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The relationships among teacher immediacy behaviors, student motivation, and learning
Abstract
Two studies investigated the relationship between teacher immediacy and student state motivation and the combined impact of these factors on learning. Study One participants completed all instruments based on a preceding class. The scales were randomly split between students in Study Two who completed them based on an intact class. Correlations revealed significant relationships between learning and both immediacy and motivation. Regression analyses indicated both unique and colinear predictability of learning by nonverbal immediacy and state motivation. Immediacy appears to modify motivation which leads to increased learning. Important implications of Study Two data indicate relationships observed in earlier research were not a simple function of confounding when scores were reported by the same subjects completing multiple instruments.
... The instrument employed in this study combined four instruments, Verbal Immediacy Behaviors, Non-verbal Immediacy Behaviors, Affective Learning and Student Perceived Learning Loss Scale. Three of the four instruments have been extensively tested and employed in research over the past 30 to 40 years with initial research verifying high reliability in terms of Verbal Immediacy Behaviors and Non-verbal Immediacy Behaviors and Affective Learning (Christophel, 1990;Gorham, 1988) with continuing research still being conducted today (Park, 2016;Sözer, 2019). The full survey used in this study is included in the Appendix. ...
... However, it remains the only method to gain student insights into the level of learning they experienced reflected in a one-time, look-back questionnaire . As both Christophel (1990) and Christophel and Gorman (1995) determined, there is a positive relationship between perceived instructor verbal and nonverbal immediacy and this in turn related positively to perceived cognitive learning. ...
... Vol. 11, Issue 3, pp: (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16), Month: July -September 2023, Available at: www.researchpublish.com ...
Affinity-seeking measures employed by high school teachers in Thailand were measured using the Non-verbal Immediacy Behaviors Instrument (Richmond et al., 1987) and the Verbal Immediacy Behaviors Instrument (Gorham, 1988). In all, 437 first-year university students rated a teacher of their choice from high school. Results, for the most part, replicated studies conducted at various educational levels ranging from high school to university and on-line with locations worldwide, primarily the Mid-west in the US, with the exception of two factors: a negative relationship was found between the use of names and affinity-seeking success, whereas the use of touch reflected a positive attribute. Thai-cultural norms, both within and outside of an education environment help to explain these two anomalies to a certain extent in terms of the special relationships between juniors and seniors, students and teachers and the desire not to lose face and to remain calm at all times, both central to the social fabric in Thailand.
... Another facet of teaching effectiveness is the manner in which teachers interact with students, often examined as rapport or teacher immediacy. Teacher immediacy is one way of measuring the psychological connection between a teacher and student (Christophel, 1990). However, this topic is just beginning to receive attention in the agricultural sciences. ...
... The second was the Florida Taxonomy of Cognitive Behavior (Brown et al., 1968). The third was a modified version of the Immediacy Behavior Scale (Christophel, 1990). ...
... Teacher immediacy was assessed using a modified version of the Immediacy Behavior Scale (Christophel, 1990). The original version of this instrument was designed to allow students to rate their teachers on a 1 to 5 rating scale for 20 verbal behaviors and 14 nonverbal behaviors. ...
The purpose of this study was to explore the teaching behaviors of successful teachers in a college of agricultural and life sciences. Five successful teachers were identified by nomination from the director of the Teaching Resource Center or winning a teaching award such as the University of Florida's College of Agricultural and Life Sciences teaching award or the NACTA Teacher Fellow's award. In consultation with each teacher, a minimum of two class sessions were identified for video recording. Teaching behaviors were assessed to determine the learning activities used, the cognitive levels reached, and the teacher immediacy (or rapport) behaviors exhibited. This group of successful teachers shared teaching beliefs that indicated they were highly sensitive to student needs. They used lecture and questioning most frequently in their classes and most of the teachers also used cooperative learning activities. This group of teachers commonly taught in a way that engaged students at higher cognitive levels. These successful teachers also created a psychologically inviting learning environment by exhibiting frequent positive verbal and nonverbal teacher immediacy behaviors.
... Though comprehensively investigating both positive and negative factors [15], it does not target to investigate motivation in classroom settings. This paper adopted the state and trait motivation framework by Christophel [20]. State motivation is an attitude towards a specific class [20]. ...
... This paper adopted the state and trait motivation framework by Christophel [20]. State motivation is an attitude towards a specific class [20]. Trait motivation is a general, enduring predisposition toward learning. ...
... Then students completed feedback and motivation questionnaires under the guidance of English teachers. Questionnaires included a modified State Motivation Scale [20] and Feedback Scale [4]. Data were gathered during the eighth week of the semester when students were familiar with their English teachers and different types of OCF. ...
Oral corrective feedback (OCF) plays a significant role in affecting students’ English learning motivation. However, limited studies were conducted in Chinese classrooms. To address the gap, the current study investigated how OCF influenced Chinese young English learners’ motivation. The participants were 181 students from a Chinese primary school. They were divided into the younger group (98 Grade-three (G3) students) and the older group (84 Grade-five (G5) students). Questionnaires on motivation and OCF were administered first. Ten English lessons (5 for G3 and 5 for G5) were recorded later. Results showed that explicit feedback was more frequent and motivating than implicit feedback. Feedback frequency had no significant correlation with motivation.
... Affective learning focuses on the development of a positive or negative attitude towards the subject discussed by the lecturer. Cognitive learning refers to the In many of the studies that investigated the influence of behavioural patterns of lecturers on learning-related responses of learners, it was found that immediacy as a realistic behavioural strategy has a positive influence on one or more of the domains of learning outcomes (Christophel, 1990;Gorham & Zakahi, 1990;Kelley & Gorham, 1988;Powell & Harville, 1990;Sanders & Wiseman, 1990). Andersen (1979) found in the seventies that the immediacy behaviour of lecturers is a good predictor of all measures of learners' affective and behavioural relations. ...
