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Abused athletes' perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship
Abstract
The coach-athlete relationship is often one of the most important and influential relationships experienced by a young athlete.1 While coaches may have many positive influences on young athletes, emerging literature also indicates problems of abuse. In fact, recent research indicates that athletes are not immune from experiences of physical, sexual and emotional abuse.2 Furthermore, the power of the coach is thought to be a contributing risk factor in abusive relationships.3 The purpose of this study therefore was to investigate abused athletes' perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship. More specifically, we were interested in abused athletes' perceptions of the power held by the coach, and the influence of this power on an athlete's experience of abuse. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine previously abused athletes; four retired elite female gymnasts and five retired elite female swimmers. Consistent with previous research, the participants reflected upon the significant power held by the coach over the athlete. The findings contributed to existing literature by revealing specific ways in which the coach's power influenced the athletes' experiences of abuse and their ability to report incidences of maltreatment. These findings are discussed and recommendations are made for abuse prevention and future research.
... Neglect can be physical, educational and emotional. Emotional neglect consists of inappropriate parenting behaviours and social neglect (Matthews, 2004;Stirling & Kerr, 2009). ...
... Factors such as performance, success and victory are often the most valued criteria in sports, even among children and young people. Regardless of how they are achieved, they can lead to problematic sports practices (Gervis & Dunn, 2004;Stirling & Kerr, 2009), often leading to athletes being victims of mistreatment (Vertommen et al., 2016). ...
... Athletes tend to remain silent in the face of mistreatment behaviour in sports (Bascón-Seda & Ramírez-Macías, 2020;Stirling et al., 2011). Indicators such as the intensity of the Athlete-coach relationship (Bringer, Brackenridge, & Johnston, 2001;A. Stirling & Kerr, 2009), the inherent hierarchy of competitive sports, and the dependence on the coach for achieving sporting success (Brackenridge & Kirby, 1997;Stirling & Kerr, 2014;Tofler et al., 1996) cause the creation, in some cases, of a deep "code of silence" on the part of the athletes (Stirling et al., 2011). Athletes may be afraid of retaliation fro ...
This qualitative study aimed to describe the nature of mistreatment behaviours in the Athlete-coach relationship, in the region of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. For our study, we interviewed 12 athletes of federated sports. We focused on young athletes, aged 13-18 years old, who practiced a collective, combat, or individual sports discipline. The data was then studied through content analysis. In the case of athletes as victims, there were no mistreatment behaviours in the Athlete-coach relationship. However, as observers, the athletes have reported forms of abuse in the Athlete-coach relationship, such as verbal emotional abuse and denial of attention and support. As preventative measures for mistreatment behaviours, the athletes mentioned supervision and even the dismissal of the coach. Respondents stress the need to deepen the topic for the strategies to be effective. They emphasize the need to sensitize clubs for the protection of athletes, through investigations in the area under study, for fighting and preventing mistreatment behaviour in sports practice. Keywords: Emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, neglecting, federated sports.
... Some may even neglect their health to order to keep competing and engage in transgressive behaviours like doping (Nicholls et al., 2020). These health risk behaviours have mainly been studied in light of individual or psychosocial factors, including motivation, self-perceptions, personality traits (Petito et al., 2016) and the coach-athlete relationship (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). This line of research has encouraged the development of specific health risk behaviour prevention programs (Hanlon et al., 2020;Kerr & Kerr, 2020;Pöppel, 2021;Sipavičiūtė et al., 2020) including, for example, the prevention of burnout (Choi et al., 2022) or mental health interventions (Purcell et al., 2019). ...
... Athletes explained that their parents and coaches were the major sources of social support, notably during stress and doubt periods, as previously reported in the literature (Burns et al., 2022;Rosenfeld et al., 1989;Sheridan et al., 2014). Strong interpersonal relationships reduce the stress associated with high-level sport demands (Burns et al., 2022) and a strong coach-athlete relationship is directly correlated with the well-being of athletes (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Many athletes highlighted the importance of this social support, whereas coaches and managers barely expressed themselves on the subject. ...
... Moreover, elite athletes are subjected to a set of constraints that lead to specific risks such as injury (Sghir et al., 2021) anxiety, or burnout (Lin et al., 2022;Gouttebarge et al., 2019). The coach-athlete relationship is crucial for their well-being (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Therefore, it is important for coaches and parents of athletes to benefit from health promotion activities in order to develop more knowledge about the health-related lifestyle conductive to the athlete's health and performance. ...
Elite athletes are continually subjected to a range of constraints specific to high performance, and these can have a negative impact on their health. Although many studies have explored the individual factors related to risky behaviours and disorders in elite sport contexts, few have focused on health promotion. Consequently, the interpersonal, institutional, and policy factors of the health-related behaviours of elite athletes are still poorly explored. Based on the socioecological model, this study aimed to identify the factors involved in the health-related lifestyle of elite athletes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 45 participants: athletes (N = 32), their coaches (N = 6) and the managers of elite sport centres (N = 7). Both deductive and inductive thematic analyses were performed. Our results highlight the views of the actors. Regarding intrapersonal factors, resilience qualities and health literacy appeared as key factors in influencing the health-related lifestyle of elite athletes. At the interpersonal level, parents and coaches emerged as the main sources of educational support. Regarding institutional factors, the health policies of the elite sport centres were key factors in supporting the athletes’ healthy lifestyle. These results encourage the development of health promotion programs at different levels of intervention.
... Several studies show that coach-athlete relationships can be compared to parent-child relationships or friendships (Cense & Bisgaard & Toftegaard Støckel, 2019;Brackenridge & Fasting, 2005;Brackenridge, 2001;Stirling & Kerr, 2009) where non-sport-related activities are often shared, such as going out for meals or watching movies (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Furthermore, the functional role of a sport coach often involves physical contact and closeness that are both instructional (e.g., demonstration of specific sport techniques) and non-instructional (e.g., sharing a room during overnight trips). ...
... Several studies show that coach-athlete relationships can be compared to parent-child relationships or friendships (Cense & Bisgaard & Toftegaard Støckel, 2019;Brackenridge & Fasting, 2005;Brackenridge, 2001;Stirling & Kerr, 2009) where non-sport-related activities are often shared, such as going out for meals or watching movies (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Furthermore, the functional role of a sport coach often involves physical contact and closeness that are both instructional (e.g., demonstration of specific sport techniques) and non-instructional (e.g., sharing a room during overnight trips). ...
... The literature also addresses other characteristics of coach-athlete relationships that further increase the chances for exploitation or abuse including athlete dependency, age differences, and structural gender order (Cense & Brackenridge, 2001;Fasting et al., 2011;Toftegaard Nielsen, 2001;Volkwein et al., 1997). Overall, given the close relationship, blurred role boundaries, and the normalization of exploitation of power/authority in sport (Brackenridge, 1997;Cense & Brackenridge, 2001;Toftegaard Nielsen, 2001), youth athletes are more tolerant to SHA (Stefansen et al., 2019;Stirling & Kerr, 2009) and may experience more severe forms of SHA than youth in general (Vertommen et al., 2016). SHA in sport often follows a temporal sequence (Finkelhor & Araji, 1986). ...
Although sexual harassment and abuse in youth sport have received increasing research attention worldwide, less is known about youth coaches' perceptions of sexually inappropriate behaviors and intimate relationships with athletes. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine youth sport coaches' perceptions of behaviors that can lead to potential sexual harassment and abuse, as well as to understand how coaches perceive coach-athlete sexual relationships. A cross-sectional survey was completed by 200 male coaches from various U.S. youth sport programs. Overall, a majority of coaches indicated behaviors associated with sexist comments and verbal/physical advances as sexually inappropriate. There was, however, a lack of consensus regarding what constitutes sexually inappropriate behaviors when the behavior was instruction-related/contextually dependent. Results were mixed regarding the perceptions of coach-athlete sexual relationships, with a notable number of coaches agreeing that sexual intimacies with young athletes (17 years or younger) are not always harmful and should not be prohibited. Based on a regression analysis, white coaches were more likely to exhibit negative perceptions about coach-athlete sexual relationships compared to ethnically diverse coaches. Overall, these findings warrant the development or reevaluation of policies and interventions aimed at preventing sexual harassment and abuse in the youth sport environment. Continued research is needed to better understand youth sport coaches as the perpetrators of sexual harassment and abuse.
... Researchers have, therefore, identified risk factors that can help facilitate abuse in sport in an effort to remedy them. These include the prioritization of performance over athlete well-being (Parent and Demers 2010), coach influence and authority over athletes (Stirling and Kerr 2009), limited guardian or parental oversight of training (Stirling and Kerr 2009), and unequal gender dynamics (Messner 1990). Cense and Brackenridge (2001) also suggest that the authoritarian leadership culture of sport creates a system with potential for abuse. ...
... Researchers have, therefore, identified risk factors that can help facilitate abuse in sport in an effort to remedy them. These include the prioritization of performance over athlete well-being (Parent and Demers 2010), coach influence and authority over athletes (Stirling and Kerr 2009), limited guardian or parental oversight of training (Stirling and Kerr 2009), and unequal gender dynamics (Messner 1990). Cense and Brackenridge (2001) also suggest that the authoritarian leadership culture of sport creates a system with potential for abuse. ...
... The culture of sport itself has also received significant attention as a contributing factor for sexual abuse. Numerous studies argue that the power imbalance between athletes and coaches or administrators can help facilitate sexual abuse (Brackenridge et al. 2008;Stirling and Kerr 2009;Roberts et al. 2020;Wilinsky and McCabe 2021;Gaedicke et al. 2021). Coaches assume guardian-like supervisory responsibilities over young athletes (Ecorys and Vertommen 2019); therefore, they not only hold significant authority, but also form close relationships with dependency. ...
Cases of abuse in sport have emerged with frightening regularity over the past two decades. Scholarship has identified risk factors that can help facilitate abuse in sport and has explored athletes’ experiences with sexual abuse. However, less is known about athletes’ perceptions of the systematic organizational-level problems that fail to curtail sexual abuse. This article, therefore, explores what athletes believe to be the key issues in governance that facilitate sexual abuse in sport. An analysis of the lawsuits that athletes filed against US sport organizations and the testimonies they provided to the US Congress from 2017 to 2022 show four primary ways in which organizational culture, decisions and policies helped permit misconduct in sport. Athlete perspectives suggest governance issues related to monopolistic power structures, a lack of athlete representation, conflicts of interest, and commercialization facilitated an abuse-prone culture within Olympic and Paralympic sport in the United States. These findings show that athletes feel that the adjudication mechanisms that remain connected to sport bodies do not always curtail abuse.
... Most of them have mentioned that they have been told from the beginning that being an athlete means listening to whatever the coach tells them and following all the coach's instructions. Athletes may also normalize the abuse they experience, especially if a coach has a successful reputation; they believe their future is in the hands of the coaches (Cense & Brackenridge, 2001;Papathomas & Lavallee, 2012;Stirling & Kerr, 2009, 2013, 2014. Even abused athletes may normalize abuse specifically in response to coaching power (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). ...
... Athletes may also normalize the abuse they experience, especially if a coach has a successful reputation; they believe their future is in the hands of the coaches (Cense & Brackenridge, 2001;Papathomas & Lavallee, 2012;Stirling & Kerr, 2009, 2013, 2014. Even abused athletes may normalize abuse specifically in response to coaching power (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). In fact, athletes learn to expose themselves to anything that might help them win a medal. ...
... Research also shows that athletes do not report the abuse due to the fear of the coach's reaction or doubts about the admissibility of protesting against coaches' behavior. They also assume that due to the coach's reputation in achieving success, no one would believe their report of abuse (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). Another reason that they do not report the coach's emotional abuse is the fear of being fired from the team and ruining the future of their sports career. ...
... Female athletes are more vulnerable to adverse effects of maltreatment. Elite female athletes who experience emotional abuse often experience social withdrawal by the end of their careers (13). Traumatic correlations of sexual abuse in female athletes are associated with poorer sports performance or dropout, lower self-esteem, and increased anxiety than in males. ...
... . /fspor. . They protect and enhance the wellbeing of athletes and assist athletes with their negotiations in relationships with others (6,13,36). Sport social workers are in a unique position to advocate for athletes within various sports systems and settings due to their values, knowledge, and approaches. Sport social workers are guided by a code of ethics which promotes diversity and inclusion. ...
