleyi spor ile ilişkili değişkenlerle ele almayı amaçlamaktadır. Nicel araştırma yönteminin uygulandığı çalışmada Antrenör-Sporcu İlişkisi Duygusal Kötü Muamele Ölçeği ile katılımcıların demografik ve spora ilişkin bilgilerin olduğu anket formu kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın evrenini Türkiye’de son bir yıl içinde bir antrenör ile çalışan ve 18-25 yaş aralığında bulunan sporcular, örneklem grubunu ise Türkiye’nin 33 ilinden 142 kadın ve 198 erkek olmak üzere toplam 340 sporcu oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma bulgularına göre erkek sporcular kadın sporculara göre daha fazla antrenörünün duygusal şiddetine maruz kalmıştır. Yine sporcuların maruz kaldıkları duygusal kötü muamelenin antrenörleri ile ilişkilerini etkiledikleri görülmüştür. Buna karşın takım sporları ve bireysel sporlar ile antrenör duygusal kötü muamelesi arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunamamıştır. Yine sporcuların antrenörleri ile çalışma yılları ve sportif başarıları ile duygusal kötü muameleye maruz kalma arasında bir ilişki tespit edilememiştir.
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this study was to investigate athletes' experiences of emotional abuse. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 retired, elite, female swimmers and data were analyzed inductively using a grounded theory approach. Results revealed that the athletes experienced emotional abuse in the coach-athlete relationship and that these experiences varied across an athlete's career. The same emotionally abusive behaviours were experienced differently at various stages of an athlete's career. Furthermore, an athlete's affective response to emotional abuse was dependent on the athlete's perceived performance and cultural acquiescence, as reflected in the phases of normalization and rebellion. A model of the process by which athletes experience emotional abuse over time is proposed. Implications of these findings are discussed and recommendations are made for future study.
Article
Full-text available
This paper compares the prevalence of sexual harassment and abuse among 660 Norwegian elite female athletes and an age-matched control sample of nonathletes. It also explores differences in the prevalence of harassment and abuse in sport and work or school settings and compares harassment and abuse perpetrated by male authority figures and peers in these different contexts. No differences were found between the athletes and controls in overall prevalence of sexual harassment or abuse. However, the athletes experienced significantly more harassment from male authority figures than did the controls. Based on these results, the article considers whether or not sport offers women any particular immunity from sexual harassment and abuse. The implications of the findings for structural and cultural change in sport are discussed.
Article
Full-text available
The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches' behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches' autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.
Article
Sexual harassment at institutions of higher learning is not a new phenomenon, but discussions of this problem in the sporting arena and in related research are still scarce. Most studies have focused on student-instructor relationships, while few analyses have analysed coach-athlete relationships. This study examines American female college athletes' experiences with, and emotional responses to, sexual harassment in sport by coaches. The findings clearly demonstrate that the athletic world does not differ with regard to occurrences of sexual harassment compared to other social domains. Thus, in order to guarantee a safe learning environment in athletics for all participants, it is necessary to formulate clear guidelines, set up educational workshops and implement intervention programs.
Article
Young athletes frequently suffer from being seen as athletes first and children second. This has consequences for their legal, civil and human rights as children and for the way in which sport organizations choose to intervene on their behalf to protect them from physical, psychological and sexual abuses. Sport careers peak at different ages depending on the sport: in some, children as young as 12 or 13 may reach the highest levels of competitive performance; in others, full maturity as an athlete may come late into adulthood or even middle age. Recognition of this variation has given rise to the concept of `sport age', referring to sport-specific athlete development. This concept is of significance in helping to identify the developmental process in terms of athletic, rather than chronological, maturity. The risk of sexual abuse in sport, formerly ignored or denied, has now been documented in a number of studies, using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Drawing on data from these studies and from the previous work on sport age and athletic maturation, this paper proposes a possible means of identifying and assessing relative risk of sexual abuse to elite young athletes in selected sports. The concept of a `stage of imminent achievement' (SIA) is proposed as the period of peak vulnerability of young athletes to sexual abuse.