... Learners' perceptions of the immediacy behaviour of lecturers were measured in agreement with, among others, Christophel (1990), by using the Immediacy behaviour scale (see Figure 1). This scale includes statements describing lecturers' verbal (Gorham, 1988) and non-verbal (Richmond, Gorham & McCroskey, 1987) immediacy behaviour. ...
... The affective learning of learners was measured by asking them to estimate six components of their attitudes towards course content, lecturers and behavioural intentions (see Figure 2; Christophel, 1990;Gorham, 1988). ...
The intention of the present study was to determine whether (1) the immediacy behaviourof lecturers whose home language is Afrikaans or English contributes positively to theaffective and cognitive learning of learners whose home language is Afrikaans, Englishor one of the African languages; and (2) whether the form of immediacy behaviourdisplayed by English or Afrikaans lecturers functions differently for learners whose homelanguage is one of the African languages in relation to those whose home language isAfrikaans or English. Data was collected by means of a questionnaire that had separatesections on immediacy behaviour and learning. Positive correlations between theimmediacy behaviour of the lecturers and the affective and cognitive learning of thelearners were observed for the whole test group. The immediacy behaviour displayed bythe lecturers functions differently for learners whose home language is one of the Africanlanguages than for those whose home language is Afrikaans or English. Considering thesefindings, it is imperative that instructional communication in today’s South Africa beincreasingly characterized by a culture-centred approach.
... There is also a positive relationship between instructor verbal immediacy and student liking toward the instructor (Baker, 2004). Instructor nonverbal immediacy (Allen et al., 2006;Frymier et al., 2019;Goodboy et al., 2009), and verbal immediacy (Christophel, 1990) lead to greater student motivation. There is an indirect positive relationship between instructor nonverbal immediacy and students' recall of class information or student learning, mediated by affective learning (Allen et al., 2006), or mediated by instructor relatedness and student motivation (Frymier et al., 2019). ...
... There is an indirect positive relationship between instructor nonverbal immediacy and students' recall of class information or student learning, mediated by affective learning (Allen et al., 2006), or mediated by instructor relatedness and student motivation (Frymier et al., 2019). Teacher verbal immediacy is positively correlated with student cognitive learning (Christophel, 1990). Finally, when an instructor exhibited verbal and nonverbal immediacy, students remembered more information (Goodboy et al., 2009). ...
... Participants completed Christophel's (1990) motivation scale; the 12 items were modified to fit a physician-patient context. The measure consists of a 7-point semantic differential scale; the item prompt was adapted to fit the context of participants' reactions to the message given by the physician. ...
Guided by the fostering relationships function of patient-centered communication (PCC), the present study utilized a 2 (high/low nonverbal immediacy) x 2 (high/low verbal immediacy) between-subjects experimental design to determine whether physician verbal and nonverbal immediacy influenced participant liking for physician, motivation to process a health message, and recall of the health message. An actor physician delivered a 3-4 minute video-recorded message, diagnosing U.S. adult participants, serving as analogue patients, with a health issue. The results indicated main effects for physician verbal immediacy and nonverbal immediacy on participant liking for physician and motivation such that participants had greater liking for the physician and motivation to do what the physician requested when the physician demonstrated greater verbal and nonverbal immediacy. However, physician verbal and nonverbal immediacy did not influence participants' recall. Physicians should consider displaying verbal and nonverbal immediacy to create a positive impression among patients, and to motivate patients to take steps to improve their health.
... State motivation was measured using Christophel's (1990) state motivation scale. This instrument uses 12 semantic differential items (e.g., motivated-unmotivated) to assess a student's motivation in regards to a particular class. ...
... Motivation was measured using four representative items from Christophel's (1990) State Motivation Scale (i.e., motivated-unmotivated, interested-uninterested, not stimulated-stimulated, don't want to study-want to study). Participants responded on a 7-point semantic differential scale. ...
Two studies were conducted to ascertain whether or not the embodiment principle of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning would apply to student’s use of cameras in synchronous online instruction. Results from a cross sectional dataset indicate that students who utilize their cameras report more positive outcomes than students who do not utilize their cameras. Results from a quasi-experimental design indicate that students do not report any significant differences between experiencing classes where their peers keep their cameras-on or when their peers keep their cameras-off.
... Lastly, motivation is necessary to examine in educational environments because it leads to an instructor's ultimate goal -learning. 2 Another important factor for the learning process, in addition to motivation, is instructor-student rapport, which is discussed in the following section. ...
... As a result, the findings from our study support previous literature that suggests a positive association between instructor-student rapport and student motivation. 2,12,19,20 This positive relationship can exist because when students feel that their instructors care about them and their educational goals, it helps students develop greater self-determination. 14 Findings from this study suggest students who feel motivated in face-to-face classes are significantly less likely to feel motivated in online classes. ...
The relationship between instructors and their students is essential for developing a classroom climate where students feel motivated to learn. The current study surveyed 658 undergraduate students to examine the relationship between instructor-student rapport and motivation in online and face-to-face classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results indicated (1) students experienced more rapport with their instructors during face-to-face classes compared to their online classes, (2) students perceived their motivation was greater during face-to-face classes than in online classes, and (3) there was a significant positive relationship between instructor-student rapport and student motivation in both online and face-to-face classes. This study’s findings lend further support to research that emphasizes the importance of creating a sense of community in online classes, where students feel connected to their instructors and, consequently, motivated to learn. KEYWORDS: Instructor-Student Rapport; Motivation; Hybrid Courses; COVID-19; Online Learning
... The pedagogical importance of immediacy (both verbal and non-verbal) in terms of students reported online participation and communication satisfaction has been considered and investigated [6]. Christophel [7] examined the effects of teacher immediacy behaviors and student motivation on perceived cognitive and affective learning and found significant, positive relationships among these variables. These links with learning and student motivation are what make teacher immediacy such an important variable. ...