... Sport social workers understand the importance of a holistic, rather than singular, perspective when working with athletes and that athletes develop within social environments. Holistic approaches in athlete development focuses on the athlete's physical, psychological, and social development through sports participation (2,13,39). ...
Maltreatment in sports is an epidemic and occurs in many relational forms such as physical, sexual, and emotional abuse or neglect. Maltreatment in sports also exists in forms of non-relational abuse and focuses on mezzo and macro forms of maltreatment such as systematic abuse, organizational abuse, and physiological abuse or neglect (e.g., exploitation and athlete trafficking). It is imperative to study the effects of maltreatment in sports as athletes can be the victims (survivors) as well as perpetrators of abuse. Recent research in the field of social work points to the benefits of Trauma-Informed Sports and Short Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) as possible interventions. It is imperative for transferability in the field of maltreatment in sports, that practitioners define each form of abuse in the context of maltreatment and trauma. This commentary aims to discuss the different forms of maltreatment in sports that could affect athletes and provide discussion and insights into the void of research surrounding certain forms of non-relational abuse and the role trauma-informed therapies serve in promoting athlete wellbeing from a social work lens.
... All these studies have pointed out the gray area of coach-athlete relationships, wherein these athletes negotiate maltreatment situations by mostly accepting them through their normalization. Indeed, despite the negative impact of these behaviors on the interviewed athletes, they normalized them as part of training (Stirling and Kerr, 2009;Pinheiro et al., 2014;Adams and Kavanagh, 2020) and described strategies (Kavanagh et al., 2017) for coping with them. In parallel, a few sociological studies have highlighted the tendency of some athletes to train despite injuries, pain, or exhaustion; the imposition of extreme training regimens; and the negotiation of such situations by normalizing these behaviors in certain sports cultures (Hughes and Coakley, 1991;Kerr, 2010;Pike and Scott, 2015). ...
... Smits et al. suggested that the young age of athletes would explain their passivity and obedience, yet this might be questioned here as our study concerned an adult athlete. We might therefore explain the boxer's obedience by the coach's power over her -more precisely, his legitimate authority, expertise and past successes (Stirling and Kerr, 2009). It is also interesting to question this athlete's relative credulity. ...
... Later in the process, the coach's refusal to acknowledge her inability to lose further weight, his negative and mean comments, and his ignorance about and emphasis on weight loss put Erika deeper into a situation of maltreatment. These abusive coaching behaviors have been identified in other qualitative studies: degrading comments, intentional denial of attention and support (Stirling and Kerr, 2008); criticism and "silent treatment" (Stirling and Kerr, 2009); and rejection, ignoring and isolating (Gervis and Dunn, 2004). While some studies suggest that abused athletes seek support (e.g., Kavanagh, 2014;Kavanagh et al., 2017), the boxer we interviewed tried to regulate her interactions with maltreatment with her coach, then on her own. ...
Several studies have revealed the abusive behaviors directed against athletes in various sports contexts, but knowledge about the processes by which the athletes realize and accept or reject maltreatment is underdeveloped. Thus, it is difficult to establish a solid scientific basis for characterizing the mechanisms of maltreatment from the athletes' perspective regarding the forms of maltreatment they endure and the impact on their performance and wellbeing. The main goals of this paper are to show how the enactive approach (including theoretical assumptions and methodological standards) can meet these challenges, as it is well-suited to (a) describe the evolving interactions between athletes and the sports situations that lead to maltreatment (i.e., navigating in the gray area of coach-athlete relationships), (b) identify those alert landmarks that help us assess the level of risk of athlete maltreatment, and (c) provide concrete guidelines to prevent and deal with sports-related maltreatment. We illustrate our approach by a case study that examines the experience of a retired high-level boxer who faced several forms of maltreatment. Our results reveal a dynamic change in the interactions between the boxer and the maltreatment situations that led her through (a) Acceptance (i.e., future-oriented positive involvement), (b) Regulation attempt (i.e., negative feelings about weight loss, exhaustion and loneliness, questioning the compromise between performance and health, acceptance and loneliness), (c) Distancing (i.e., reopening to others) and (d) Rejection (i.e., rebellion and the decision to stand up to her coach and leave). Based on our results, we present concrete guidelines to prevent and address sports-related maltreatment, with four progressive alert landmarks that help situate the athlete in the gray area of coach-athlete relationships and suggest a "timeline" of maltreatment escalation with key warnings.
... al. 2021;Sabaliauskas and Poteliūnienė 2010;Sand et. al. 2011;Stirling and Kerr 2009;Prewitt-White 2019;Fasting et. al. 2018) and examines some of the major factors. ...
... al. 2011;Sherman et al. 2000;Fejgin et al. 2001). Coaching roles are frequently held by men, while women coaches are underrepresented, and this unequal gender distribution in coaching positions could be interpreted as a general risk (or, at the very least, a warning sign) of sexual violence, paving the way for male coaches to abuse their positions (Stirling and Kerr 2009). ...
Sexual harassment and sexual abuse are not uncommon in the world of sports. Many athletes, especially female athletes, have been victims of violence, intimidation and abuse. For many years, victims remained silent and hid their experiences for fear of condemnation by society and the media, but recent trends show that the situation is improving. More and more athletes are speaking out against sexual harassment and abuse in the world of sport. From a legal point of view, the main feature of sexual harassment cases is that the burden of proof can be shifted to the accused. In criminal law, this mechanism raises concerns about a possible violation of the presumption of innocence. However, as international sports federations apply a lower standard of proof in disciplinary cases, this procedural feature is viewed favourably. At the same time, it should be noted that a lower standard of proof does not in any way mean that sexual harassment and abuse cases can be investigated with less responsibility or sensitivity. On the contrary, the legal and criminological specificity of this phenomenon implies that the boundaries between sexual abuse, sexual harassment, unprofessional conduct, and mere flirting must be clearly defined. Appropriate delimitation ensures, on the one hand, that perpetrators do not escape responsibility, even if it is relatively minor, and, on the other hand, protects the innocent against unfounded accusations.
... Athletes who have experienced violence from their coaches refer to the influence of their coaches' power. For example, athletes have referred to their coaches as "parentfigures" [41] or "God" [42], expressing their unquestioned commitment to their coach: "You are somebody if you are coached by him, he coaches the best people in the country so no-one questions him" [39]. Another athlete said, "she was the best coach around so I had to tolerate the abuse", referring to the expertise power that led to their continued experiences of abuse [41]. ...
... For example, athletes have referred to their coaches as "parentfigures" [41] or "God" [42], expressing their unquestioned commitment to their coach: "You are somebody if you are coached by him, he coaches the best people in the country so no-one questions him" [39]. Another athlete said, "she was the best coach around so I had to tolerate the abuse", referring to the expertise power that led to their continued experiences of abuse [41]. In fact, the coach-athlete relationship has been equated to a master-slave relationship [43]. ...
Millions of girls and young women participate in organized sports annually as a vehicle for developing a strong sense of self, social bonds, a positive body image and a sense of agency. Although the benefits of sport engagement are experienced by many girls, the overwhelming evidence of experiences of gender-based violence in sport cannot be ignored (e.g., USA Gymnastics, Hockey Canada). This paper will address gender-based violence experienced by adolescents in sport with a focus on psychological violence. The literature is replete with evidence that girls experience higher rates of gender-based psychological violence in sport than boys, and as a result, incur developmental costs. Psychological violence is experienced by girls in sport in the form of demeaning comments, body shaming, inequitable media coverage and funding and the ongoing policing of women’s bodies in sport through sexualized sport attire and physiological testing. The causes and effects of psychological violence will be addressed along with recommendations to prevent and address gender-based violence in sport.
... Antrenörlere duyulan aşırı güven ve onlara verilen koşulsuz yetki ve kontrol, çocuklara yönelik kötü muamelenin bir nedenidir. Bu durum istismarın ortaya çıkmasını engellemekte; çocukların ve ailelerin istismarı bildirmesindeki isteksizliğini beslemektedir (Brackenridge, 2001;Mountjoy vd., 2016;Owton ve Sparkes, 2017;Smits vd., 2017;Stirling ve Kerr, 2009). Yine sporun fiziksel temas ve performans gerektiren özelliğinden dolayı bazı istismar eylemlerinin normalleştirildiği görülmektedir (Toftegaard Nielsen, 2001). ...
... Verilerin daha önce benzer yöntem ile (retrospektif) Leahy vd., (2002) Araştırma kapsamında, cinsel istismar faillerinin kimler olduğu da sorulmuştur. Bu konuda çalışmalar (Alexandre vd., 2022;Darling vd., 2020;Hartill vd., 2021;Stirling ve Kerr, 2009), erkek faillerin ön plana çıktığını göstermektedir. Akran yaş gruplarında, zaman zaman oranlar daha yüksek çıksa da güç ilişkileri bağlamında özellikle erkek antrenörlerin fail olduğu görülmektedir (Bjørnseth ve Szabo, 2018). ...
Çalışmanın amacı; Türkiye’de elit düzeyde spor yapan bireylerin çocukluk döneminde maruz kaldıkları cinsel istismarı incelemektir. Araştırmada, nicel veri toplama tekniği olan anket kullanılmıştır. Ankette, demografik bilgiler ile birlikte, cinsel istismara maruz kalıp kalmadıklarına ilişkin sorular sorulmuştur. Örneklem grubunun elit düzeyde spor yapan kişilerden oluştuğu çalışmaya, 82’si erkek, 124’ü kadın olmak üzere toplam 206 kişi dâhil olmuştur. Elde edilen verilere göre katılımcıların %33,5’i, çocukluk döneminde cinsel istismara maruz kalmıştır. Kadınlar (%43,5), erkek (18,3) sporculara göre daha fazla istismar edilmiştir. Çalışmada, çocukluk döneminde en fazla maruz kaldıkları istismar türünün "görünüş ya da beden ile ilgili cinsel yorumlar", "rahatsız edici düzeyde sokulma/temas" ve "cinsel içerikli mesaj/e-mail/mektup alma" olduğu belirlenmiştir. Yine bireysel spor yapan sporcular, takım sporları yapan sporculara göre daha fazla istismara maruz kaldıklarını bildirmiştir. Failin kim olduğu sorularında, “yaşça büyük sporcular” ve “antrenörler”in ilk iki sırada olduğu tespit edilmiştir. İstismar edildiklerini biri ya da birileriyle paylaşıp paylaşmadıkları sorusuna, katılımcıların büyük bir kısmı (% 66,7), kimse ile paylaşmadıkları cevabını vermiştir. Sonuç olarak çalışmadan elde edilen veriler, spordaki cinsel istismarın çocuklar için tehdit oluşturduğunu ve çocukların güven içinde spor yapmaları için çocuk koruma mekanizmalarının geliştirilmesi gerektiğini göstermektedir.
... The relationship needs to be developed and maintained such that it is appropriate and effective [2]. This is particularly important because the influence of a coach can be significant and wide ranging [3,4]. Recent high-profile cases in the media, national inquiries and empirical evidence have powerfully illustrated that the coach-athlete relationship can, however, be characterised by different forms of abuse such as sexual, physical, emotional and financial [5][6][7]. ...
... An extensive body of literature evidences how coaches can have significant power over athletes [1,3,20]. It is also clear that such relationships can be characterised by sexual abuse [5,6]. ...
This study aimed to evaluate three training methods on the physical capacity of Cameroonians boxers in other to propose the best method for their preparation. Thus, thirty-six boxers aged twenty-three to twenty-six were recruited and divided into three groups of twelve boxers each. They were submitted to training session for eight weeks using the continuous method, the intermittent method and the mixed method for group one, two and three respectively. Anthropometric (weight, height and Body Mass Index (BMI)) and physiological (Maximal Oxygen Consumption (VO2max), Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP), Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP), Blood Glucose Levels (BGL) and Blood Lactic Acid concentrations (BLA)) parameters were measured before and after the training session program. Results at the end of the program showed no significant variation of Blood Glucose Level of boxers between the three groups as well as inside the same group (p>0.05). On the other hand, significant differences (p<0.05-p<0.001) in weight, BMI, SBP, DBP, VO2max and Blood Lactic Acid concentrations were observed. Indeed, weight, BMI, SBP and DBP decreased significantly (p<0.05-p<0.001), while VO2max increased significantly in the three experimental groups (p<0.05-p<0.001). The analysis of these results reveals that the group having practiced the mixed training method showed the strongest rates of increase in VO2max (67.8±5.00 ml/min/kg). In addition, their VO2max at the end of the experimentation is largely above the average value defined by literature (64.8 ml/min/kg). This can justify the choice of the mixed training method for the physical preparation of Cameroonian boxers.