Article
Many women have, at some time, been the subject of sexual harassment or abuse in their working lives. This paper explains how similar experiences also occur in sport and why they have particularly devastating consequences for girls and women. Sexual harassment and abuse arise from the culture of sport and from the opportunities for exploitation of power and authority which this affords coaches. Results from studies of personal accounts of abuse by former women athletes are presented and used to test various explanatory theories of abuse.
Article
This article reports participation observation evidence, questionnaire survey, and in-depth interview data in an examination of the male coach / female athlete relationship in competitive sport. Focusing on athletics in the United Kingdom, the authors demonstrate the gendered nature of female athlete / male coach relationships, and the dynamics of power and control that contribute to the nature and perpetuation of those relationships. The vulnerability of the young female athlete in the coaching situation is identified, as that vulnerability is manifest in a variety of forms of sexist practice and sexual harassment. The article points to the complexity and normalcy of the organizational sexuality characteristic of the sports culture and the forms of domination and control that can be exerted by the coach. Sports professionals are urged to recognize the serious implications of the gender and power relations underpinning the male coach / female athlete dynamic in competitive sport.
Article
While an historical glance through the sport psychology literature reveals an interest in performance excellence since its beginning, a focus of personal excellence has been a more recent trend. This review will address the relationships between performance and personal excellence. More specifically, we question whether performance excellence in high-level sport, by virtue of the exceptional demands on the elite athlete, occurs at the expense of development in personal excellence or whether performance excellence is possible only through personal excellence. Furthermore, we propose that the field may reconcile these ideals in the future through an athlete-centered sport model. This model is defined by the philosophy that developmentally appropriate sport can be used as a vehicle for enhancing overall well-being and the acquisition of lifelong skills. Performance excellence, therefore, co-exists in the same environment as personal excellence. The implications of implementing an athlete-centered sport system for athletes and coaches and for the research and practice of those in sport psychology will be addressed.
Article
Sport offers prime sex offending opportunities yet has only recently been the subject of exploration and research. In this paper, the respective research approaches adopted by sport science and sex offender ‘science’ are compared. It is argued that both suffer from occupational blindness towards situational factors and that their joint obsession with individual behaviour modification—for performance enhancement in sport or reducing recidivism rates through treatment—may reduce the efficacy of risk-management interventions at the systemic level. Recent research and policy initiatives are used to illustrate how risk management responsibilities have been implemented in sport.
Article
The problems associated with children's involvement in high-performance sport are considered and equated to the issue of child labour. After considering the extent and severity of problems with child labour in all parts of the world, the paper then turns to the problem of `sport labour'. Although this is by no means as serious as the child labour problem, it has many similar characteristics. The reasons why high performance sport involvement is not, but should be, considered as work are assessed. The paper proposes a resolution to the child labour/sport labour dilemma by addressing a series of questions: Are we ready for child labour laws in sport? Who would support child labour laws in sport?; Who is to be responsible for the welfare of children in high-performance sport? Is there a solution?
Article
As sport is a highly child-populated domain, the establishment of child-protection measures to reduce the potential for child maltreatment in sport is critical. Concern for the protection of children in sport has a history that is as old as modern sport itself; however, it is only recently that concern has been established about children's experiences of relational forms of abuse and neglect in this domain. The purpose of this article, therefore, is to review current developments in sport with respect to child-protection policy, education, and research. It is the authors' supposition that an athlete-centered philosophy of sport is perhaps the best way to address the protection of children in sport. The philosophy of an athlete-centered sport model is described, and through the integration of an athlete-centered approach to sport, recommendations are made for future implementation of child-protection measures.