... Finally, at the aggregate level, taking into account both questionnaires as a whole, we identified a greater dispersion in the responses obtained by men (13,4) in relation to women (7,48) in absolute value. Let us now move on to analyze the results obtained by the other technique used in this study. ...
... Undoubtedly, motivation plays a crucial role in teaching and learning. For instance, the motivation-learning relationship theory developed by Christophel (1990)assumed that students would learn when they want to know. Wanzer, M. B., Sparks, L., & Frymier,(2009) also presented specifications for entertaining message/learning links, although this theory still has its degree. ...
... Backtracking to the literature, TH can provide a comfortable learning environment, better teacher-student relationship, and reduce the tension that many students feel in their learning process Christophel (1990); Richmond (1990); Dickmeyer (1993) (2016)). However, the current participants might still feel uncomfortable about interrupting their teachers' instructions even though they are humorous teachers. ...
According to several studies on English teaching and learning, English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers tend to avoid humor in their classrooms. However, many studies have shown that teachers’ sense of humor plays an essential role in EFL students’ learning process. Therefore, this study utilizing a mixed-method design was conducted to determine students’ perceptions of the impact of teachers’ humor (TH) on their learning. Data were collected through a questionnaire with a five-point Likert scale comprising twenty-one items and semi-structured interviews. The study involved 158 university students in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Quantitative data from the questionnaire were analyzed by using SPSS 20.0, and data from the interviews were analyzed according to themes. The survey results revealed that the students showed positive attitudes toward the effects of TH in EFL classrooms, especially reducing boredom (M=4.59), strengthening teacher-student rapport (M=4.53), decreasing sleepiness (M=4.47), promoting students’ cheerfulness (M=4.47), increasing students’ consciousness (M=4.46), and solving conflicts in classrooms (M=4.42). Additionally, non-majored students were appreciated for TH more than their counterparts. Moreover, students’ perceptions positively correlated with their gender. The interviews also showed that cultural factors affected the effectiveness of TH in EFL classes. EFL teachers are encouraged to use TH in their classes in order to foster its benefits. However, careful consideration should be taken before using TH in teaching different students with different learning styles or characteristics.
... Student motivation to join. An adapted version of Christophel's (1990) Student Motivation Scale (SMS) was used. Participants complete a condensed version, including items 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13, and 16 of the original scale. ...
... Sample items included: "Motivated/Unmotivated" and "Dreading it/Looking forward to it." The measure has been found to be both valid and reliable in previous studies (Christophel, 1990;Goldman et al., 2017;Richmond, 1990). Cronbach's alpha = .92. ...
This study investigated a key question involved with attracting and retaining a diverse workforce: Should recruiters provide race-related realistic organizational previews (ROPs) to job candidates from historically-marginalized groups during the offer consideration phase? Colorblind (i.e., race ignoring) socialization practices are likely motivated by several fears. Yet, a colorblind strategy may also miss potential advantages afforded by race-acknowledging ROPs. Black and African-American ( N = 338) individuals participated in a three (colorblind, implicit, or explicit ROP-type) × two (Black or White recruiter) message processing experiment. Statistical analyses revealed that implicit race-acknowledged ROP messages were comparable to a colorblind condition in terms of organizational attraction and motivation to join the organization. Furthermore, an implicit race-acknowledged ROP message was associated with higher intention to accept a job offer than an explicit race-acknowledged ROP. Analyses also revealed that participants perceived recruiters as credible and polite, regardless of recruiter’s racial identity or the race-related explicitness of the ROP message. Implications of the study conclude the paper.
... Immediacy was defined as the perceived psychological distance between communicators (Wiener & Mehrabian, 1968). Teachers' immediacy behaviors, both verbal and non-verbal, have been linked to improvement in students' affective and cognitive learning in face-to-face classrooms (Christophel, 1990;Kelley & Gorham, 1988). Further, definitions of social presence have been informed by research into computermediated communication (CMC) in education. ...
... Social presence researchers (Kreijns et al., 2021;Lowenthal & Snelson, 2017;Richardson et al., 2017) have identified at least 15 definitions of social presence used in studies, with numerous elements being considered part of the construct including: immediacy, affective expression, co-presence, online privacy, trust, perceived presence of peers and perceived presence of instructors, social space, and intimacy. Another substantive criticism of the CoI framework is that neither the teaching presence nor the social presence construct accounts for the social presence of instructors which, as evidenced by earlier teacher immediacy research, is an important predictor of learning (Christophel, 1990;Kelley & Gorham, 1988;Mehrabian, 1966Mehrabian, , 1981. Moreover, the social presence construct does not sufficiently account for the importance of emotion in communities of inquiry; indeed, as per Lipman's (2003) original notion of communities of inquiry, emotion is integral to all three constructs (e.g., Cleveland-Innes & Campbell, 2012). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic forced institutions of higher education around the world to quickly transition to forms of distance education, including synchronous and asynchronous online learning. Often lacking conceptual, empirical, and practical understanding of online pedagogy, many institutions have met this endeavor with mixed success. It seems inevitable that online learning will continue to play a key role in all sectors of education and, accordingly, that online pedagogy deserves a more mainstream focus. To help build a joint understanding of foundational knowledge between the online learning, educational technology, and educational psychology communities, in this article, we summarize the most frequently cited conceptual model that shapes research and practice in the field of higher education online learning: the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework. We describe the original CoI model and its foundational components (i.e., cognitive, social, and teaching presence) and highlight opportunities for improvement of the model by incorporating the educational psychology and learning sciences research base to inform: (1) conceptualizations of the social dimensions of collaborative learning and (2) understanding of learner contributions to online collaborative education including self-, co-, and shared regulation of learning. We propose that a new, more comprehensive conceptualization of the regulation of collaborative online learning be integrated into the existing CoI framework and that a new “presence” be referenced going forward—“Learning Presence.” Through this work, we strive to develop a more nuanced, generative, and informed vision of the future of online learning informed by relevant contemporary conceptualizations in educational psychology.
