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Educating for peace in the midst of violence: a South African experience
Abstract
How do we educate for peace in a context of pervasive social violence? This paper explores this question as it presents the development and evaluation of a South African peace education programme at pre-school level. The programme comprised a pre-school curriculum and a teacher development course and was developed in conjunction with a team of pre-school teachers from diverse backgrounds working in a variety of settings within two South African provinces. The results of the evaluation provided strong evidence that the peace education programme resulted in a drop in aggressive behaviour among the children of the target population. The results also indicated that the teacher development course was well received by the teachers and facilitated their growth in a number of areas. Thus, the study indicated that peace education can have considerable positive impact in a country that is recovering from years of political and social violence.
... Κατά τη διάρκεια των τελευταίων δεκαετιών, οι έρευνες για την πολιτική βία έχουν επικεντρωθεί στο ρόλο των παιδιών και των νέων στις καταστάσεις πολέμου και βίας, τόσο ως θύματά της (της βίας), όσο και ως απειλή για την ασφάλεια και σταθερότητα (McLean Hilker, χωρίς χρονολογία; Demeritt, 2016). Επομένως, αναγνωρίζοντας το ενδεχόμενο η παιδική επιθετικότητα να οδηγήσει σε ενήλικη βιαιότητα, διεθνείς οργανώσεις όπως η UNICEF, δίνουν έμφαση στη μείωσή της στη νεαρή ακόμη ηλικία, μέσω προγραμμάτων εκπαίδευσης για την ειρήνη, ώστε μακροπρόθεσμα να μειωθεί η κοινωνική επιθετικότητα (Maxwell et al., 2004). ...
... Η πολιτική βία έχει οδυνηρές συνέπειες και για τα άτομα που την υφίστανται (Maxwell et al., 2004). Υπάρχουν αρκετές έρευνες που αναφέρονται στις ψυχολογικές συνέπειες της πολιτικής βίας και της βίας γενικότερα (Barber et al., 2016;Maxwell et al., 2004;Gibson, 1989;Stavrou, 1992;Muldoon, 2013). ...
... Η πολιτική βία έχει οδυνηρές συνέπειες και για τα άτομα που την υφίστανται (Maxwell et al., 2004). Υπάρχουν αρκετές έρευνες που αναφέρονται στις ψυχολογικές συνέπειες της πολιτικής βίας και της βίας γενικότερα (Barber et al., 2016;Maxwell et al., 2004;Gibson, 1989;Stavrou, 1992;Muldoon, 2013). ...
The wars and the terroristic incidents over the last few years highlight as flawed the relevant political violence. Significant factors for the demonstration of political violence are among others, the thriving financial condition of a country and the social identities in it. Political violence coexists with the "culture of violence". Education, as a common setting of society, economy and politics, is in the foreground to portray political violence, to reveal the various aspects of it, face it and shape resistant to it citizens at the same time. This assignment targets to explore the relationship of the education of political violence in a way that it is perceived by teachers in primary schools in Thessaloniki. The strategy of our research is Case Study and the chosen technique for the data collection is the one of semi-structured individual interviews. The results display that in the Greek educational system dominates an indirect form of violence, which is mainly related to neutrality or bias of detailed programs, the lack of critical realization and the limitations which address both teachers and students.