... Ek olarak Stafford vd., (2013) çocuk sporculara yapılan fiziksel şiddetle ilgili çalışmalarında, antrenörlerin fiziksel saldırganlık ve şiddet davranışlarını bir kontrol veya ceza aracı olarak kullandığını belirtmektedirler. Diğer taraftan performansın artması ve beceri tekniğinin gelişmesi için uygulanan zor antrenman metotları çocuğun fiziksel kapasitesinin çok üstünde olabildiği için kalıcı sakatlıklara sebep olabilmekte ve bu durum performans sporunda normalleştirilebilmektedir (Battaglia, 2018;Stirling, 2009). ...
... Sporda cinsel istismar, fiziksel, duygusal, bilişsel ve deneyimsel açıdan daha zayıf olan çocuğun güç ve hiyerarşi açısından daha yüksek noktada olan kişi taraftan gerçekleşir. Spor ortamında çocukların maruz kalabileceği cinsel istismar davranışları temaslı ve temassız olarak incelenebilmektedir (Stirling, 2009). Spor ortamlarında cinsel içerikli ifadeler ve kelimeler antrenörler tarafından yaygın görülmektedir (Parent, 2011). ...
This study aimed to examine child abuse in sports from the perspective of elite female gymnasts. The participants included 10 retired elite female gymnasts who took part in national teams in different categories. Participants' sports experience is at least 8 and maximum 12 years and ranged in age from 28 to 36 years. The data collected through in-depth individual interviews with the participants were analyzed with the content analysis technique. In the study, the opinions of the participants on the types of abuse originating from “emotional”, “physical”, “sexual” and “neglect” defined by the World Health Organization and the International Olympic Committee, the umbrella association of sports, were received. In the light of the information obtained from the experiences and opinions of the participants, it was emphasized in the study that all types of abuse were mostly carried out by the coach with some behavioral patterns, and the lack of security in sports environments paved the way for abuse in sports. According to the research findings, it has been determined that elite child athlete exposed to emotional abuse due to behaviors such as verbal violence, pressure and negative language use; physical abuse due to excessive physical exertion and throwing objects; sexual abuse for reasons such as sexually explicit conversations and accommodation in unsafe area and negligence due to not fulfilling the health conditions and favoritism. As a result, all participants experienced intense emotional abuse and it was determined that this situation left permanent effects in adulthood.
... When used in destructive ways, violence may result. Coaches' positions of power may be used to engage in harmful practices towards athletes, such as sexual, physical, and psychological abuse, without fear of consequences (Pinheiro et al., 2014;Smits et al., 2017;Stirling & Kerr, 2009;Roberts et al., 2020;Wilinsky & McCabe, 2020). These positions of power enable coaches to influence the sport environment itself by isolating athletes from support networks and thus avoiding detection (Parent & Fortier, 2018;Roberts et al., 2020). ...
... Fournier et al. (2021) examined the relationship between psychological violence by coaches and conformity to the sport ethic and found that those athletes who conformed to the view that limits should not be respected or accepted experienced less psychological violence. Dominant values of the sport ethic also include uncritical acceptance and unquestioned commitment to the experts with reputations of prior demonstrated success (Nite & Nauright, 2020;Stirling & Kerr, 2009). This deference to those in positions of authority with expertise makes it easier for those in these positions to misuse their power to enact violence without resistance or intervention (Roberts et al., 2020). ...
... The relationship needs to be developed and maintained such that it is appropriate and effective [2]. This is particularly important because the influence of a coach can be significant and wide ranging [3,4]. Recent high-profile cases in the media, national inquiries and empirical evidence have powerfully illustrated that the coach-athlete relationship can, however, be characterised by different forms of abuse such as sexual, physical, emotional and financial [5][6][7]. ...
... An extensive body of literature evidences how coaches can have significant power over athletes [1,3,20]. It is also clear that such relationships can be characterised by sexual abuse [5,6]. ...
When an individual is in a position of trust over another person, the age of consent is raised from 16 to 18 in the United Kingdom. Currently, the definition of a Position of Trust is restricted to professions such as teachers, care workers and youth justice workers. Recent high-profile cases have contributed to a growing consensus amongst key stakeholders of the need to broaden this legislation to include other roles, such as a sports coach. This study represents the first investigation into the number of concerns recorded by local authorities across England and Wales regarding sexual relationships between a person who is in a potential Position of Trust which is not currently covered by the legislation and someone who was aged 16 or 17 years old. Freedom of Information Requests resulted in full responses from 142 out of the 172 local authorities. A total of 653 cases were recorded over a 4-year period. The most prevalent of the identified roles were related to sport, however, roles related to religion, youth work, transport and uniform services were also cited. Regional differences regarding the number of cases recorded are highlighted and the implications of these findings are discussed.
... Third, sport cultural norms also play a prominent role in CSA (Moun tjoy, 2018). For instance, some athletes interpret abuse as normalized with in athletic settings (Stirling & Kerr, 2009;Toftegaard Nielsen, 2001), given that abusive behaviors that would be considered inappropriate or unac ceptable outside of sport are normalized within it (Brackenridge, 2000). ...
... Finally, power imbalances also contribute to CSA in sport, as victims of ten stay silent which ultimately reinforces the perpetrator's power (Hartill, 2014(Hartill, , 2018Parent & Bannon, 2012). Researchers have further noted that coaches' authority is rarely questioned (Parent, 2011;Parent & Demers, 2011;Parent & Bannon, 2012), which stifles reporting as coach perpetra tors often pressure athletes to not report abusive behavior (Stirling & Kerr, 2009), and parents may not ask their children about a coach's behavior due to inherent trust in the coaching position. These power imbalances within coach-athlete relationships become problematic when coach perpetrators began to enact sexual abuse towards victims (Owton & Sparkes, 2017). ...
Spectacular cases of child sexual abuse (CSA) dominate media coverage again and again, shaping our knowledge about a topic that is as sensitive as it is taboo. To date, a scholarly overview of the current state of media coverage of SBC has been lacking. This book attempts to shed light on the connections between SBCs and the media in a variety of ways, incorporating different studies and perspectives from practitioners. It thus provides a comprehensive overview of relevant issues raised in the context of CSA and the media.
... Effective remedies include 32 Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children (A/61/299), para 1. Accordingly, Finland's national strategy on the rights of the child (published 23.2.2021) is based on a policy of zero tolerance of all forms of violence against children. 33 Stirling and Kerr 2009and General Comment No 13 2011, para 17. 34 General Comment No 13 2011Tobin and Cashmore 2019, p. 689. 35 See also Ellingsen and Danielsen 2017, p. 414. ...
... See also UNICEF 2018. 57 General Comment No 13 2011 Kerr et al. 2019a, b. 59 Brackenridge et al. 2008, Parent 2011and Stirling and Kerr 2009 Stirling and Kerr 2008. 61 Kerr et al. 2016 andMcCullick et al. 2003. ...
According to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), every child has a right to practise sports in a healthy, safe environment (art. 19). However, research indicates that child athletes experience various forms of violence in sports. Violence is particularly harmful to children, as the effects may be significant and long lasting. In addition, children often have difficulty identifying and reacting to violence. In this article, we first aim to shed light on the prevalence and implications of violence towards child athletes in sports. By child athletes, we mean athletes under the age of 18 (CRC art. 1). Thereafter, we discuss the following questions: (1) How does the CRC protect children in sports? (2) Can children’s rights be effectively protected through sports self-regulation of sports bodies and legal remedies? (3) Who is responsible for safeguarding children’s rights in sports? To answer these questions, we employ a multidisciplinary perspective that combines jurisprudence and sport psychology. In summary, we conclude that the CRC unequivocally prohibits all violence against children in all sectors of society, including sports. The responsibility for enforcing this prohibition lies with both member states and sports bodies. It is always the responsibility of adults. The full realisation of children’s rights requires action on multiple fronts, including legislation, information, education and resources.
... For the latter, athletes are often considered to be aspirational role models and studies indicate that fan behaviors during sporting matches may emulate that of players [35]. Additionally, the inter-relational aspects of the athlete-coach relationship could contribute to the development and/or expression of certain characteristics, which may have multifaceted implications [36]. Hence, taken together, elevated levels of psychopathic traits could have complex outcomes in sporting environments for athletes, coaches, and spectators. ...
There has been a growing interest around the broader effects of psychopathic traits, particularly in relation to deviant behaviors and the notion of so-called “successful psychopathy”. As significant sociocultural touchstones, sporting events are often characterized by competitiveness and a sense of prestige. However, there has been limited attention towards psychopathic traits across recreational, amateur, and elite sports. Accordingly, we conducted a narrative review synthesizing primary observations on this topic, searching keywords in Scopus, APA PsychNet, and PubMed. Twenty-four academic papers were included in our results, which we thematized around demographic groups, namely: athletes and sport-adjacent non-athletes (i.e., coaches and spectators). Based on empirical findings from the reviewed papers, psychopathic traits could have medicolegal and forensic implications in relation to substance use, aggression, and violence. These could intersect with wider issues around doping, cheating, foul play, and have adverse outcomes for fellow participants, team dynamics, and spectators. Interestingly, our review also indicates that psychopathic traits may have correlations with determination and achievement in sport, echoing developing ideas around “successful psychopathy” in other domains. As such, increased awareness from all stakeholders and further multidisciplinary exchanges are vital to better understand the effects of psychopathic traits in sporting frameworks and their wider consequences.
... Sport specific research is merited because different sports will likely have different cultures (20). Elite gymnasts can specialize at a relatively young age and can develop relationships within the sport which are similar to that between a child and their parent/guardian (21). Gymnastics involves a high volume of training hours and ensures that athletes will spend a lot of time within this context (22)(23). ...
The need to create healthy cultures within Gymnastics has been demonstrated by a rseies of high profile cases which are illustrative of unhealthy cultures. The present study interviewed 6 international level gymnasts to explore their perceptions as to what constitutes a healthy culture. Inductive thematic analysis highlighted the need to adopt a socio-ecological approach which recognizes the influences of factors at the individual (i.e., developing ability and achieving personal goals), interpersonal (i.e., supportive peer relationships and effective coach-athlete relationship)and institutional (i.e., sense of community and a focus on developing psychosocial skills) levels. The findings from the present study can be used to inform coaches and national governing bodies on the importance of these factors, especially when considering the prioritisation of gymnasts ’psychological wellbeing in the context of elite sport.
... Specific forms of IV against athletes have been examined including those on sexual violence (Fasting et al. 2011;Parent et al. 2016), sexual harassment (Fasting et al. 2011), gender-based violence (Mergaert et al. 2016), psychological violence and emotional abuse (Gervis, Rhind, and Luzar 2016;Kerr, Kidd, and Donnelly 2020), physical abuse (McPherson et al. 2016), maltreatment (Fortier & Parent, 2020;Stirling and Kerr 2009), bullying (Nery et al. 2019), hazing (Jeckell, Copenhaver, and Diamond 2018), aggression/assault (Young 2019), all of which can be present in both physical and virtual spaces (Kavanagh and Brown 2020;Kavanagh et al. 2020). This body of knowledge presents a global pattern of violence against athletes; violence that can occur in sporting contexts ranging from community through to high performance sport (Kavanagh et al. 2021). ...
... In qualitative studies, it has been demonstrated that coaches may gain significant control over diverse areas of athletes' lives, e.g., nutrition, recovery, education, or social relationships Pinheiro et al., 2014). In elite sports, immense trust is put into the coach by athletes and parents alike, which, especially when combined with a lack of parental supervision (e.g., when parents' attendance is prohibited), constitutes a risk factor as well Stirling & Kerr, 2009). On a sociocultural level, psychological abuse is often accepted or normalized by coaches, parents, athletes, and even managers or authorities responsible for coaches' conduct, as they view this kind of treatment as necessary to achieve success Pinheiro et al., 2014;Stirling & Kerr, 2013). ...