... Teacher immediacy would be one of the aspects that can increase students" motivational tendencies (Christophel, 1990;Frymeir and Houser 2000). Christophel (1990) stated that "it was believed that students would be motivated to move towards (approach) classes they like and unmotivated or move away from (avoid) classes they dislike" (Christophel, 1990, p. 325). ...
... Teacher immediacy would be one of the aspects that can increase students" motivational tendencies (Christophel, 1990;Frymeir and Houser 2000). Christophel (1990) stated that "it was believed that students would be motivated to move towards (approach) classes they like and unmotivated or move away from (avoid) classes they dislike" (Christophel, 1990, p. 325). Acordingly, Frymier and Houser (2000) have stressed that teachers recruit interpersonal communication methods to motive their students. ...
The purpose of the study is to investigate the impacts of two teacher immediacy
methods on students’ immediate and long-term evaluation of teacher immediacy, state of
motivation and cognitive learning. The first method is to memorize students’ names in the
first lecture and start calling them by their names at the end of it and the second method
is to welcome students at the entrance of the classroom by their names. Throughout the
semester, the teacher met the students at the entrance of the classroom before lectures
and welcomed each student by his or her name. At the end of the semester, the students
responded to the scales and sat the test again. The results revealed that the first method
significantly increased teacher immediacy. The posttest results revealed that teacher immediacy directly and state motivation through teacher immediacy significantly affected
cognitive learning.
... When engaging with others, certain behaviors can create a sense of immediacy, or perceived physical and psychological closeness, between individuals. Teacher immediacy behaviors have been linked to improved cognitive learning outcomes in students [29]. For the present study, we note that feelings of immediacy are likely to encourage the development of positive relationships, as reducing psychological distance between two people can potentially create fertile ground on which to build a relationship. ...
Understanding how relationships between instructors and students develop is important for understanding the undergraduate student experience. We expect the development of positive relationships is related to the social practices (e.g., greetings, using names, sympathizing, or empathizing with students) that instructors use in the course of normal classroom interactions with students. We recorded interactions between instructors and students in remote synchronous online physics problem-solving sessions and surveyed students about their perceptions of their instructors. We selected the highest-rated instructor and lowest-rated instructor in our sample and identified social practices in their conversations with students. We first characterized the frequency of social practice usage by each instructor in their conversations with students. We find that both instructors relied on a set of core social practices in most conversations with students, but that our higher-rated instructor used comparatively more positive commentary and sympathizing or empathizing behaviors than our lower-rated instructor. In comparison, our lower-rated instructor engaged in more negative commentary. Using network analysis, we then explored patterns in co-occurrences of social practices used by each instructor moment-to-moment in conversations and compared the instructors’ social practice network patterns. We find that our higher rated-instructor used a greater variety of social practices during moment-to-moment interactions with students, while our lower-rated instructor spent most of his time focused on classroom business. We suggest that professional development for instructors should include guidance on how messages are delivered in classes and encourage the use of high-impact social practices to foster positive relationships with students.
... Manakala, kemahiran komunikasi lisan dan bukan lisan yang diamalkan oleh pensyarah mempunyai kekuatan hubungan yang sederhana dengan nilai kolerasi yang diperolehi ialah r = 0.657 dan r = 0.505. Dapatan ini selari dengan kajian yang dijalankan oleh Christophel (1990) yang menyatakan pensyarah yang sering mengaplikasikan komunikasi bukan lisan dalam penyampaian pengajaran akan meningkatkan tahap motivasi pelajar dan memberi kesan yang positif kepada pelajar untuk belajar dengan lebih tekun dan selalu menghadiri kelas. ...
Abstrak Kajian ini dijalankan bagi melihat amalan kemahiran komunikasi interpersonal, komunikasi lisan dan komunikasi bukan lisan di kalangan pensyarah dan perhubungannya dengan tahap motivasi pelajar di Politeknik Kuching Sarawak. Selain itu, kajian ini juga dijalankan untuk melihat perbezaan tahap motivasi pelajar lelaki dan pelajar perempuan. Kajian berbentuk kuantitatif ini melibatkan 178 orang responden terdiri daripada pelajar semester satu hingga semester lima untuk menjawab soal selidik yang diedarkan secara rawak. Data yang telah diperolehi dianalisis menggunakan perisian SPSS Versi 21 untuk mendapatkan data statistik kekerapan, peratusan, min dan sisihan piawai. Hasil dapatan ujian korelasi Spearman's rho menunjukkan terdapat hubungan positif yang sederhana di antara kemahiran interpersonal (r = 0.498), komunikasi lisan (r = 0.657) dan komunikasi bukan lisan (r = 0.505) pensyarah dengan tahap motivasi pelajar. Ujian korelasi ini juga menunjukkan signifikan pada p < 0.01. Hal ini membuktikan bahawa terdapat perhubungan di antara amalan komunikasi berkesan pensyarah dengan tahap motivasi pelajar. Analisis ujian-T pula menunjukkan tiada perbezaan signifikan tahap motivasi pelajar lelaki dan pelajar perempuan. Oleh itu, implikasi kajian menunjukkan bahawa kemahiran komunikasi berkesan pensyarah dalam proses PdP perlu dipertingkatkan, hal ini demikian kerana ia memberi impak terhadap tahap motivasi pelajar untuk memperoleh pencapaian akademik yang cemerlang. Kata kunci:-hubungan komunikasi berkesan, tahap motivasi pelajar, kemahiran komunikasi
... "The Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors for Teacher Motivation" (Gultekin & Acar, 2014) both intrinsic and extrinsic factors contribute to teacher motivation. "The relationships among teacher immediacy behaviours, student motivation, and learning" (Christophel, 1990) teacher immediacy behaviours had a relationship with student motivation and learning. "Student behaviour: Theory and practice for teachers" (Porter, 2020) provided an overview of the theories and practices of student behaviour in the classroom. ...