Οι πόλεμοι και οι τρομοκρατικές επιθέσεις των τελευταίων χρόνων φέρνουν στο προσκήνιο τη σχετική με την πολιτική βία προβληματική. Σημαντικοί παράγοντες για την εκδήλωση της πολιτικής βίας είναι μεταξύ άλλων, η οικονομική ευημερία ενός κράτους και οι κοινωνικές ταυτότητες. Η πολιτική βία συνυπάρχει με την «κουλτούρα της βίας». Η εκπαίδευση ως τόπος συνάντησης της κοινωνίας, της οικονομίας και της πολιτικής τίθεται στο επίκεντρο της προσπάθειάς μας να ερμηνεύσουμε την πολιτική βία, να αποκαλύψουμε τις διάφορες μορφές της και να την αντιμετωπίσουμε, δημιουργώντας πολίτες ανθεκτικούς σ’ αυτή. Η παρούσα εργασία έχει ως στόχο να διερευνήσει τη σχέση εκπαίδευσης της πολιτικής βίας, όπως αυτή γίνεται αντιληπτή από εκπαιδευτικούς της της πρωτοβάθμιας εκπαίδευσης του δήμου Θεσσαλονίκης. Η στρατηγική της έρευνάς μας είναι η Μελέτη Περίπτωσης και η τεχνική που ακολουθήσαμε για τη συλλογή των δεδομένων είναι αυτή των ημιδομημένων κατά πρόσωπο συνεντεύξεων. Τα αποτελέσματα της έρευνάς μας δείχνουν ότι στο ελληνικό εκπαιδευτικό σύστημα ενυπάρχει μια έμμεση βία, η οποία σχετίζεται κυρίως με την ουδετερότητα ή την μεροληψία των αναλυτικών προγραμμάτων, την έλλειψη κριτικής συνειδητοποίησης και τους περιορισμούς που θέτει στους εκπαιδευτικούς και στους μαθητές.
... Shapiro et al. (2002), show that teaching a PEP decreased aggressive behavior of students and demonstrated that there was significant improvement in their conflict resolution skills. Maxwell et al. (2004), in a study of 'the development and evaluation of a South African peace education program at pre-school level' also obtained strong evidence that a PEP decreased aggressive behavior among the children of the target population. The results also indicated that the teacher development course for PEP was well received by the teachers and helped them develop in different areas. ...
... So, it can be concluded that training in the PEP had a significant impact on conflict resolution and communication skills in seventh-grade students. The above findings are consistent with the literature literature (Danesh, 2006;Danesh & Clarke-Habibi, 2008;Hariss, 2003;Lane et al, 2003;Martin et al. 2002;Maxwell et al, 2004;Mutluoglu & Serin, 2012;Palmer & Roessler, 2001;Sagkal, 2011;Sertel & Kurt, 2004;Stevhan, 2004;Tapan, 2006). The study also revealed the positive feelings and thoughts about peace. ...
... The study also revealed the positive feelings and thoughts about peace. The above findings are consistent with the literature (Kadivar, 2007;Maxwell et al, 2004;Spear, 2004). ...
This study aimed to investigate the effect of Peace Education Program (PEP) on the conflict resolution and communication skills of seventh grade students. Pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design has been used in this research and 70 students were randomly chosen and were placed in experimental and control groups. PEP, involving 12 session was implemented in one academic semester for experimental group. Before and after training, Scale of Determine the Conflict Resolution Behaviors and Scale of Communication Skills have been applied for two groups. Also, three month after the teaching of PEP, follow-up measurement was administered. Data analysis was achieved through Covariance statistical test and showed that PEP training had been effective on the conflict resolution and communication skills of students.
... Although the problem of school violence and strategies or interventions to combat such violence have been widely researched, few studies have been conducted on alternative approaches to violence, such as peace education (John 2018;Maxwell, Enslin, and Maxwell 2004). In this regard, Mwaniki (2013) and Hamman (2017) affirm that, despite general acknowledgement of the potential benefit of peace education as a strategy to restore positive peace in schools and society, there is a gap between the rhetoric found in the literature and typical peace education practices found in schools. ...
... Fourteen years ago, Maxwell, Enslin, and Maxwell (2004) posed the important question: "How do we educate for peace in the midst of violence?" Responding with evidence from an evaluation of a preschool peace education program in South Africa, they found that peace education reduced aggressive behavior in children. ...