In light of the continuing debate about coach-perpetrated violence and the maltreatment of athletes in the elite sports context, empowering and ethical approaches to coaching need to be investigated and proposed as evidence-based effective alternatives. This study aims to investigate the associations between motivational coaching climates and athletes’ experiences of psychological violence, as well as their effects on well-being. Using an anonymous cross-sectional online survey, artistic gymnasts’ perceptions of empowering and disempowering coach-created motivational climates, experiences of psychological violence in sport, well-being, and depressive symptoms were recorded quantitatively. Results indicate that a more disempowering climate predicts psychological violence, while an empowering climate was not a significant predictor. Regarding mental health outcomes, an effect of psychological violence on depressive symptoms and well-being was found, but no effect was found for the disempowering climate. Explorative analysis suggested that psychological violence mediates the relationship between disempowering coaching and mental health outcomes. Based on these findings, coach education should focus on prevention of psychological violence and minimization of disempowering climates. Further research should investigate the relations and effects of psychological violence and coaching climates more thoroughly, including the role of an empowering climate as a potential beneficiary alternative coaching method.
... In a study of female physique athletes (athletes judged on symmetrical appearance and low-fat mass, rather than physical performance), 31 the coach was identified as the greatest influence on dieting behaviour and bodyweight loss. 32 Multiple studies (e.g., 33,34 ) have demonstrated the potentially harmful power the coach holds in the coach-athlete relationship, and the pressure athletes can feel when trying to speak out on sensitive topics. Furthermore, athletes' maladaptive eating approaches, including disordered eating, have been attributed to pressure from coaches, with the aim of manipulating body size or shape. ...
Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) is a complex syndrome that occurs as a result of prolonged Low Energy Availability (LEA) leading to health and performance impairments. However, whilst the coach plays an important role when working with athletes with RED-S, no research exists specifically exploring their role. Therefore, this study investigates the role of the coach from the athletes’ perspective within an ultrarunning context. Ultrarunners are at risk of LEA due to large training volumes and record high incidences of psychological and physiological conditions linked to RED-S, such as disordered eating and bone stress injuries. Two female ultrarunners who had experience with RED-S each participated in three semi-structured interviews. The findings highlight the multifaceted role of the coach which changes depending on the stage of the athletes’ RED-S Journey. Of primary importance was that the coach should be educated on RED-S in order to provide value throughout. Secondly, for effective recovery, the coach should embrace working with a multidisciplinary support team of experts. Thirdly, the coach should actively work on establishing strong relationships with the athlete and their support network. This will propagate trust and honest conversations, a key requirement for recovery from, and ongoing training post, RED-S.
... According to Jarvie (2013) and Gems and Pfister (2009), it is impossible to completely understand any society or culture without acknowledging the place of sport. Stirling and Kerr (2009) further contend that the relationships between coaches and players depends upon social structures in place and the connections that come with having regular contact on and off the field or court. ...
... Youth sport situations which are characterized by verbal anger, such as parents yelling at coaches, or physical anger may be exclusively stressful to children, leading a poor performance [25]. Stirling and Kerr [43] found reduced performance effects in athletes from a range of different sports regarding their experiences of emotional abuse. Sporting success is generally determined by the performance outcome, and then the notion of "the end justifies the means" is frequently reported inside sport contexts. ...
Background:
Youth sport provides regular physical activity for millions of children. It is a global system, which includes coaches, referees, athletes, and parent spectators; consequently, the behavior of each member can influence the experiences of others. This study aimed to investigate the mediating role of self-efficacy and assertiveness in the relationship between the degree of anger expression and the performance children's score in a group of parents and coaches.
Methods:
200 parents (96 fathers, 104 mothers) and 200 coaches (119 males, 81 females) responded to the General Self-efficacy Scale, The Scale for Interpersonal Behavior, and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2; an indicator of performance was asked of each coach. The age range of parents was 28-59 years (M = 41.39, SD = 7.07), while that of coaches was 27-43 years (M = 35.91, SD = 3.35).
Results:
Results revealed that self-efficacy and assertiveness were the direct and indirect predictors of performance score.
Conclusions:
The study provided an understanding of the nature and magnitude of this profoundly interpersonal experience. Future studies may advance relevant education programs and effective interventions aimed at reducing angry expressions and lack of communication.
... For example, to improve the gendered social structure of coaching positions, sport organizations from various countries need to create a more supportive culture surrounding female employment in coaching positions, such as greater transparency in the coach hiring process, as well as better communication and investment for women coaches (Norman et al., 2018). In addition, to reform the unquestioned and uncontrolled power of coaches toward their athletes (Stirling & Kerr, 2009), efforts from both the governing bodies of sport organizations and parents would be necessary. For example, it would be beneficial if the governing bodies implemented policies for both high-level sport organizations (e.g., national and professional team) and low-level sport organizations such as local clubs, related to athlete wellbeing and safety. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine how South Korean individuals responded to Olympic short track speed skater Shim Suk-hee’s sexual abuse accusations toward her former coach Cho Jae-bum, as well as the perceptions associated with the culture of South Korea’s elite sport organization, the Korea Skating Union. Specifically, Facebook comments made to posts on the three digital news platforms (Dispatch, Insight, and SBS News) in South Korea were analyzed through the lens of framing theory. Data were analyzed using a thematic analysis. Three themes emerged inductively from the data analysis including (a) emotions; (b) punishment for authority figures; and (c) further investigations of similar cases. Comments illustrated South Korean publics’ anger with their desire to see Cho face stricter punishment for his abuse of Shim. In addition, comments discussed calling for more thorough investigations into similar cases of abuse. Lastly, South Korean individuals showed an overall dissatisfaction of the current system and culture of the Korean Skating Union without transparency.
... The participant 172 sample contained six defenders (Mage=23.5 ± 8.38) and six attackers (Mage=20.17 ± 3.37), which is a similar sample to other interview-based studies that have looked at relationships in 174 sport 82 . 175 ...
Shared understanding can be defined as two or more people thinking similarly in specific situations. Team members who share similar thoughts are positively related to an effective performance. Within team sports like football, shared understanding between team members facilitates a more coordinated performance. For example, shared understanding between team members is crucial to defending an opposition corner kick, with each team member requiring an understanding of all team roles and likely actions, rather than just their own. Williamson, Cox, Gershgoren et al. emphasise the importance of shared understanding that underpins a team's ability to perform effectively together. This would give the team the best chance of defending the corner (e.g. performing effectively together) and not conceding a goal. Having shared understanding between team members is an important component of an effective team; however, shared understanding between team members is not instantaneous. Due to its complex nature, there are several factors that contribute to the development of shared understanding between team members, with some of these being considered previously in different team sports - such as tennis doubles, field hockey and basketball. The focus of this study is therefore to outline how the different contributing factors interact to develop shared understanding between team members within football.
... Depending on the environment, a coach may act as a supporter who contributes to the development of social skills, especially in lower-level coaching such as recreational or grassroots sports where actively encouraging children and youngsters may serve as an incentive for continuous participation (Robinson, 2010). Nevertheless, although the relationship between an athlete and his/her voluntary coach may be perceived as a positive influence, there can also be problems of abuse, as coaches represent authority figures with power over athletes even outside of the sport setting (Stirling and Kerr, 2009;Robinson, 2010;Fasting, 2013). Hence, voluntary coaches in children's sports must be aware of their ethical and moral decisions, considering the potential short-and long-term effects that any abusive relationship could generate. ...
The involvement of volunteers in children's sport carries out an important contribution to the provision of services across community sport programmes, as well as in recreational and grassroots activities. For example, whereas voluntary coaches can take advantage of entry-level opportunities to improve their practical skills, youth and amateur organisations may also raise non-monetary benefits by offering room for development with different roles, tasks, and services around voluntary work (i.e. refereeing games; mentoring personnel; handling administrative or operational demands). Yet, in order to safeguard a positive youth environment, it is crucial that both volunteers and administrators become aware and get educated about child protection issues. This chapter focuses on a review of antecedents of voluntary coaching through the lenses of volunteer motivation and commitment, as well as volunteer education and social components in children's sport. Additionally, it briefly explores the literature of child protection and its meaning to volunteers, with particular attention to issues of abuse and harassment. Acknowledging that a misinterpretation of needs, expectations, and priorities may arise between coaches and children, this chapter also recognises the roles of incentive, power, and trust around volunteering in children's sport.
... Stemming from this research was an increased focus on the ways in which power was used and misused by those in positions of authority and trust in sport, including coaches, administrators, officials, and sport science support staff. Although the emphasis of this body of work continues to be on sexual violence, increasingly, focus is being devoted to the far more prevalent form of violence in sport-that of psychological violence, which has become so embedded in the sport culture that it is not often seen as problematic (see, for example, Donnelly, 1993;Jacobs et al., 2017;Stirling & Kerr, 2009;Willson et al., 2021). At the time of this writing, global concerns about toxic sport cultures in which athletes claim a lack of psychological safety are permeating public and academic discussions (Star Editorial Board, 2022;Thorpe et al., 2019). ...
... This is also consistent with findings from Alexander et al. (2022) who outlined the contrasting narratives being displayed in the media surrounding parasport coaching where coaches are conceptualized and portrayed as either sweet, inspirational figures, or competitive, determined individuals. In sport, there is often a hesitation for athletes to highlight or discuss negative coaching behaviors, especially for athletes that are currently competing with their coaches, in fear of being kicked off the team or blacklisted from their sport (Stirling & Kerr, 2009;Townsend et al., 2020). More recently, athletes have been empowered to speak out about athlete mistreatment, mental health, or negative (Ahead of Print) experiences in sport (e.g., Macur, 2021). ...
The majority of research on the coach-athlete relationship has been explored from the perspective of able-bodied athletes. The purpose of this study was to explore wheelchair basketball athletes' perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship. Timelining and semistructured interviews were conducted with six wheelchair basketball athletes, and data were analyzed using a reflexive thematic analysis. Athletes highlighted the important role that parasport coaches played in fostering an enjoyable wheelchair basketball environment and valued coaches who displayed expertise regarding their athletes' equipment and had personal parasport athletic experiences. Additionally, athletes identified personal preferences, including coaches who addressed sex differences and maintained professional relationships at the national level as contributing factors to the coach-athlete relationship. The current results benefit both parasport coaches and athletes by providing a portrayal of coaching behaviors, characteristics, and expertise that not only influence the parasport coach-athlete dyad but also affect the well-being and athletic development of parasport athletes.
... Similar to other workplaces, professional sporting environments are sites of distinct sociocultural norms and behaviour that both produce and condone the abuse of those who work within them (Brackenridge, 2001;Bringer et al., 2002;Burke, 2001;Fasting & Brackenridge, 2009;Hartill, 2013;McMahon & McGannon, 2020;Owton & Sparkes, 2017;Parent, 2011;Stirling & Kerr, 2009). McMahon and McGannon (2020) highlight how recent research sheds light on athletes who suffer different forms of abuse, across a variety of sports and levels of competition (e.g. ...
Research question
As with most professional institutions, English Premier League football clubs offer insightful, unique opportunities to more fully comprehend the cultural significance of banter and abuse within workplace environments. This article offers a new, critical perspective that provides a better understanding of the distinctive, intricate social discourses surrounding banter in the daily lives of professional footballers by answering the research question: What is the cultural significance of banter within the competitive work environments of English Premier League players?
Research method
Data were collected from 10 male participants (aged 18–30) by means of qualitative semi-structured vignette interviews. Each participant was interviewed on three separate occasions (30 interviews).
Results and findings
The data and subsequent analysis illustrate how banter is an accepted and legitimised discourse within professional football, but promotes considerable anxiety, stress and unhappiness in work environments.
Implication
This study provides an original insight into the attitudes professional football players hold towards banter. Contributing to the existing research that has examined forms of abuse within sport, this article aims to better inform the management and development of athlete well-being and player care.
... Yet, it is precisely the insight into these factors that could contribute to improved prevention strategies (Cense and Brackenridge 2001). So far, the small number of studies on SHA in sports have focused mainly on the coach-athlete relationship (Bjørnseth and Szabo 2018;Johansson et al. 2016;Nielsen 2001;Stirling and Kerr 2009) with 'grooming' as a theoretical explanatory model; the process by which a perpetrator slowly gains a potential victim's trust before systematically breaking down interpersonal barriers (Brackenridge and Fasting 2005). Research into the origin of SHA in sports was thus mainly understood from a social perspective (Moget and Weber 2008). ...