Article
purpose of the present chapter is to present the reader with a comprehensive review of the major findings on child abuse and neglect in order to develop a multilevel framework for behavioral assessment the physically abused child receives the primary focus throughout the chapter scope includes definitional issues, a developmental perspective of the abused child, a functional analysis of abusive behavior, and a model for assessing abuse and neglect that involves specific recommendations research studies involving members of abusive families are presented in order to facilitate an understanding of the complex interrelationships among social and psychological variables affecting the occurrence of child maltreatment (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
This study investigates the prevalence of emotional abuse of elite child athletes by their coaches in the UK. Previous research has focused primarily on the parent–child relationship, with little attention given to date on the sports environment. Participants were 12 former elite child athletes who competed as internationals in their respective age groups. All participants had been identified as elite athletes between the ages of 8 and 16 years (M = 13.1 yr, SD = 2.4 yr) and had competitive careers of between 6 and 10 years. Participants were from the sports of diving (N = 2), football (N = 3), gymnastics (N = 4), hockey, netball and track and field athletics (N = 1 each). The study was a retrospective analysis of their experiences as elite child athletes. (Age at interview: M = 22.9 yr, SD = 0.9 yr. male = 4, female = 8.) Thus, participants were reflecting on experiences from about 10 years previously, so their responses represented the residual impact of their experiences that had survived over this period. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and response-coding techniques. Abusive behaviours were categorized under eight headings: belittling, humiliating, shouting, scapegoating, rejecting, isolating, threatening and ignoring. Results showed that all (N = 12) of the participants reported experiencing belittling and shouting by their coach, nine athletes reported frequent threatening behaviour, nine reported frequent humiliation, seven reported scapegoating, six reported rejection or being ignored and four reported being isolated when they were elite child athletes. All participants reported that the behaviour of their coaches changed and became more negative after they were identified as elite performers. Participants reported feeling stupid, worthless, upset, less confident, humiliated, depressed, fearful and angry as a result of the behaviour of their coaches. The results provide tentative evidence that the behaviour of some coaches is a threat to the psychological well-being of elite child athletes. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Article
Objectives: To investigate the nature and significance of the athlete–coach relationship within the context of the interpersonal constructs of Closeness, Co-orientation, and Complementarity (three Cs).Method: Participants were 12 Olympic medallists (three females and nine males). Each participant had achieved at least one medal in the Olympic Games held between 1968 and 1988. An interview schedule was utilised that prompted former athletes’ responses to open-ended questions about their athletic relationship with their coach.Results: Feelings of Closeness, such as trust and respect, thoughts of Co-orientation, such as common goals, as well as complementary roles and tasks, marked the athletic relationships of the Olympic medallists. Despite the prevalence of the positive relational aspects, negative relational aspects, such as lack of emotional closeness and complementary resources, also emerged. The impact of the athlete–coach relationship on the success achieved became evident through the former athletes’ narratives and recollections.Conclusion: The nature of the athlete–coach relationship has an important role to play in the athlete’s development both as a performer and as a person. It is recommended that coach education programmes provide information that will assist coaches to develop effective relationships with their athletes.
Article
This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below. Within the past five years, two U.S. female gymnasts at the Olympic level, Christy Henrich and Julissa Gomez, died from medical problems related to their sport. Christy died from complications of anorexia nervosa and Julissa from complications of spinal trauma due to a vaulting injury. In this Olympic year, it is timely to discuss the psychological and physical problems associated with competitive women's gymnastics. Women's gymnastics provides a useful framework for viewing worrisome trends in other competitive youth sports. In the United States, organized athletic programs involve at least 20 million children and adolescents each year, with more than 2 . . . Ian R. Tofler, M.B., B.S. Children's Hospital, New Orleans, LA 70118 Barri Katz Stryer, M.D. University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90024 Lyle J. Micheli, M.D. Children's Hospital Medical Center, Boston, MA 02115 Lisa R. Herman, M.S. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306 We are indebted to all those who reviewed the manuscript and made suggestions, especially P. Krener, M.D., M. Drell, M.D., D. Cantwell, M.D., O. Mammen, M.D., and R. Meadow, M.B., B.S.