... 'reading the world' so that they could observe and diagnose direct, structural and cultural violence (Galtung 1990) in their own context and in its external relations to other contexts; search for root causes of such violence, both internal (including the self ) and external to their own context; formulate visions of nonviolent alternative futures; reflect upon appropriate means of change and act with skills towards the creation of new peace processes, including peacebuilding (Harris 2004;Maxwell et al 2004;Tom 2017). However, while the turmoil has attracted attention of the regional and international community and the media, scholarly literature aimed at both understanding the challenges, experience and complexity of violent conflicts and contributing to the discourse of peaceful coexistence, societal reconstruction and transformation by building sustainable peace through a peace education remains limited. ...
... In the study context, the call for workshops and seminars on peace education by the respondents becomes well-founded especially in view of the lack of prior training in the subject area. The implementation of skills development programmes in peace education have been known to stimulate multi-dimensional changes in recipients (Maxwell, Enslin, and Maxwell, 2004;Damirchi and Bilge, 2014). In South Africa, the introduction of a series of teacher development workshops on peace education was credited to have stimulated significant changes in the lives of educators and also impacted the schools at large (Maxwell, Enslin, and Maxwell, 2004, 115). ...
... In the field of peace education a number of studies have been conducted in the context of post-conflict or conflict-ridden societies (i.e. McGlynn et al. 2004;Horenczyk and Tatar 2004;Hughes and Donnelly 2006;Vongalis-Macrow 2006;Hirsch 2006;Spink 2005;Maxwell et al. 2004). A number of studies have also focused on the impact of students' attitudes and researched attitudinal and cognitive spheres as they relate to the continuation or, alternatively, prevention of violence (i.e. ...
What are some of the obstacles to demilitarization of society? What role does worldview in general, and views of gender, future and peace in particular, play in this process? What could be some aspects of the intervention when educating students and the wider community for peace? This article discusses the results from a pilot study that investigated undergraduate students' attitudes to the introduction of the civilian service in Serbia. It reviews students' responses, intending to investigate the connections between perspectives on peace, future and gender. It also reports how students negotiate the confusing terrain of multiple discourses and narratives in regard to these issues.
... Another research conducted in the Dominican Republic explores the effectiveness of a human rights course based on critical inquiry and discussion; the study reports its positive impact on student identity, self-confidence and solidarity with victims of human rights abuses (Bajaj, 2004). The analysis of data from a South African study on reduction of aggressive behavior at pre-school level also showed the positive impact of a peace education program that included transformative strategies of celebrating difference, raising self-esteem, getting along with others, effective communication, conflict management, caring for the environment and discussions on the essence of peace (Maxwell, Enslin & Maxwell, 2004). Of equal importance for the field of peace education are transformative and participatory research approaches. ...
The study focuses on exploring the method of changing pre‐service teachers’ stereotypes about different ethnicities. The purpose of the study is to test, or try out, an approach for changing beliefs and attitudes of teacher candidates towards peacebuilding, democracy, humanism, and accepting others. The procedure for this study involved investigating teacher candidates’ attitudes or ethnic stereotypes about different nations bordering Ukraine and about themselves as well, conducting attitudes/stereotypes’ intervention towards the formation of teachers’ peaceful attitudes, and analyzing the consequences of this intervention. The article specifically analyses the research experience for teacher candidates as they reflected on their multi‐ethic practices. It also utilizes the research findings to inform the field of teacher education for peace.
Despite interventions taken to eradicate violence in most communities in the Global South, a culture of violence remains prevalent. The levels of violence range from personal and interpersonal to organized violence such as genocides and wars. A culture of violence is widespread, as citizens replicate memories of past incidents of violence. The nation of Zimbabwe achieved its independence through an armed struggle. A pattern of organised violence has been experienced by different communities since independence. This violence has been used to resolve social, economic and political conflicts. All these incidents of violence leave citizens with live memories of conflict and a longing for revenge. Teachers, by the nature of their work of transferring knowledge, have a capacity to contribute to developing and delivering a curriculum that can promote a culture of peace in schools. This chapter proposes the implementation of peace education, peaceful practices and memorization within the entire schooling curriculum with the hope that when children learn nonviolent ways of resolving conflicts, the skills will be adopted and used even as children grow up to make influential decisions in preventing mass violence in societies. As was the case in Cambodia and the Philippines, painful historical memories were clarified during peace education. Peace education became a form of memorization where students connected with previous hurtful incidents, making them yearn for a different future. The study proposes the need for empowering both educators and learners with peacebuilding skills which will deconstruct negative memories of violence and reconstruct perceptions of valuing human dignity embedded in each and every individual. The assurance towards the attainment of this vision is based on the UN Seville statement (UNESCO, 1986), which upholds that violent is a learnt behaviour, which can be unlearnt.