This study aims to examine the mediating factors of learning environment, technology, good behaviour, and effective communication, sports, media, problem-based case study, and psychological influence on student motivation and behaviour. The study employs secondary data based on peer-reviewed articles, conference papers, and books collected from a variety of sources such as Scopus, WoS, J-Store, EBSCO, ProQuest, etc. between 1982 and 2022. The 103 articles have been selected based on the keywords which related to study. The results evidenced that the mediating factors have a significant positive impact on student motivation and behaviour. This study contributes to the existing literature by providing a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between the mediating factors and student motivation and behaviour. The findings of this study have implications for educational institutions, policy makers, and educators in creating effective learning environments that can enhance student motivation and behaviour.
... The conventional definition of many pedagogical concepts that are well defined for face-to-face instruction-classroom climate, learning environment, student engagement, and two-way feedback-must be adapted and redefined in this new normal of remote learning. In particular, teacher immediacy has long been shown to influence students' learning behaviour, enhance their motivation to learn, and demonstrate a positive correlation with both cognitive and affective learning (Andersen, 1979;Christophel, 1990;Brophy, 2004;Witt et al., 2004;LeFebvre & Allen, 2014). It represents a set of verbal and nonverbal behaviours teachers adopt that generate perceptions of psychological closeness between themselves and their students. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused an almost universal shift towards remote learning in higher education institutions, where teaching is now commonly conducted via synchronous or asynchronous online lectures. Much of the pedagogical literature indicates that the options for teachers to demonstrate non-verbal immediacy in online lectures and courses are severely limited, significantly reducing the opportunity to enhance students' motivation to learn. In this work, digital chroma key compositing (i.e. background removal) using a green screen and an open source software was adapted and implemented to livestream online lectures, where the lecturer's webcam-captured image was digitally inserted in real time onto the lecture slides on the main screen. This allowed the lecturer's non-verbal behaviours such as facial expressions, body posture, hand gestures, and eye contact to be obviously, immediately, and efficiently expressed. This enabled the lecturer to capture the students' attention more easily, as well as maintain a high level of student engagement with the lecture content during remote learning. The chroma key compositing method was implemented in the course GEH1032 "Modern Technology in Medicine and Healthcare" at the National University of Singapore (NUS), where a basic studio was set up in an office space using equipment that is affordable and accessible to individual faculty members. Comments on the use of this technology from both the mid-term and the end-of-term student feedback exercises were highly favourable. A set of detailed, step-by-step instructions regarding the instrumentation and software setup is provided in the Appendix as part of the supporting materials.
... But that behavior might have influenced children's attitude or motivation toward this intervention program. Research has shown that teachers' behavior has an impact on student's motivation (Christophel, 1990;Urdan & Schoenfelder, 2006;Reeve, 2009). We carefully explained to teachers what was expected of them and the purpose of intervention program to set a similar condition in different country for future study. ...
Since the beginning of 2015, national exam in Indonesia was no longer used as graduation standard. This policy was made because of negative effects of this standardized test toward educational system in Indonesia. One of the effects is the teaching method used by teacher that rely on memorization and drill practice. The aim of this study is to see whether this new policy has an impact in teaching learning process in mathematics classroom. The samples of this study were 17 mathematics teachers from six different provinces in Indonesia. Before this policy issued, 12 teachers use conventional learning, while five teachers use unconventional learning methods such as problem solving, open ended problems, and contextual learning. The results of questionnaire reveal that from 12 teachers who use conventional method, only two teachers that change their teaching method after the new policy about national exam released. It means that 83% of teachers who use conventional learning in this study keep using the same method. Easy in the implementation and easy to understand by students are the main reasons of teachers decision to keep implementing this method. This finding shows that the changing of intended curriculum by government as decision maker is not followed by the changing of implemented curriculum-pedagogy- by teachers. Based on the result of this study, the recommendations are given to incorporate the vision and mission of government and teachers in order to reach the desired goal as well as for doing further research on this issue.
... Gorham (1988) made the first attempt to measure the impact of verbal immediacy on learning and, although the reliability of this measure is criticised by some, since then various studies (e.g. Christophel 1990, Frymier 1994, Powell & Harville 1990) have used Gorham's verbal immediacy measure (Witt, Wheeless & Allen 2006). Gorham's study, according to Witt (2000), was influenced by an earlier study by Plax et al. (1986) on verbal control. ...
... Gorham (1988) made the first attempt to measure the impact of verbal immediacy on learning and, although the reliability of this measure is criticised by some, since then various studies (e.g. Christophel 1990, Frymier 1994, Powell & Harville 1990) have used Gorham's verbal immediacy measure (Witt, Wheeless & Allen 2006). Gorham's study, according to Witt (2000), was influenced by an earlier study by Plax et al. (1986) on verbal control. ...