The purpose of this study was to explore a biopsychosocial profile for experiencing sexual harassment and abuse in sports. A qualitative approach was used; data were collected from semi-structured in-depth interviews covering seven cases of sexual harassment and abuse in sports in the Netherlands. The interview transcripts were analysed and aligned with the biopsychosocial model. The results reveal biological (i.e., aged under 18, sex, and sexual orientation), psychological (i.e., high degree of naivety, altruism and agreeableness, low self-esteem, perfectionism, emotional or disorders) and social factors (i.e., poor or negative relationship with parents, social pressure to perform, incest at home, social isolation, elite sports and too much power of a single trainer/coach) that can contribute to the risk of experiencing sexual harassment and abuse in sports. These findings provide important directions for prevention and recognition in sports practice and future research.
... Sexual abuse in sport is mainly perpetrated by men, and usually by coaches or doctors (Stirling and Kerr, 2009; United Nations Office on Drugs Crime, 2021), and/or other adults working in sports facilities (Darling et al., 2020), although recent results suggest that fellow athletes may also be perpetrators (Bjørnseth and Szabo, 2018;Hartill et al., 2021). Typically, the perpetrator has a good reputation and the trust of parents and young athletes. ...
Child sexual abuse is a complex issue that can take place in different contexts. Sports settings have specific features which pose increased risk for sexual abuse to occur. Recently, a country-specific roadmap for effective child safeguarding in sport was launched. Considering the need to achieve a comprehensive picture of violence against children in sports settings in Portugal, we analyzed the perceptions of the sports community in Portugal regarding child sexual abuse, its victims and perpetrators, and the specific risk factors in sports settings, as studies about this specific topic are scarce at the national level. A descriptive exploratory study was conducted using an online questionnaire with open-ended questions. Three hundred participants, i.e., sports managers, coaches, and athletes over 18 years of age (M = 33.13; SD = 13.062), of which 55.7% were female, answered. A thematic analysis of these data was conducted using NVivo software. Inter-rater agreement was strong for almost all variables. Results indicated that sexual abuse is perceived as being associated with physical and emotional abusive behaviors for which there is no consent from the victim, in a relationship that is guided by a relationship with power imbalances. Victims were mainly perceived as being female children, and perpetrators as adult males in a powerful position over the victim. As to possible signs of sexual abuse victimization, results showed that the participants identify behaviors, such as isolation, and physical evidence, such as marks and injuries. Risk factors specific to sports setting included the physical contact involved in many modalities, as well as the close and trustful relationship established between coach and athlete. Results are in line with previous studies showing that coaches, athletes, and sports managers share a common understanding of sexual abuse, although not always accurate. These results shed light on important practical and policy implications relevant to country-specific sport policies for effectively safeguarding children.
... Aside from individuals with motives to abuse athletes, there are unique sport-specific circumstances which allow individuals more latitude in their behaviours -and possibly, more room to abuse without being suspected and caught, or without being reported. These include unique access points where athletes are inherently vulnerable: having deep involvement in athletes' sport and personal lives, having unquestioned authority over athletes, being a person in authority who is involved with athletes' health and well-being, lack of structured scrutiny or oversight, lack of overall supervision; and reduced or no scrutiny when athletes are successful (a rise in impunity; Kirby et al., 2000;Brackenridge et al., 2001;Stirling and Kerr, 2009). These circumstances can be organizationally managed to reduce risk of harm being perpetrated. ...
Objectives
Para sport has much to teach the broader sports world about safeguarding and athlete protections. By centering athletes’ human rights and underlining the rights-based philosophical underpinnings of the Paralympic Movement, we outline how sport can be safer to all players, coaches, and other participants.
Methods
We address global Human Rights conventions and their application to Para and non-disabled sport. Safe Sport is positioned as a matter of human rights. The nature of interpersonal violence that human beings experience within and outside sport is discussed. The intersectionality of vulnerable identities (related to gender, sexuality, disability, ethnicity, etc.) is reviewed in some detail.
Results
Rights violations in Para and non-disabled sport illustrate both individual and organizational vulnerabilities. Individual- and organizational-level drivers of abuse, as well as various modes and types of abuse observed in Para sport, are relevant in all sport settings and should be centered in global sport safeguarding work. The rights-based core of Para and similar sports movements, exemplifies this.
Conclusion
From a Para-informed vantage point, we issue a call to action, where interpersonal violence in sport is reduced by leveraging relevant elements of the Paralympic Movement. This call asks all sport participants to reject a purely capitalist approach to sport and follow a Para sport paradigm; which embodies human achievement (including sporting success), reflects human rights and inherent human dignity, and requires a higher standard of behaviour.
... While the closeness, commitment, complementarity, and co-orientation qualities are desirable as they form strong relationships, they can also be risk factors as they increase athlete vulnerability within the power differential present in sport (Kerr et al., 2020). Power imbalance and misuse of a position of power appear to lie beneath all forms of maltreatment (Fasting and Brackenridge, 2009;Stirling and Kerr, 2009). In light of this and the Greek sport context, an abused athlete's silence, and a sport organization's concealing of violence are indications of solidarity, loyalty to the in-group of sport and submission to hierarchical power structures. ...
The present study scrutinizes the role of societal culture in cases of sexual violence in Greek sport, as presented in the media after a two times Olympic medalist of Greece fired up the “‘me too’ Movement” in the country. Specifically, data for this study consisted of 36 media articles (14 international in the English language and 22 national in the Greek language), reporting multiple cases of sexual abuse and harassment in Greek sport and were published between January 2021 and January 2022. We drew on the cultural praxis heuristic to explore how the cultural setting operates as an underlying factor in priming athletes for harassment and abuse and in oppressing them into not speaking up. Our thematic analysis of media data revealed two overarching themes, namely, keeping the home intact and failed negotiations with power. Based on these findings, we discuss how subtle manifestations of patriarchy and collectivism perpetuate sexualized violence in Greek sport as they promote a climate of silence, prevent safeguarding, maintain underreporting of sexual violence, and delayed the arrival of the #metoo. We conclude that under the current circumstances, change seems to be a threat to all involved in Greek sport, yet for different reasons. For the coaches, sport officials, stakeholders, state system, change would require them to relinquish male powers and authority, find new meaning of what it means to be and do as a man, and allow women to be seen as counterparts. For the female athletes-survivors, it would require them to prioritize the self and their self-care and let go of the in-group loyalty and subordination learned and exhibited from infancy. We also contend that mere translations of international and regional safeguarding guidelines and toolkits cannot foster awareness raising, nor the implementation of measures within cultural settings that divert from the Global North. If we care to combat the universal phenomenon of sexualized violence in sport, a glocal approach is needed, where local socio-cultural factors are acknowledged, their role is addressed, and violence is understood within its context.
... U spomenutom istraživanju otkriveno je da je dio sportašica odustao od bavljenja sportom zbog seksualnog uznemiravanja, stoga autori ističu potrebu da se istraže moguće veze između seksualnoga nasilja i fenomena odustajanja od sporta, koji je najizraženiji upravo u ranoj adolescenciji. Dobiveni rezultati u skladu su s rezultatima istraživanja u kojima je utvrđeno da učinci sportskih aktivnosti na psihosocijalnu dobrobit mladih sportaša uvelike ovise o obilježjima odnosa između trenera i sportaša (Johansson i Lundqvist, 2017;Roxas i Ridinger, 2016;Stirling i Kerr, 2009) djetinjstvu i adolescenciji. Na temelju navedenog buduća istraživanja trebalo bi provesti na reprezentativnom uzorku aktivnih maloljetnih sportaša i sportašica u Hrvatskoj. ...
The aim of the study was to determine the frequency of sexual harassment perpetrated by coaches in youth sports activities and to examine the association of those experiences with depression, anxiety, and stress in later life. Study participants were young men and women (n = 501; Mage = 20,86, SD = 1,81) who participated in sports before they turned 18 years old. The results showed that 25 % of participants experienced some form of sexual harassment by coaches while they were minors. Participants who had this kind of experience obtained higher results on depression, anxiety, and stress scales. The results indicate the need to undertake measures aimed at preventing and stopping sexual harassment in youth sport.
Tanınmak, bilinmek, istenilir olmak ve hatırlanmak antrenörlük mesleği için en temel özelliklerdendir. Antrenörler ile kurulan ilişki sonucunda elde edilen bilgi ve deneyim, yeniden hatırlanmak üzere sporcu belleğinde depolanır. Her sporcu, kendi adına önemli olduğunu düşündüğü her şeyi belleğinde saklar. Sezon sonuna kadar devam eden bu sürecin sonunda sporcular tarafından antrenörlerin hangi özelliklerinin hatırlandığı antrenör kimliği açısından önemli yer tutmaktadır. Çünkü antrenörlerin hatırlanmasını istediği özellikleri, kendilerinin mesleklerine verdikleri değerin temellerini de göstermektedir. Dolayısıyla bu araştırmanın temel amacı, Türkiye’deki kadın voleybolunun en üst ligi olan Sultanlar Ligi’nde çalışan antrenörlerin hangi özellikleri ile voleybolcular tarafından hatırlanmak istediklerini ve bunların nedenlerini belirlemektir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubu, kolay ulaşılabilir durum örneklemesi yöntemiyle seçilen ve araştırmaya gönüllü olarak katılan 17 Türk erkek antrenörden oluşmaktadır. Antrenörlerin hatırlanmak ile ilgili görüşlerini belirlemek için veri toplama aracı olarak iki adet açık uçlu sorudan oluşan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. Görüşme sonunda toplanan veriler, içerik analizi tekniği yardımı ile yorumlanmış ve alıntılarla desteklenerek sunulmuştur. Araştırmanın sonucunda katılımcı voleybol antrenörlerinin hatırlanmak kavramına ilişkin görüşleri incelendiğinde; iz bırakma, akılda kalma, vefalı olma, özlenme, olumlu anılma olmak üzere beş kavramı öne çıkardıkları belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmanın bulgularının, antrenörler açısından sporcular tarafından hatırlanma konusunda hangi kavramların önemli olduğunun belirlenmesinde yararlı olacağı düşünülmektedir. Ayrıca bu çalışmanın hatırlanma olgusunun spor insanları ile olan ilgisi üzerine benzer çalışmalara örnek olacağı tahmin edilmektedir.
Bu çalışmada, sporcular tarafından algılanan antrenör davranışlarının spora bağlılık düzeylerini yordama etkisinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma nicel araştırma yaklaşımlarından, ilişkisel araştırma deseni ile yürütülmüştür. Araştırma grubu, amaçlı örnekleme yöntemlerinden ölçüt örnekleme ile belirlenen Sivas ilinde aktif olarak spor yapan, 18-27 yaş aralığında, 227’si erkek ve 166’sı kadın olmak üzere 393 sporcudan oluşmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak, kişisel bilgi formu, antrenör davranış algısı ölçeği ve spora bağlılık ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler JAMOVI (2.2.5) programı ile analiz edilmiştir. Verilerin analizinde frekans, yüzde, ortalama, standart sapma, çarpıklık ve basıklık gibi betimsel istatistikler, Pearson korelasyon analizi, basit ve çoklu doğrusal regresyon analizlerinden faydalanılmıştır. Bulgulara göre sporcuların antrenör davranış stillerine yönelik algıları ile spora bağlılık (odaklanma, dinç olma) düzeyleri arasında anlamlı pozitif ilişkiler bulunmuştur. Ödüllendirici antrenör davranış algısının spora bağlılığın odaklanma boyutunu yordama etkisi anlamlıdır. Ödüllendirici davranış algısındaki 1 birimlik artış, odaklanma düzeyinde ,26 birimlik artışa karşılık gelmektedir ve odaklanma boyutundaki varyansın %11’ini açıklamaktadır. Eğitim-öğretim davranış algısının spora bağlılığın dinç olma boyutunu yordama etkisi anlamlıdır. Eğitim-öğretim davranış algısındaki 1 birimlik artış dinç olma düzeyinde ,17 birimlik artışa karşılık gelmektedir ve dinç olma boyutundaki varyansın yaklaşık olarak %14’ünü açıklamaktadır. Diğer boyutların spora bağlılığın boyutları üzerinde yordama etkisi anlamlı bulunmamıştır. Sonuç olarak, sporcuların antrenör davranış stillerine yönelik algıları ile spora bağlılık düzeyleri arasında anlamlı ilişki gözlenmiş olsa da yalnızca ödüllendirici ve eğitim-öğretim alt boyutlarındaki davranış algısı yordayıcıdır.