ZET Günümüzde şiddet olayları ve çatışma durumları barışa duyulan gereksinimi artırmaktadır. Bu araştırmanın amacı ilkokul dördüncü sınıf öğrencilerinin ve sınıf öğretmenlerinin barışa ilişkin algılarını ortaya çıkarmaktır. Araştırmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden olgu bilim deseni kullanılmıştır. Araştırmaya Eskişehir il merkezinde üç farklı okulda öğrenim gören toplam 98 öğrenci ile üç sınıf öğretmeni katılmıştır. Araştırma verileri doküman incelemesi ve yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşme yoluyla elde edilmiştir. Araştırmada elde edilen nitel verilerin analizinde içerik analizinden yararlanılmıştır. Araştırmada oluşturulan temalar ve kodlar sosyo-ekonomik düzeylere göre karşılaştırılmıştır. Ayrıca araştırmada öğrencilerin ve öğretmenlerin görüşleri de birbiri ile karşılaştırılarak verilmiştir. Araştırmada elde edilen sonuçlar öğrencilerin ve öğretmenlerin barışı ortak olarak huzur, saygı, hoşgörü, sevgi, paylaşma ve özgürlük ile açıkladıklarını göstermektedir. Ayrıca öğrencilerin barışı güvercin, Atatürk, bayrak, hayat, beyaz gül, su ve Barış Manço gibi semboller kullanarak da ele aldıkları görülmektedir. Araştırmada öğretmenler barış eğitimi boyutunu da dikkate alarak barışa ilişkin görüşlerinde değer eğitimi ve beceri eğitimini de vurgulamışlardır. Araştırma kapsamında öğrenciler barışla ilgili yaşanan sorunları kavga, oyunda şiddet, kadına şiddet ve savaş olarak açıklamış, öğretmenler ise barış eğitimine vurgu yaparak buna ilişkin yaşanan sorunları öfke kontrolü, aile koşulları, akademik başarı kaygısı ve demokrasi kültürünün eksikliği biçiminde ifade etmiştir. Öğrenciler barış konusunda yapılması gerekenleri savaşın bitmesi, küsmemek, ülkelerin dayanışması, ayrımcılık yapmamak, eğitim görmek, şiddetin engellenmesi biçiminde ele almışlardır. Öğretmenler barışa ilişkin olarak yapılması gerekenleri model olma, eğitimler düzenlenmesi, gerçek * Bu çalışma, 23-25 Nisan 2015 tarihlerinde Bolu'da düzenlenen 4. Uluslararası Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Sempozyumu'nda sözlü bildiri olarak sunulmuştur. Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 12/28 yaşamın sınıfa yansıtılması, eğitim programlarının gözden geçirilmesi ve yerel yönetimlerin destek vermesi biçiminde dile getirmişlerdir. Araştırmada elde edilen sonuçlar doğrultusunda barış eğitimine yönelik öneriler getirilmiştir. ABSTRACT Today, the growing violence and conflict situations increase the need for peace. The purpose of this study is to understand 4 th grade primary school students' and their teachers' perceptions of peace. The phenomenology design was used in the study. Participants of the study were 98 students who were enrolled in three different primary schools in Eskisehir, and three primary school teachers. The data obtained through document analysis and semi-structured interviews. The data were analyzed with content analysis. Themes and codes were compared according to the socioeconomic levels of the students. Also, views of the students and teachers were compared in the study. Findings indicated that students and teachers defined peace as welfare, respect, tolerance, love, sharing and freedom. Additionally, it is seen that students used symbols as dove, Atatürk, flag, life, white rose, water and Baris Manco to explain peace in their documents. Results of the study showed that teachers considered education dimension of the peace, and they mentioned about values and skills which should be included in that process. Students stated that main problems about the peace were fight, violence in the game, violence against women and war. However, teachers mentioned problems as anger management, family conditions, concern for academic success and the absence of democracy culture. Students' recommendation for peace can be listed as ending war, not to be angry, cooperation of countries, avoiding discrimination, supporting education, and preventing violence. Teachers stated that being role model was important in peace education. Also, they emphasized that peace education should be supported in schools. Teachers suggested real life conditions should be discussed in the classroom, curricula should be reviewed in terms of peace education, and local administrations should support values education. Lastly, recommendation were put forth regarding peace education in light of the findings of the study.