Article
Sexual harassment and abuse has been a recognized problem in the workplace, schools, and residential homes for more than three decades. Many professional policies highlight the potential for abusing positions of trust, and therefore forbid intimate relationships between, for example, doctors and patients, and psychologists and clients. Yet, abuse of power in the coach-athlete relationship has only recently been acknowledged. This paper discusses definitions of sexual exploitation, prevalence figures, methods used for entrapping athletes, potential risk factors, signs of abuse and harassment, and the consequences for survivors.
Athlete-centered Sport. A Discussion Paper
  • H Clarke
  • D Smith
  • G Thibault
Clarke, H., D. Smith, and G. Thibault. 'Athlete-centered Sport. A Discussion Paper.' (September 1994). http://www.athletescan.com/Images/Publications/AthleteCentredDiscussion.doc Crooks, C.V., and D.A. Wolfe. 'Child Abuse and Neglect'. In Assessment of Childhood Disorders, edited by E.J. Mash and R.A. Barkley, 4th ed., 639– 84.
Psychology and the Coach: Coach-athlete Relationship'. In Applying Sport Psychology: Four Perspectives
  • S Jowett
  • G Paull
  • A M Pensgaard
  • P M Hoegmo
  • H Riise
Jowett, S., G. Paull, A.M. Pensgaard, P.M. Hoegmo, and H. Riise. 'Psychology and the Coach: Coach-athlete Relationship'. In Applying Sport Psychology: Four Perspectives, edited by J. Taylor and G. Wilson, 153– 70.
Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998. Tofler, IPhysical and Emotional Problems of Elite Female Gymnasts
  • A Strauss
  • J R Corbin
  • B K Stryer
  • L J Micheli
  • L R Herman
Strauss, A., and J. Corbin. Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory, 2nd ed., Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998. Tofler, I.R., B.K. Stryer, L.J. Micheli, and L.R. Herman. 'Physical and Emotional Problems of Elite Female Gymnasts'. New England Journal of Medicine 335, no. 4 (1996): 281– 3.
Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence CentreAbuse wheelElite Female Swimmers Experiences of Emotional Abuse across Time
  • Il Champaign
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1988. Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Centre. 'Abuse wheel.' http://www.sadvc.org/Handouts/ DV%20Handouts/Power%20and%20Control%20Wheel.doc Stirling, A.E., and G.A. Kerr. 'Elite Female Swimmers Experiences of Emotional Abuse across Time'. Journal of Emotional Abuse 7, no. 4 (2007): 89 – 113.
Athlete-centred Coaching: Developing Inspired and Inspiring People
  • L Kidman
Kidman, L. 'Athlete-centred Coaching: Developing Inspired and Inspiring People'. Christchurch: Innovative Print Communications, 2005.
From Stress to Enjoyment: Parental and Coach Influences on Young Participants
  • T Scanlan
  • R Lewthwaite
Scanlan, T., and R. Lewthwaite. 'From Stress to Enjoyment: Parental and Coach Influences on Young Participants'. In Competitive Sports for Children and Youth: An Overview of the Research and Issues, edited by E. Brown and C. Branta, 41 – 8.
The Name of the Game'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically . . . '; Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports
  • Bringer
  • Johnston Brackenridge
30 Bringer, Brackenridge and Johnston, 'The Name of the Game'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically... '; Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports?' 31 Strauss and Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research.
Dangerous SportsElite Female Swimmers
  • Brackenridge Jowett
Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports?'; Jowett et al., 'Psychology and the Coach'. 27 Stirling and Kerr, 'Elite Female Swimmers'.
Olympic Medalists' Perspective
  • Cockerill Jowett
Jowett and Cockerill, Olympic Medalists' Perspective'.
Athlete-centered Sport. A Discussion Paper http://www.athletescan.com/Images/Publications/AthleteCentredDiscussion
  • H Clarke
  • D Smith
  • G Thibaultdoc
  • C V Crooks
  • D A Wolfe
Clarke, H., D. Smith, and G. Thibault. 'Athlete-centered Sport. A Discussion Paper.' (September 1994). http://www.athletescan.com/Images/Publications/AthleteCentredDiscussion.doc Crooks, C.V., and D.A. Wolfe. 'Child Abuse and Neglect'. In Assessment of Childhood Disorders, edited by E.J. Mash and R.A. Barkley, 4th ed., 639– 84. New York: Guilford Press, 2007.