Spor kurumunda antrenör ve sporcular arasındaki ilişkiler son derece önemli olmakla birlikte birtakım olumsuzluklar barındırmaktadır. Bu olumsuz ilişki biçimlerinden biri de antrenörlerin sporculara yönelik gerçekleştirdiği kötü muameledir. Bu çalışma, genç sporcuların antrenörlerinden deneyimledikleri duygusal kötü muameleyi spor ile ilişkili değişkenlerle ele almayı amaçlamaktadır. Nicel araştırma yönteminin uygulandığı çalışmada Antrenör-Sporcu İlişkisi Duygusal Kötü Muamele Ölçeği ile katılımcıların demografik ve spora ilişkin bilgilerin olduğu anket formu kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın evrenini Türkiye’de son bir yıl içinde bir antrenör ile çalışan ve 18-25 yaş aralığında bulunan sporcular, örneklem grubunu ise Türkiye’nin 33 ilinden 142 kadın ve 198 erkek olmak üzere toplam 340 sporcu oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma bulgularına göre erkek sporcular kadın sporculara göre daha fazla antrenörünün duygusal şiddetine maruz kalmıştır. Yine sporcuların maruz kaldıkları duygusal kötü muamelenin antrenörleri ile ilişkilerini etkiledikleri görülmüştür. Buna karşın takım sporları ve bireysel sporlar ile antrenör duygusal kötü muamelesi arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunamamıştır. Yine sporcuların antrenörleri ile çalışma yılları ve sportif başarıları ile duygusal kötü muameleye maruz kalma arasında bir ilişki tespit edilememiştir.
Özen, G. Sporda Bireyler Arası Şiddet, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Spor Bilimleri Ana Bilim Dalı Doktora Tezi, Ankara, 2023. Bu çalışmada spor alanının aktörleri arasındaki ilişkilerde şiddet fenomeninin nasıl yaşandığı ve sonrasında yaşama yansıyabilen şiddet eğilimleri ile alanda yarattıkları kültür incelenmiştir.
Sporcuların kendilerinden yaşça büyük ve statü olarak üstün olan kişilerce sıklıkla fiziksel şiddete maruz bırakıldıkları, çeşitli biçimlerle psikolojik, ekonomik, cinsel şiddet deneyimlerine sahip oldukları görülmüştür. Sporcular arasında ise hiyerarşi ve hegemonya yaratma arzusuna dayalı güç gösterilerinden beslenen akran zorbalığının örneklerine rastlanmaktadır. Araştırmanın nicel bulguları şiddete maruz kalan sporcuların şiddet eğiliminin yüksek olduğunu göstermektedir. Araştırmanın nicel ve nitel bulguları şiddete maruz kalan sporcuların bu durumu şikâyet etmekten kaçındıklarını, bir şey yapılacağına inanmadıklarını, şikâyet prosedürlerini bilmediklerini, şiddet sonrası üzüntü, depresyon, korku, motivasyon bozukluğu, spor yaşamını kaybetmek konusunda güçlü endişeler yaşadıklarını göstermektedir. Ayrıca bulgular; sporcuların branşlarına özgü yanlış antrenman periyotlanması, müsabaka, kamp programları konusunda bilgi sahibi olmamak, yöneticilerce yapılan keyfi uygulamalarla sakatlık, performans kaybı, psikolojik rahatsızlıklar, kilo problemleri, uluslararası müsabakalara katılamamak, kariyer planlaması yapamamak gibi önemli problemler yaşadıklarını göstermektedir. Herhangi bir şiddet türüne maruz kalan sporcular, kulüp ya da antrenör değişikliği veya sporu bırakmak zorunda kaldıklarını ifade etmektedirler. Antrenörlerin, spor yöneticilerinin eğitimlerinin geliştirilmesi, sporcuları koruyan politikaların ve uygulamaların artırılmasının alanda şiddet davranışlarının azalmasında rol oynayabileceği düşünülmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Şiddet, Şiddet Türleri, Cinsel Taciz, Akran Zorbalığı,
Bireylerarası Şiddet Davranışları.
This study explored coaches' experience of working in a high-performance youth sport pathway program and their beliefs about coaching. This was a qualitative study utilising semi-structured interviews with 9 members of the coaching setup. The data was analysed through an inductive thematic approach. Although research has suggested that the coach plays a critical role in skill development at the youth high-performance level, the coaches believed that their role extends beyond this to provide a positive overall experience that supports player retention. They believed that a crucial factor in whether youth athletes continue their sport participation is the coach-athlete relationship, and these coaches saw their work 'holistically' to develop good people as well as good players. While skill development and wellbeing of players was widely recognised and acknowledged by the coaches as part of their role, it was also established that there is little attention paid to the coaches' development and wellbeing in undertaking that role.
Despite widespread anecdotal accounts of coaches’ emotional abuse in intercollegiate sports, empirical literature is lacking. To address this gap, the present exploratory study was designed to explore how former intercollegiate student-athletes interpreted experiences of emotionally abusive coaching. Former female NCAA and NJCAA student-athletes (N = 14; Mage = 25.3 years) took part in semi-structured, in-depth interviews. Data were interpreted using a constructivist grounded theory approach. The final product of the research was a three-stage grounded theory explaining how former student-athletes interpret their experiences of emotional abuse over time organized into sections on antecedents to abuse, experiences and actions within the abusive program, and after the abuse. Implications for this work include the idea that individual student-athletes may have different experiences and recollections of coaches’ emotionally abusive behavior and that intercollegiate student-athletes are able to discern between “hard, but fair” coaching practices and emotionally abusive coaching practices.
Bu çalışmada antrenör-sporcu ilişkisi ile sportmenlik yönelimi arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma tekniği olarak nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden betimsel ve ilişkisel tarama tekniği kullanılmıştır. Çalışma grubunu seçkisiz olmayan örnekleme yöntemlerinden kolayda örnekleme yöntemi ile seçilen 77’si kadın, 150’si erkek toplamda 227 katılımcı oluşturmaktadır. Katılımcılar İstanbul Üniversitesi-Cerrahpaşa ve Gelişim Üniversitesi’nin Spor Bilimleri Fakültelerinde 2018-2019 Eğitim-Öğretim yılında öğrenim görmekte olan ve aynı zamanda sporcu olan öğrencilerden oluşmaktadır. Katılımcılara öncelikle, kişisel bilgilerden oluşan sorular sorulmuştur. Ayrıca iki farklı ölçek uygulanmıştır. Antrenör-Sporcu İlişkisi Ölçeği: Jowett ve Ntoumanis (2004) tarafından geliştirilmiş ve Türkçe geçerlik ve güvenirliği Altıntaş ve arkadaşlarınca (2012) yapılmıştır. 11 ifadeden ve üç alt boyuttan oluşmaktadır, 7’ li likert tiptedir. Sportmenlik Yönelim Ölçeği ise Vallerand ve ark., (1997) tarafından geliştirilmiş ve Türkçe uyarlaması ile geçerlik-güvenirliği Balçıkanlı (2010) tarafından yapılmıştır. 20 ifadeden ve 4 alt boyuttan oluşmaktadır, 5’li likert tiptedir. Bizim çalışmamız için ayrıca yapılan güvenirlik analizinde Cronbach Alpha değerlerinin yüksek olduğu gözlenmiştir. Bulgular göstermektedir ki, katılımcıların algıladıkları antrenör-sporcu ilişkisi ile sportmenlik yönelimleri yüksek düzeydedir. Ayrıca iki ölçek ve alt boyutları arasındaki korelasyon düzeyi de pozitif yönde ve orta düzeydedir. Antrenör-sporcu ilişkisini değerlendirirken sporcu öğrenciler en çok yakınlık, daha sonra bağlılık ve sonra da tamamlayıcılık alt boyutlarına yüksek puan vermişlerdir. Sportmenlik yönelimleri incelendiğinde ise görülmektedir ki; en çok sporda sosyal sorumluluklara bağlılık, sosyal normlara uyum, kurallara ve yönetime saygı, en sonuncu olarak da ve rakibe saygı alt boyutuna katılım göstermişlerdir. Demografik değişkenlere göre bazı alt boyutlara katılım oranları farklılaşmaktadır. Sonuç olarak, sporcuların algıladıkları antrenör-sporcu ilişkisi ile sportmenlik yönelimleri arasında pozitif yönde ilişki vardır.
Çalışmanın amacı, Dietz ve ark. (2015) tarafından geliştirilen Antrenör-Sporcu İlişkisi Duygusal Kötü Muamele Ölçeği’ni (Coach-Athlete Relationship Emotional Maltreatment Scale) Türkçeye uyarlamaktır. 282 kişinin çevrimiçi katıldığı çalışmadan elde edilen verilerin yapı geçerliliğini test etmek için Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizi’ne (DFA); güvenirliği test etmek için de Cronbach alfa verilerine bakılmıştır. Ayrıca Antrenör-Sporcu İlişkisi Duygusal Kötü Muamele Ölçeği ile Algılanan Çok Boyutlu Sosyal Destek Ölçeği ve Sosyal Bağlılık Ölçeği arasındaki korelasyonel ilişki analiz edilmiştir. Yapılan analizler sonucunda, DFA birinci ve ikinci düzey analizlerden elde edilen indekslerde, oranların iyi uyum ve kabul edilebilir uyum aralığında olduğu görülmüştür. Birinci ve ikinci düzey analizler sırasıyla χ2/df: 3,33-3,92; AGFI: ,86-,77; CFI: ,96-,95; IFI: ,95-,95; NFI: ,94-,93; RMSEA: ,92-,99; SRMR: ,029-,034 uyum seviyelerinde olmuştur. Yine Cronbach alfa güvenilirlik katsayıları, tüm ölçek için ,983 olarak belirlenmiştir. Son olarak Antrenör Sporcu İlişkisi Duygusal Kötü Muamele Ölçeği ile Sosyal Bağlılık Ölçeği (-,597) ve Çok Boyutlu Algılanan Sosyal Destek Ölçeği (-,492) arasında negatif ve anlamlı bir korelasyon olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Araştırma verilerine dayanarak Türkçeye uyarlanan ölçeğin 18-25 yaş aralığında bulunan sporculara yönelik antrenörlerin kötü muamelesini ölçme ve değerlendirmede; geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracı olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır.
Despite a series of high-profile media reports of sexual abuse in sport over the past few years, little research has been done to explore the scope of the problem in the United States. The current article reports on prevalence of child sexual assault in elite athletes in the United States. Using a retrospective web survey, adults answered questions on their experiences in sport. Of the 473 elite athletes surveyed, 3.8% (n = 18) reported being sexual assaulted as a minor in the sporting context. Of those reporting assault, most (61%) reported being abused by an adult authority figure (usually a coach) and 44% reported being assaulted by a peer. Abused athletes were significantly more likely to report having been diagnosed with a mental disorder (Fisher's exact test; p < .001). The findings can be utilized to improve prevention and child protection measures and other safeguarding initiatives in sport.
Background: Despite increased institutional safeguards and regularly updated statutory guidance that stresses safeguarding is ‘everybody's responsibility’, children continue to be sexually abused in institutional contexts in England and Wales. There also remains a lack of contemporary knowledge about institutions' responses to concerns about [risk of] CSA.
Objective: Reviewing Disclosure and Barring Service (DBS) discretionary-decision case files, as a detailed source of information about CSA in institutions occurring in the last 5 years, the aim of this paper was to understand what institutions knew about CSA and inappropriate behaviours that indicated children could be at risk of harm prior to formal disclosures to the DBS and how in- stitutions did, or did not, respond to this knowledge.
Participants and setting: Cases involved 32 male and 11 female barred persons and 19 male and 51 female sexually abused children.
Method: Thematic analysis was applied to 43 files where decisions were made by the DBS to add individuals to the Children's Barred list (which prevents them by law from working with children) between 2017 and 2020.