PhD thesis: learning to teach: communication behaviours of
Foundation phase student teachers
... In another study, several students pointed out that synchronous classes provide a sense of "attending" lectures, which helped with keeping them motivated and engaged [27] . This positive impact of synchronous remote learning might be partially attributed to the social presence and verbal immediacy in real-time interaction, which could improve students' satisfaction and motivation [29][30][31][32][33] . ...
During the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, many universities around the world made a drastic change by transferring most of their offline classes to emergency remote learning (ERL). The aim of this study was to explore how Chinese students, who studied in United Kingdom (UK) and United States (US) universities during the 2020/21 academic year, perceive their experiences of remote learning. As the UK and the US have two relatively advanced education systems, the arrangements of their universities for ERL and their support for international students are worth exploring. Moreover, during the ERL, a portion of Chinese students had online classes in their home countries instead of the country in which their universities are located. Therefore, semi-structured interviews were carried out to explore the academic experiences and social interaction of students who studied in UK and US universities, while remaining in China. The data were analyzed using the thematic analysis method. The findings showed that ERL was perceived negatively by students despite its flexibility in areas of academic learning experiences and social interaction.
... Andersen (1979) introduced the application of immediacy to educational environments as a notion that teachers, through the use of certain cues, can reduce the perceived gap between themselves and their students. Several other scholars (Christophel, 1990;Rocca, 2008, to mention just a few) have consistently linked a positive and robust relationship between the frequency of immediacy behaviour use and a range of desired educational outcomes. Teacher immediacy behaviours have been reported to build positive student affect towards teachers (Titsworth, 2001), increase student affective learning (Allen, Witt, & Wheeless, 2006), improve student motivation (Estepp & Roberts, 2015), etc. Importantly, immediacy has been found to increase willingness among students to participate in classroom discussions with both fellow students and teachers (Roberts & Friedman, 2013), and overcome feelings of shyness (Fallah, 2014). ...
The need to transform face-to-face to online courses after the outbreak of coronavirus has marked the prevention of single, shared, and common learning environments for both learners and teachers. After the abrupt shift to the use of online learning platforms, it was observed that student-teacher interaction in EFL classes decreased considerably. Given the relationship between interaction and teacher immediacy, this study investigates students’ perceptions of teacher immediacy behaviours and the way they may have influenced online student-teacher interaction. With the use of focus group discussions and thematic analysis, various factors contributing to reduced interaction were identified; the most prominent being eye contact, gestures, and tone of voice. Not only were these marked out as cues that enriched verbal messages, but they were mostly perceived as social cues whose absence online deterred closeness between the teacher and students and in turn discouraged interaction
... accuracy and quick responses) and, consequently, reduces the cognitive effort needed to understand communications. Furthermore, in communication-education research, Christophel (1990) reported that instructors with higher immediacy were viewed as more positive and effective, which decreased the mental effort students needed to assimilate course materials. ...
The application of artificial intelligence in services is continuously spreading. In particular, one of the most important recent trends is the development of virtual assistants, more particularly; voice assistants, which provide consumers with various services (e.g. information, music) and with product and service recommendations based on their preferences. There is a need to understand how valuable these recommendations are for consumers. This study contributes to the emerging body of research into consumers’ use of the recommendations that voice assistants make in three key ways: (1) by analysing the roles of the benefits (i.e. convenience, compatibility, personalisation) they derive and costs they expend (i.e. cognitive effort, intrusiveness) in the value creation process related to voice assistants’ recommendations; (2) by evaluating the effect of social presence (the key voice assistant feature) on perceived value of voice assistants’ recommendations, through the benefits and costs associated with voice assistants and (3) by determining how the perceived value of voice assistants’ recommendations affects consumer engagement. An online survey was used to collect data. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was employed to analyse the conceptual model. The core findings of the study are as follows. First, social presence enhances the benefits (especially personalisation) and reduces the costs (except for cognitive effort) associated with voice assistants. Second, personalisation was shown to be the strongest determinant of the perceived value of voice assistants’ recommendations, but their intrusiveness is a potential inhibitor in the way of increasing their value. Third, a positive relationship was observed between the perceived value of voice assistants’ recommendations and consumer engagement with the assistants.
... For decades, motivation has been believed to be the most important factor in encouraging the learning outcomes of students (Bandura, 1977;Christophel, 1990). Motivation affects the academic direction and selection of courses, as well as learning styles and behavior of learners. ...
p>Teachers’ satisfaction and turnover rate are directly connected. Using the Model of Retention, Turnover and Attrition by Gardner (2010), this work analyzed about four Japanese language teachers at extension school and educational learning center in Macau. The data concluded the participants felt unsatisfied because of unrelated assignments, limitation of career development, and anxiety and unsteady of employment. The results showed that respondents had negative feelings towards their job responsibilities and employers. Accordingly, teachers usually face long-term stress and burnout because of multiple responsibilities. Therefore, the unsupportive school context could create a negative effect on job satisfaction and retention of teachers. The theoretical model suggests that negative job attributes have a direct relationship with teacher status and job satisfaction.
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... As noted by Bolkan et al. (2017), university instructors should attempt their best to create classroom environments that aid students' development of their behavioral, affective, and cognitive competencies. Instructional communication researchers have defined learning as a process encompassing the acquisition and attainment of affective, behavioral, and cognitive outcomes (Christophel, 1990). Thus, there are three types of learning gains, namely: (1) affective learning gains which refer to changes in well-being, satisfaction, and attitude of students, (2) behavioral learning gains relating to changes in students' behavioral skills over time like teamwork, skills of leadership, and academic engagement, and (3) cognitive learning gains, involving changes in abilities pertaining to cognitive development like scientific thinking, critical thinking, analytical thinking, knowledge, and understanding. ...