Male Coach/Female Athlete Relations
  • Yorganci Tomlinson
Tomlinson and Yorganci, 'Male Coach/Female Athlete Relations'.
The Dome of SilenceElite Female Swimmers'. 10 Crooks and Wolfe
  • Greaves Kirby
  • Hankivsky Stirling
  • Kerr
Kirby, Greaves and Hankivsky, The Dome of Silence; Stirling and Kerr, 'Elite Female Swimmers'. 10 Crooks and Wolfe, 'Child Abuse and Neglect'. Sport in Society 237
Athlete-centred Coaching
  • Kidman
Kidman, 'Athlete-centred Coaching', 16.
Conceptualizing Excellence
  • Kerr Miller
Miller and Kerr, 'Conceptualizing Excellence'.
From Stress to Enjoyment
  • Lewthwaite Scanlan
Scanlan and Lewthwaite, 'From Stress to Enjoyment'.
He Owned Me Basically . . . '. 36 Donnelly, 'Child Labour
  • Brackenridge
Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically... '. 36 Donnelly, 'Child Labour'.
The Emotional Abuse'; Tomlinson and YorganciMale Coach/Female Athlete Relations'; Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse'; Tofler et al., 'Physical and Emotional Problems'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically
  • Dunn Gervis
Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'; Tomlinson and Yorganci, 'Male Coach/Female Athlete Relations'; Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse'; Tofler et al., 'Physical and Emotional Problems'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically... '.
Playing Safe'. 29 Ibid
  • Kirby Brackenridge
28 Brackenridge and Kirby, 'Playing Safe'. 29 Ibid.
Experiences of Sexual Harassment
  • Brackenridge Fasting
  • Sundgot-Borgen
Fasting, Brackenridge and Sundgot-Borgen, 'Experiences of Sexual Harassment'.
The Name of the Game
  • Brackenridge Bringer
Bringer, Brackenridge and Johnston, 'The Name of the Game'.
Athlete-centered Sport
  • Smith Clarke
  • Thibault
Clarke, Smith and Thibault, 'Athlete-centered Sport'.
Physical and Emotional Problems'; Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'; Brackenridge and Kirby, 'Playing Safe
  • Tofler
25 Tofler et al., 'Physical and Emotional Problems'; Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'; Brackenridge and Kirby, 'Playing Safe'.
The Dome of Silence. 13 Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse
  • Greaves Kirby
Kirby, Greaves and Hankivsky, The Dome of Silence. 13 Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'.
Power and Ethics in Coaching. 19 Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse
  • Tomlinson
  • Strachan
18 Tomlinson and Strachan, Power and Ethics in Coaching. 19 Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse'.
He Owned Me Basically . . . '; Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports?' 31 Strauss and Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research. 32 Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'; Tomlinson and Yorganci, 'Male Coach/Female Athlete Relations'; Palframan
  • Brackenridge Bringer
  • Johnston Tofler
Bringer, Brackenridge and Johnston, 'The Name of the Game'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically... '; Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports?' 31 Strauss and Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research. 32 Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'; Tomlinson and Yorganci, 'Male Coach/Female Athlete Relations'; Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse'; Tofler et al., 'Physical and Emotional Problems'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically... '.
Elite Female Swimmers'. 15 Matthews, 'The Consequences of Child Abuse'. 16 Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Centre, 'Abuse Wheel
  • Stirling
  • Kerr
14 Stirling and Kerr, 'Elite Female Swimmers'. 15 Matthews, 'The Consequences of Child Abuse'. 16 Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Centre, 'Abuse Wheel'.
Power and Ethics in Coaching, Ottawa: Coaching Association of Canada
  • P Tomlinson
  • D Strachan