Results: In 79% of cases there was some level of awareness of concerns relating to inappropriate behaviour or CSA, through rumours and gossip, concerns about professionalism, and observed changes in the behaviour of subsequently barred individuals or victims. There was wide variation in the degree to which institutions responded. In a small number of cases action was taken promptly; however, this was not typical.
Conclusions: Institutions and professionals failed in their duty of care by not taking any action at all, or responding slowly in ways that did not prevent CSA.
Sexual violence (SV) remains at epidemic proportions in the U.S. and growing evidence demonstrates that youth and adults engaged in sport are at increased risk of victimization and perpetration of SV. Unfortunately, sport SV prevention strategies are rarely built on theory or theoretically grounded evidence, despite demonstrated effectiveness of such approaches. This study aimed to answer to questions: 1) Which theories are relevant to the development of effective SV prevention strategies in sport?; and 2) How has theory been incorporated into existing SV prevention literature on sport safety? A scoping review of the literature plus expert input identified 29 theories pertinent to SV prevention in sport. A systemized review of the literature regarding SV prevention in sport resulted in the identification and characterization of 41 published articles. Authors then examined theory’s role in prevention literature. This study identified 29 theories pertinent to SV prevention in sports and applicable across the behavioral spectrum. Most theories were rooted in the Behavioral (41%), Situational (24%) or Social/Attitudinal (21%) areas. Less common were theories grounded in Feminist (14%) domains. Theories were predominantly focused at the individual (42%), organizational (29%), and interpersonal (18%) ecological levels. Of the 41 sport prevention articles, 33 (83%) referred to a theory either explicitly or implicitly. Though most theories have been incorporated into prevention efforts, closer examination indicates that the majority were descriptive, unlikely to use a sophisticated methodology (10%; e.g., experimental, quasi-experimental), and rarely intended to assess a specific prevention program/strategy or policy (21%). Strong theoretical foundations are available for SV prevention research focused on sports, and their application appears to show value across the developmental spectrum of athletes. There remains a need for greater focus on theory-driven research intended to develop prevention strategies and policies designed to enhance athlete safety.
İnsanlar, sağlık sorunlarının giderilebilmesi, sağlıklı yaşam, yaşam kalitesinin artırılması, vücut kütlesinin ve yağ dokusunun azaltılması, fiziksel görünüm ve estetik kaygısı gibi birçok sebep ve hedefle özel diyet uygulamalarına yönelmektedir. Günümüzde, daha olumlu yanıtlar alınabileceği düşünülerek modern diyetlere yönelim giderek artmıştır. Bu diyet uygulamaları zamanla sporda ve sporcularda da ilgi görmeye başlamış ve yerini almıştır. Sporcuların, bireysel amaç ve hedefleri, inançları, beslenme kültürleri ve yaşam koşulları da dikkate alınarak bu tip diyetlere yönelimleri değişiklik arz etmektedir. Bu çalışma, aralıklı açlık, İslami oruç ve ketojenik diyet uygulamalarının sporcu performansına etkisi, tercih nedenleri, diğer klasik ve modern diyet uygulamalarına göre değerlendirilmesi, yağ kütlesi üzerindeki etkilerinin belirlenebilmesi amacıyla yapılmıştır. Çalışma, mikro-analiz biçiminde bir derleme örneği olarak sunulmuştur. Konu ile ilgili literatür taraması yapılarak, sonuçlar ışığında tartışılmış ve genelleme önerilere yer verilmiştir. İnanç temelli olarak sürdürülen İslami oruç, sporcular tarafından kısa süreli olarak yaşama dahil edilmekte ve ötelenmemektedir. Müslüman sporcular, oruç tutarak antrenman yaşamlarına devam edebilmektedirler. Fakat araştırma sonuçları, orucun performansa etkisi konusunda kararlılık göstermemektedir. Aralıklı açlık diyetinin daha çok yağ kütlesinde azalma istemi ile tercih edildiği, fakat dikkatli uygulanmadığında performansı olumsuz etkilediği, ek takviyelere ve gerekli hidrasyonun sağlanmasına ihtiyaç olduğu belirlenmiştir. Ketojenik diyet uygulamasının ise, glikojen depolarının korunması, yağ oksidasyonunun artması, yağ kütlesinde azalma, daha uzun süreli dayanıklılık gerektiren durumlarda performansa olumlu etkilerinin olduğu belirlenmiştir. Yine de bu tip özel diyetlerde genel sağlık ve performansa dayalı olarak, organizmada kısa ve uzun süreli etkilerinin takip edilerek, dikkatli bir şekilde uygulama yapılması gerekliliği düşünülmektedir.
İskelet kasları; istemli kasılmayı, duruşun korunmasını, kas aktivitesinden ısı üretilmesini ve hareket oluşumunu sağlar. Kaslar, aynı zamanda vücudun ana protein deposu ve metabolizmanın önemli bir oyuncusu olarak hizmet eder. Protein homeostazını (iç denge) koruyarak bireyin sağlığına önemli ölçüde katkıda bulunur. Bu fonksiyonun değişmesi, kas atrofisi ya da sarkopeni olarak da adlandırılan kas kütlesi kaybına yol açar. Bu çalışma, kas distrofisi ve Miyostatin arasındaki ilişkinin, yapılan araştırma sonuçlarına dayalı olarak ifade edilmesi ve yorumlanabilmesi amacıyla yapılmıştır. Çalışma, derleme örneği olarak sunulmuştur. Konu ile ilgili literatür taraması yapılarak, sonuçlar ışığında tartışılmış ve genelleme önerilere yer verilmiştir. Kas distrofisinde, kas kütlesi ve fonksiyonunun yeniden kazandırılması, insan sağlığı için önemlidir. İskelet kaslarının gelişimi ve büyümesi Miyostatin tarafından düzenlenir. Embriyogenez sırasında somitlerden iskelet kasları oluşur. Miyostatin başlangıçta iskelet kasını oluşturan somitlerin (embriyoda doku kümesi) myotom tabakasında eksprese edilir ve bu ekspresyon kas büyümesini kısıtlar. Miyostatin, yetişkinlerde esas olarak iskelet kası tarafından üretilir. Endokrin hormonlar gibi, Miyostatin de serumda yüksek miktarlarda dolaşır ve kas lifi büyümesini sınırlar. Sonuç olarak, Miyostatin iskelet kasının aşırı büyümesini kontrol eden negatif yönlü bir düzenleyici olması nedeniyle, kas distrofi yaşayan bireylerde Miyostatin ekspresyonunun yüksek düzeyde olacağı düşünülmektedir. Bu tip kas hastalıklarının varlığı ve düzeyi arttıkça, Miyostatin düzeyinin de artacağı tahmin edilmektedir. Yapılan araştırmalarda, Miyostatin ve kas atrofisi arasındaki ilişki açıklanmış olmasına karşın, kas distrofisi ile Miyostatin ilişkisi açıklanmamıştır. Bu nedenle, yeni ve farklı bir araştırma konusu olmakla birlikte, laboratuvar sonuçları ile desteklenerek, özgünlüğünün ifade edilmesi gereken bir konu olduğu düşünülmektedir.
The purpose of this study was to investigate athletes' experiences of emotional abuse. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 retired, elite, female swimmers and data were analyzed inductively using a grounded theory approach. Results revealed that the athletes experienced emotional abuse in the coach-athlete relationship and that these experiences varied across an athlete's career. The same emotionally abusive behaviours were experienced differently at various stages of an athlete's career. Furthermore, an athlete's affective response to emotional abuse was dependent on the athlete's perceived performance and cultural acquiescence, as reflected in the phases of normalization and rebellion. A model of the process by which athletes experience emotional abuse over time is proposed. Implications of these findings are discussed and recommendations are made for future study.
This paper compares the prevalence of sexual harassment and abuse among 660 Norwegian elite female athletes and an age-matched control sample of nonathletes. It also explores differences in the prevalence of harassment and abuse in sport and work or school settings and compares harassment and abuse perpetrated by male authority figures and peers in these different contexts. No differences were found between the athletes and controls in overall prevalence of sexual harassment or abuse. However, the athletes experienced significantly more harassment from male authority figures than did the controls. Based on these results, the article considers whether or not sport offers women any particular immunity from sexual harassment and abuse. The implications of the findings for structural and cultural change in sport are discussed.
The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches' behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches' autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.
Sexual harassment at institutions of higher learning is not a new phenomenon, but discussions of this problem in the sporting arena and in related research are still scarce. Most studies have focused on student-instructor relationships, while few analyses have analysed coach-athlete relationships. This study examines American female college athletes' experiences with, and emotional responses to, sexual harassment in sport by coaches. The findings clearly demonstrate that the athletic world does not differ with regard to occurrences of sexual harassment compared to other social domains. Thus, in order to guarantee a safe learning environment in athletics for all participants, it is necessary to formulate clear guidelines, set up educational workshops and implement intervention programs.
Young athletes frequently suffer from being seen as athletes first and children second. This has consequences for their legal, civil and human rights as children and for the way in which sport organizations choose to intervene on their behalf to protect them from physical, psychological and sexual abuses. Sport careers peak at different ages depending on the sport: in some, children as young as 12 or 13 may reach the highest levels of competitive performance; in others, full maturity as an athlete may come late into adulthood or even middle age. Recognition of this variation has given rise to the concept of `sport age', referring to sport-specific athlete development. This concept is of significance in helping to identify the developmental process in terms of athletic, rather than chronological, maturity. The risk of sexual abuse in sport, formerly ignored or denied, has now been documented in a number of studies, using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Drawing on data from these studies and from the previous work on sport age and athletic maturation, this paper proposes a possible means of identifying and assessing relative risk of sexual abuse to elite young athletes in selected sports. The concept of a `stage of imminent achievement' (SIA) is proposed as the period of peak vulnerability of young athletes to sexual abuse.
Many women have, at some time, been the subject of sexual harassment or abuse in their working lives. This paper explains how similar experiences also occur in sport and why they have particularly devastating consequences for girls and women. Sexual harassment and abuse arise from the culture of sport and from the opportunities for exploitation of power and authority which this affords coaches. Results from studies of personal accounts of abuse by former women athletes are presented and used to test various explanatory theories of abuse.
This article reports participation observation evidence, questionnaire survey, and in-depth interview data in an examination of the male coach / female athlete relationship in competitive sport. Focusing on athletics in the United Kingdom, the authors demonstrate the gendered nature of female athlete / male coach relationships, and the dynamics of power and control that contribute to the nature and perpetuation of those relationships. The vulnerability of the young female athlete in the coaching situation is identified, as that vulnerability is manifest in a variety of forms of sexist practice and sexual harassment. The article points to the complexity and normalcy of the organizational sexuality characteristic of the sports culture and the forms of domination and control that can be exerted by the coach. Sports professionals are urged to recognize the serious implications of the gender and power relations underpinning the male coach / female athlete dynamic in competitive sport.
While an historical glance through the sport psychology literature reveals an interest in performance excellence since its beginning, a focus of personal excellence has been a more recent trend. This review will address the relationships between performance and personal excellence. More specifically, we question whether performance excellence in high-level sport, by virtue of the exceptional demands on the elite athlete, occurs at the expense of development in personal excellence or whether performance excellence is possible only through personal excellence. Furthermore, we propose that the field may reconcile these ideals in the future through an athlete-centered sport model. This model is defined by the philosophy that developmentally appropriate sport can be used as a vehicle for enhancing overall well-being and the acquisition of lifelong skills. Performance excellence, therefore, co-exists in the same environment as personal excellence. The implications of implementing an athlete-centered sport system for athletes and coaches and for the research and practice of those in sport psychology will be addressed.
Sport offers prime sex offending opportunities yet has only recently been the subject of exploration and research. In this paper, the respective research approaches adopted by sport science and sex offender ‘science’ are compared. It is argued that both suffer from occupational blindness towards situational factors and that their joint obsession with individual behaviour modification—for performance enhancement in sport or reducing recidivism rates through treatment—may reduce the efficacy of risk-management interventions at the systemic level. Recent research and policy initiatives are used to illustrate how risk management responsibilities have been implemented in sport.