In the previous chapter, based on the positive psychology movement and the rhetorical/relational goal theory, it was explained that the five positive teacher-related variables of care, clarity, credibility, closeness, and confirmation can contribute to students’ empowerment and learning outcomes. In this chapter, the theoretical and empirical backgrounds of the concepts of teacher’s 5Cs, learner empowerment, student affective learning, cognitive learning, and behavioral learning are presented.
... As noted by Bolkan et al. (2017), university instructors should attempt their best to create classroom environments that aid students' development of their behavioral, affective, and cognitive competencies. Instructional communication researchers have defined learning as a process encompassing the acquisition and attainment of affective, behavioral, and cognitive outcomes (Christophel, 1990). Thus, there are three types of learning gains, namely: (1) affective learning gains which refer to changes in well-being, satisfaction, and attitude of students, (2) behavioral learning gains relating to changes in students' behavioral skills over time like teamwork, skills of leadership, and academic engagement, and (3) cognitive learning gains, involving changes in abilities pertaining to cognitive development like scientific thinking, critical thinking, analytical thinking, knowledge, and understanding. ...
In the previous chapter, the findings of the study were discussed in light of the theoretical and empirical backgrounds of the work. In this final chapter of the book, conclusions are made based on the results, the study limitations are outlined, pedagogical implications are put forward, and avenues for further research in this domain are presented.
... The teacher's demeanor is another controllable factor with a high potential to affect students' motivation. For example, the literature points to teachers' immediacy (creating physical and psychological closeness with students) as an effective way to enhance students' engagement, learning motivation, and performance (including memory retention) [61][62][63][64][65]. Immediacy can be demonstrated through verbal and non-verbal gestures that communicate interest and personal connection (relating to personal stories, using animated voice and body language, creating eye contact, and using humor). ...
Compared to other primates, humans are late bloomers, with exceptionally long childhood and adolescence. The extensive developmental period of humans is thought to facilitate the learning processes required for the growth and maturation of the complex human brain. During the first two and a half decades of life, the human brain is a construction site, and learning processes direct its shaping through experience-dependent neuroplasticity. Formal and informal learning, which generates long-term and accessible knowledge, is mediated by neuroplasticity to create adaptive structural and functional changes in brain networks. Since experience-dependent neuroplasticity is at full force during school years, it holds a tremendous educational opportunity. In order to fulfill this developmental and learning potential, educational practices should be human-brain-friendly and “ride” the neuroplasticity wave. Neuroscience can inform educators about the natural learning mechanisms of the brain to support student learning. This review takes a neuroscientific lens to explore central concepts in education (e.g., mindset, motivation, meaning-making, and attention) and suggests two methods of using neuroscience as an educational tool: teaching students about their brain (content level) and considering the neuro-mechanisms of learning in educational design (design level).
... As noted by Bolkan et al. (2017), university instructors should attempt their best to create classroom environments that aid students' development of their behavioral, affective, and cognitive competencies. Instructional communication researchers have defined learning as a process encompassing the acquisition and attainment of affective, behavioral, and cognitive outcomes (Christophel, 1990). Thus, there are three types of learning gains, namely: (1) affective learning gains which refer to changes in well-being, satisfaction, and attitude of students, (2) behavioral learning gains relating to changes in students' behavioral skills over time like teamwork, skills of leadership, and academic engagement, and (3) cognitive learning gains, involving changes in abilities pertaining to cognitive development like scientific thinking, critical thinking, analytical thinking, knowledge, and understanding. ...
In the previous sections, the theoretical and empirical backgrounds of the study were described. In the current section, the information about the aims and research questions of the study, its design, setting, participants, research instruments, data collection procedure, and data analysis are explicated. A group of 739 students studying English-related majors in universities in Iran was targeted to take part in the study. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches were undertaken in this research to answer the research questions specified below.
... Bu bulgu literatürde yer alan verilerle çelişmektedir. Literatürdeki çalışmalarda öğretim elemanlarının sözsüz yakınlık davranışları öğrencilerin duyuşsal öğrenme gelişimlerini etkilediğini göstermektedir (Açılan ve Özgenel, 2021;Andersen, 1979;Aydın, 2006;Butland ve Beebe, 1992;Christensen ve Menzel, 1998;Christophel, 1990;Çelik, Toraman ve Çelik, 2018;Gorham, 1988;Plax, vd., 1986;akt. İnceelli ve Candemir, 2006). ...
Bu araştırmada öğretim elemanlarının sözsüz yakınlık davranışlarının öğrencilerin öğrenme algılarına ne düzeyde etki ettiği araştırılmıştır. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu yedi coğrafi bölgeden seçilen birer üniversitenin spor bilimleri fakültelerinde öğrenim gören 605 (x̄yaş=21,84) kadın ve 703 (x̄yaş=22,42) erkek olmak üzere toplam 1308 (x̄yaş =22,15) öğrenci oluşturmuştur. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak "Sözsüz Yakınlık Ölçeği", "Algılanan Öğrenme Ölçeği" ve "Kişisel Bilgi Formu" kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde; aritmetik ortalama, frekans, standart sapma, kolmogorov-smirnov testi, mann whitney U testi, kruskal wallis H ve spearman korelasyon testleri kullanılmıştır. Araştırmada elde edilen veriler sonucunda öğrencilerin cinsiyet bağlamında bilişsel öğrenme ve algılanan öğrenme düzeylerinde kadınların puanları erkek öğrencilerin puanlarına göre anlamlı derecede yüksek çıkmıştır. Sınıf düzeyinde üçüncü sınıf öğrencilerinin ikinci sınıf öğrencilerine göre bilişsel ve algılanan öğrenme düzeyleri anlamlı derecede düşük çıkmıştır. Sözsüz yakınlık puanları ile öğrenme algıları puanları arasında orta düzeyde bir anlamlı bir ilişki belirlenmiştir (r=,331, p
... Applied to the classroom, teacher immediacy refers to the physical or psychological closeness between teachers and their students (Frymier 2013). Teachers can engage in various verbal behaviors (e.g., use personal examples, encourage students to ask questions, and refer to the class as "our" class) and nonverbal behaviors (e.g., gesture while talking, move around the class, and maintain eye contact) to increase immediacy (Christophel 1990;Meyerberg and Legg 2015). One study found a significant correlation (r = 0.54) between ratings of teacher immediacy and teaching evaluations (Moore et al. 1996). ...