In this chapter, we trace the history and development of the Peace Education Program in the Centre for Adult Education (CAE) at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), South Africa, and examine how action research has shaped our course. We discuss the concept of communities of practice and show how nurturing and supporting our trainees and students in communities of practice may contribute to sustained peace education in the province of KwaZulu-Natal.
In the last decade of the twentieth century, the liberation struggle in South Africa bore its fruit. Apartheid was brought to an end through a negotiated settlement, and a new constitutional state was established, enshrining equality and human rights for all. In 1994, at the first democratic elections in South Africa, millions of people queued to exercise their first vote, and Nelson Mandela, once gaoled as a terrorist, was installed as president in a glorious ceremony rich with symbolism of the changing order. In an historic compromise where amnesty would be exchanged for truth-telling, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission provided a public process for coming to terms with the worst human rights abuses of apartheid. It was a limited record, addressing individual instances of gross abuse rather than the everyday suffering of ordinary people under the structural violence of apartheid. Nonetheless, in the spirit of compromise and national unity, restorative justice prevailed over retribution so that a new order could be forged from the old.
Eleven articles on peace education published in the first volume of the Journal of Peace Education are analyzed. This selection comprises peace education programs that have been planned or carried out in different contexts. In analyzing peace pedagogies as proposed in the 11 contributions, we have chosen network analysis as our method – enabling the categorization and visualization of qualitative data on differing content and forms preferences. In the analysis, our purpose is to visualize how the authors relate their arguments for specific content and form preferences to peace education. Before and after the empirical analysis of content and form preferences in the 11 peace education programs, a theoretical model is briefly introduced in which the interrelations not only between contents and forms are highlighted but also the interrelations between contents, forms and contextual conditions.
Despite the multifaceted role language plays in promoting direct and indirect violence, activities that would develop the linguistic knowledge and critical language skills for understanding how discourse shapes individual and group beliefs and prompts social action are conspicuously absent from peace education. This article aims to address this absence. It will present a framework for promoting critical language awareness, discuss its relevance to the preparation of critically literate citizens and suggest ways of incorporating it into programmes and curricula that educate for peace.
In recent times there has been increased recognition of peace education by educational and policy authorities, and also a substantial addition in the number of publications in peace education. Considering the growth of knowledge within peace education, this article reflects on ways peace education as an educational paradigm meets a group of criteria that comprise established frameworks in philosophy of education. The process of knowledge legitimation within science and social science is considered, with some reflections of the role of the Journal of Peace Education in this process of paradigmatic consolidation.
Concerns have been expressed about the effects of years of exposure to political violence on South Africa's children. In particular there are fears that children have been dehumanized and that they believe that violence is an acceptable way of resolving differences. In spite of the common-sense status of this idea there is considerable disagreement about it within the international research literature on the psychological effects of violence. In this article it is argued that much of this disagreement arises out of the lack of clarity about what is meant by the question ‘does violence beget violence?’. The author critically evaluates the different theoretical perspectives within which the question might be posed and their relative usefulness in understanding the effects of political violence in South Africa. It is also argued that the most useful way of understanding the relationship between the experience of violence and subsequent violent behaviour is not in terms of direct causality but rather in terms of the more complex interrelationships between intrapsychic and social factors. In this process the question is shifted out of the prior simplistic form within which it is most often understood and reconstructed within the more sophisticated explanatory paradigm of psychoanalysis.