The problems associated with children's involvement in high-performance sport are considered and equated to the issue of child labour. After considering the extent and severity of problems with child labour in all parts of the world, the paper then turns to the problem of `sport labour'. Although this is by no means as serious as the child labour problem, it has many similar characteristics. The reasons why high performance sport involvement is not, but should be, considered as work are assessed. The paper proposes a resolution to the child labour/sport labour dilemma by addressing a series of questions: Are we ready for child labour laws in sport? Who would support child labour laws in sport?; Who is to be responsible for the welfare of children in high-performance sport? Is there a solution?
As sport is a highly child-populated domain, the establishment of child-protection measures to reduce the potential for child maltreatment in sport is critical. Concern for the protection of children in sport has a history that is as old as modern sport itself; however, it is only recently that concern has been established about children's experiences of relational forms of abuse and neglect in this domain. The purpose of this article, therefore, is to review current developments in sport with respect to child-protection policy, education, and research. It is the authors' supposition that an athlete-centered philosophy of sport is perhaps the best way to address the protection of children in sport. The philosophy of an athlete-centered sport model is described, and through the integration of an athlete-centered approach to sport, recommendations are made for future implementation of child-protection measures.
purpose of the present chapter is to present the reader with a comprehensive review of the major findings on child abuse and neglect in order to develop a multilevel framework for behavioral assessment
the physically abused child receives the primary focus throughout the chapter
scope includes definitional issues, a developmental perspective of the abused child, a functional analysis of abusive behavior, and a model for assessing abuse and neglect that involves specific recommendations
research studies involving members of abusive families are presented in order to facilitate an understanding of the complex interrelationships among social and psychological variables affecting the occurrence of child maltreatment (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study investigates the prevalence of emotional abuse of elite child athletes by their coaches in the UK. Previous research has focused primarily on the parent–child relationship, with little attention given to date on the sports environment. Participants were 12 former elite child athletes who competed as internationals in their respective age groups. All participants had been identified as elite athletes between the ages of 8 and 16 years (M = 13.1 yr, SD = 2.4 yr) and had competitive careers of between 6 and 10 years. Participants were from the sports of diving (N = 2), football (N = 3), gymnastics (N = 4), hockey, netball and track and field athletics (N = 1 each). The study was a retrospective analysis of their experiences as elite child athletes. (Age at interview: M = 22.9 yr, SD = 0.9 yr. male = 4, female = 8.) Thus, participants were reflecting on experiences from about 10 years previously, so their responses represented the residual impact of their experiences that had survived over this period. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and response-coding techniques. Abusive behaviours were categorized under eight headings: belittling, humiliating, shouting, scapegoating, rejecting, isolating, threatening and ignoring. Results showed that all (N = 12) of the participants reported experiencing belittling and shouting by their coach, nine athletes reported frequent threatening behaviour, nine reported frequent humiliation, seven reported scapegoating, six reported rejection or being ignored and four reported being isolated when they were elite child athletes. All participants reported that the behaviour of their coaches changed and became more negative after they were identified as elite performers. Participants reported feeling stupid, worthless, upset, less confident, humiliated, depressed, fearful and angry as a result of the behaviour of their coaches. The results provide tentative evidence that the behaviour of some coaches is a threat to the psychological well-being of elite child athletes. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Objectives: To investigate the nature and significance of the athlete–coach relationship within the context of the interpersonal constructs of Closeness, Co-orientation, and Complementarity (three Cs).Method: Participants were 12 Olympic medallists (three females and nine males). Each participant had achieved at least one medal in the Olympic Games held between 1968 and 1988. An interview schedule was utilised that prompted former athletes’ responses to open-ended questions about their athletic relationship with their coach.Results: Feelings of Closeness, such as trust and respect, thoughts of Co-orientation, such as common goals, as well as complementary roles and tasks, marked the athletic relationships of the Olympic medallists. Despite the prevalence of the positive relational aspects, negative relational aspects, such as lack of emotional closeness and complementary resources, also emerged. The impact of the athlete–coach relationship on the success achieved became evident through the former athletes’ narratives and recollections.Conclusion: The nature of the athlete–coach relationship has an important role to play in the athlete’s development both as a performer and as a person. It is recommended that coach education programmes provide information that will assist coaches to develop effective relationships with their athletes.
This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below.
Within the past five years, two U.S. female gymnasts at the Olympic level, Christy Henrich and Julissa Gomez, died from medical problems related to their sport. Christy died from complications of anorexia nervosa and Julissa from complications of spinal trauma due to a vaulting injury. In this Olympic year, it is timely to discuss the psychological and physical problems associated with competitive women's gymnastics. Women's gymnastics provides a useful framework for viewing worrisome trends in other competitive youth sports. In the United States, organized athletic programs involve at least 20 million children and adolescents each year, with more than 2 . . .
Ian R. Tofler, M.B., B.S.
Children's Hospital, New Orleans, LA 70118
Barri Katz Stryer, M.D.
University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90024
Lyle J. Micheli, M.D.
Children's Hospital Medical Center, Boston, MA 02115
Lisa R. Herman, M.S.
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306
We are indebted to all those who reviewed the manuscript and made suggestions, especially P. Krener, M.D., M. Drell, M.D., D. Cantwell, M.D., O. Mammen, M.D., and R. Meadow, M.B., B.S.
Sexual harassment and abuse has been a recognized problem in the workplace, schools, and residential homes for more than three decades. Many professional policies highlight the potential for abusing positions of trust, and therefore forbid intimate relationships between, for example, doctors and patients, and psychologists and clients. Yet, abuse of power in the coach-athlete relationship has only recently been acknowledged. This paper discusses definitions of sexual exploitation, prevalence figures, methods used for entrapping athletes, potential risk factors, signs of abuse and harassment, and the consequences for survivors.
Athlete-centered Sport. A Discussion Paper
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Clarke, H., D. Smith, and G. Thibault. 'Athlete-centered Sport. A Discussion Paper.' (September 1994). http://www.athletescan.com/Images/Publications/AthleteCentredDiscussion.doc Crooks, C.V., and D.A. Wolfe. 'Child Abuse and Neglect'. In Assessment of Childhood Disorders, edited by E.J. Mash and R.A. Barkley, 4th ed., 639– 84.
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Jowett, S., G. Paull, A.M. Pensgaard, P.M. Hoegmo, and H. Riise. 'Psychology and the Coach: Coach-athlete Relationship'. In Applying Sport Psychology: Four Perspectives, edited by J. Taylor and G. Wilson, 153– 70.
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Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence CentreAbuse wheelElite Female Swimmers Experiences of Emotional Abuse across Time
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Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1988. Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Centre. 'Abuse wheel.' http://www.sadvc.org/Handouts/ DV%20Handouts/Power%20and%20Control%20Wheel.doc Stirling, A.E., and G.A. Kerr. 'Elite Female Swimmers Experiences of Emotional Abuse across Time'. Journal of Emotional Abuse 7, no. 4 (2007): 89 – 113.
Athlete-centred Coaching: Developing Inspired and Inspiring People
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Kidman, L. 'Athlete-centred Coaching: Developing Inspired and Inspiring People'. Christchurch: Innovative Print Communications, 2005.
From Stress to Enjoyment: Parental and Coach Influences on Young Participants
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Scanlan, T., and R. Lewthwaite. 'From Stress to Enjoyment: Parental and Coach Influences on Young Participants'. In Competitive Sports for Children and Youth: An Overview of the Research and Issues, edited by E. Brown and C. Branta, 41 – 8.
The Name of the Game'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically . . . '; Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports
- Bringer
- Johnston Brackenridge
30 Bringer, Brackenridge and Johnston, 'The Name of the Game'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me
Basically... '; Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports?'
31 Strauss and Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research.
Dangerous SportsElite Female Swimmers
- Brackenridge Jowett
Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports?'; Jowett et al., 'Psychology and the Coach'.
27 Stirling and Kerr, 'Elite Female Swimmers'.
Olympic Medalists' Perspective
- Cockerill Jowett
Jowett and Cockerill, Olympic Medalists' Perspective'.
Athlete-centered Sport. A Discussion Paper http://www.athletescan.com/Images/Publications/AthleteCentredDiscussion
- H Clarke
- D Smith
- G Thibaultdoc
- C V Crooks
- D A Wolfe
Clarke, H., D. Smith, and G. Thibault. 'Athlete-centered Sport. A Discussion Paper.' (September
1994). http://www.athletescan.com/Images/Publications/AthleteCentredDiscussion.doc
Crooks, C.V., and D.A. Wolfe. 'Child Abuse and Neglect'. In Assessment of Childhood Disorders,
edited by E.J. Mash and R.A. Barkley, 4th ed., 639– 84. New York: Guilford Press, 2007.
Male Coach/Female Athlete Relations
- Yorganci Tomlinson
Tomlinson and Yorganci, 'Male Coach/Female Athlete Relations'.
The Dome of SilenceElite Female Swimmers'. 10 Crooks and Wolfe
- Greaves Kirby
- Hankivsky Stirling
- Kerr
Kirby, Greaves and Hankivsky, The Dome of Silence; Stirling and Kerr, 'Elite Female
Swimmers'.
10 Crooks and Wolfe, 'Child Abuse and Neglect'.
Sport in Society
237
Athlete-centred Coaching
- Kidman
Kidman, 'Athlete-centred Coaching', 16.
Conceptualizing Excellence
- Kerr Miller
Miller and Kerr, 'Conceptualizing Excellence'.
From Stress to Enjoyment
- Lewthwaite Scanlan
Scanlan and Lewthwaite, 'From Stress to Enjoyment'.
He Owned Me Basically . . . '. 36 Donnelly, 'Child Labour
- Brackenridge
Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically... '.
36 Donnelly, 'Child Labour'.
The Emotional Abuse'; Tomlinson and YorganciMale Coach/Female Athlete Relations'; Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse'; Tofler et al., 'Physical and Emotional Problems'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically
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Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'; Tomlinson and Yorganci, 'Male Coach/Female
Athlete Relations'; Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse'; Tofler et al., 'Physical and
Emotional Problems'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically... '.
Playing Safe'. 29 Ibid
- Kirby Brackenridge
28 Brackenridge and Kirby, 'Playing Safe'.
29 Ibid.
Experiences of Sexual Harassment
- Brackenridge Fasting
- Sundgot-Borgen
Fasting, Brackenridge and Sundgot-Borgen, 'Experiences of Sexual Harassment'.
The Name of the Game
- Brackenridge Bringer
Bringer, Brackenridge and Johnston, 'The Name of the Game'.
Athlete-centered Sport
- Smith Clarke
- Thibault
Clarke, Smith and Thibault, 'Athlete-centered Sport'.
Physical and Emotional Problems'; Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'; Brackenridge and Kirby, 'Playing Safe
- Tofler
25 Tofler et al., 'Physical and Emotional Problems'; Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse';
Brackenridge and Kirby, 'Playing Safe'.
The Dome of Silence. 13 Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse
- Greaves Kirby
Kirby, Greaves and Hankivsky, The Dome of Silence.
13 Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'.
Power and Ethics in Coaching. 19 Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse
- Tomlinson
- Strachan
18 Tomlinson and Strachan, Power and Ethics in Coaching.
19 Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse'.
He Owned Me Basically . . . '; Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports?' 31 Strauss and Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research. 32 Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'; Tomlinson and Yorganci, 'Male Coach/Female Athlete Relations'; Palframan
- Brackenridge Bringer
- Johnston Tofler
Bringer, Brackenridge and Johnston, 'The Name of the Game'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me
Basically... '; Brackenridge, 'Dangerous Sports?'
31 Strauss and Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research.
32 Gervis and Dunn, 'The Emotional Abuse'; Tomlinson and Yorganci, 'Male Coach/Female
Athlete Relations'; Palframan, 'Expert Deplores Emotional Abuse'; Tofler et al., 'Physical and
Emotional Problems'; Brackenridge, 'He Owned Me Basically... '.
Elite Female Swimmers'. 15 Matthews, 'The Consequences of Child Abuse'. 16 Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Centre, 'Abuse Wheel
- Stirling
- Kerr
14 Stirling and Kerr, 'Elite Female Swimmers'.
15 Matthews, 'The Consequences of Child Abuse'.
16 Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence Centre, 'Abuse Wheel'.
Power and Ethics in Coaching, Ottawa: Coaching Association of Canada
- P Tomlinson
- D Strachan