The papers presented in this special section provide an introduction to the area of research on the effects of political violence on children. The articles cover a wide range of topics from the well-researched question of stress and coping to the less often investigated questions of the development of aggression, the long-term effects of political violence, and the evaluation of attempts at reconciliation. In addition, they represent those geographical areas which at present dominate work in this area the Middle East, Northern Ireland, and South Africa. They also illustrate emerging debates concerning resilience versus vulnerability and the effectiveness of outsiders versus insiders as investigators. The research reported here also points to the need for more cross-cultural work. Finally, it is argued that there is a need to understand the collective nature of political violence. This has implications not only for future research methods but, more importantly, for the development of a theoretical basis that is needed for work in this area.
Schools are facing increasing levels of violence spawned by violent media and communities. In response, many educators employ peace education strategies to make schools safer and help students deal positively with conflict. This article summarizes these reform efforts, distinguishes among three levels of peace education, describes resources, and discusses ancillary school productivity gains. (41 references) (MLH)
The future of the women's movement depends on MPs in Parliament building open channels of communication with women in civil society. PAMELA SHIFMAN, NOZIZWE MADLALA-ROUTLEDGE and VIV SMITH report on the joint civil society campaign to end violence against women and children
This article adopts a futures-oriented peace research approach to a reading of artefacts that are commonly part of the enculturative milieux of children and adolescents in a late industrial society such as Australia. It attempts to illuminate how selective traditions of cultural or symbolic violence may rationalize direct, structural and ecological forms of violence and so restrict young people's creative imagination about alternatives. The object is not to claim definitive decodings of particular artefacts on a putatively ‘exact’ science model of semiology. Rather, it is to argue how important it is for schools and teachers to take up site-specific learning opportunities and to encourage critical and imaginative readings of guiding or attenuated images of the future that are often implicit in young people's media artefacts. It posits crucial questions about the possible functions of multimedia literacy in challenging assumptions that ‘trend is destiny’ and in educating for the 21st century.
We investigated the effects of competitive and cooperative games on aggressive and cooperative behaviors of 70 children (4 to 5 years old) from four classes in three preschools. The experimental design included both multiple baseline and reversal components. Behaviors were measured during game conditions and in subsequent free-play periods. Results showed that cooperative behavior increased and aggression decreased during cooperative games; conversely, competitive games were followed by increases in aggressive behavior and decreases in cooperative behavior. Similar effects were also found during free-play periods.
The aim of this anthropological study was to create an understanding of school-related violence experienced by adolescents in the context of chronic poverty in a South African community.
Qualitative methods of data collection such as participant observation, interviews, and group discussions were utilized for data collection. Sixteen children and three adults in turn kept diaries and wrote reports during the research period of three and one-half years (June 1992-December 1995). All the Standard seven pupils (N = 76) of the local school completed a self-concept questionnaire and wrote two essays about themselves and their lives, respectively.
The ideology and structures of apartheid created a context of impoverishment and structural violence to which children were exposed. The school was one of the social institutions where children were subjected to structural, psychological, and physical violence on a daily basis. Violent behavior or discipline was justified as being just and an effective teaching practice by authoritarian parents and teachers. The manifestations of poverty included emotional erosion, a negative self-concept, and reactive violence.
School-related violence was structurally interwoven with the very fabric of the social hierarchy of the school set-up and was sanctioned as an effective strategy to gain social control and discipline children. Poverty in itself provided the breeding-ground for violence at home and in the school. Children were caught up in a vicious circle of pro- and reactive violence and socialized to accept violence as an instrument of empowerment. Recommendations for possible intervention and further research are offered.
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