Student evaluations of instruction (SEIs) have an important role in hiring, firing, and promotion decisions. However, evidence suggests that SEIs might be influenced by factors other than teaching skills. The author examined several nonteaching factors that may impact SEIs in two independent studies. Study 1 examined whether an instructor’s name preference (i.e., first name versus “Dr.” last name) influenced SEIs in actual courses. Study 2 implemented a two (i.e., instructor name preference: first name or “Dr.” last name) by two (i.e., instructor gender: male or female) by two (i.e., instructor race: white or Black) between-subjects design for SEIs in a hypothetical course. Study 1 found that SEIs were higher when the female instructor expressed a preference for being called by her first name. Study 2 found the highest SEIs for Black male instructors when instructors asked students to call them by their first name, but there was a decrease in SEI scores if they went by their professional title. Administrators should be aware of the various factors that can influence how students evaluate instructors.
... Teacher immediacy and Willingness to Communicate .Immediacy is defined as physical or psychological intimacy among individuals. Smiling, peaceful position, speaking to the students and not the whiteboard and using humor are among the approaches suggested for being an intimate teacher (47). The term sometimes is reversible with social presence (48), which indicates how much a person finds a real position in communication. ...
Background & Objective: It is argued that students have less tendency to communicate in English classes
even after several years of attending language courses. The general objective of this research was to find the
effective factors for willingness to communicate in English across medical classes.
Materials & Methods: The participants in this study were 252 medical students from Zanjan University of
Medical Sciences who were majoring in one of the fields of dentistry, medicine and pharmacy and were taking
the course of English for Specific Purposes. Macintyre’s Willingness to Communicate questionnaire was used
to compile the data. After collecting the data using the questionnaire, they were processed in the statistical
package. The collected data were then tabulated and analyzed via SPSS (20) and AMOS.
Results: In the structural model, there were significant pathways between self-confidence and motivation
and WTC in ESP classes. Motivation had a positive effect on self-confidence. The teacher's immediacy, with
its negative impact on shyness, increased the motivation to communicate in the ESP class. On the other hand,
the paths of shyness to motivation and self-confidence were negative. All pathways were significant at 0.05.
Conclusion: The findings of this study showed that, as in the previous studies, the tendency to communicate
in language classes depends on several variables. Given that communication and speaking are the most
important language skills, language learning planning is recommended to consider the importance of this skill.
Language teachers should create conditions with low anxiety to encourage learners to speak and communicate.
Shyness was another variable during the study that had a negative effect on the WTC. The results of this study
also emphasize that highly motivated learners are more likely to participate in classroom activities and
communication due to their self-confidence. Also, in this study, the teacher's intervention had a positive effect
on reducing anxiety. Thus, it is recommended that teachers play an important role in motivating students to
communicate I ESP classes.
... As noted by Bolkan et al. (2017), university instructors should attempt their best to create classroom environments that aid students' development of their behavioral, affective, and cognitive competencies. Instructional communication researchers have defined learning as a process encompassing the acquisition and attainment of affective, behavioral, and cognitive outcomes (Christophel, 1990). Thus, there are three types of learning gains, namely: (1) affective learning gains which refer to changes in well-being, satisfaction, and attitude of students, (2) behavioral learning gains relating to changes in students' behavioral skills over time like teamwork, skills of leadership, and academic engagement, and (3) cognitive learning gains, involving changes in abilities pertaining to cognitive development like scientific thinking, critical thinking, analytical thinking, knowledge, and understanding. ...
This book argues that, in line with the tenets of positive psychology in SLA and the rhetorical/relational goal theory, positive teacher-student interpersonal relationships are deemed to be of great significance for empowering students to accomplish favorable academic outcomes and to successfully learn a second/foreign language (L2), whether at its affective, behavioral, or cognitive levels. Therefore, understanding the role of teacher interpersonal behaviors and their effect on students' learning gains in the domain of SLA is of utmost importance, particularly as this line of research is at its nascent stage of development, and, as a result, available empirical evidence is still inconclusive. To address this issue, drawing on the mixed methods design, this book mainly aims to, first, empirically scrutinize the role of “5Cs” positive teacher interpersonal variables (i.e., care, clarity, closeness, confirmation, and credibility) in L2 students' affective, behavioral, and cognitive learning outcomes through the mediation of student-perceived learner empowerment in the L2 context of Iran. Second, it is intended to show how L2 teacher educators, teachers, and materials developers, among other key educational stakeholders, can facilitate the provision of interpersonally rich language learning environments with the ultimate goal of enhancing students' L2 learning.
... Teachers put extra effort to create connect for a better teacher-student relationship which leads to increased student learning and results in effective teaching. (Christophel, 1990). Teacher ımmediacy behaviours ınfluence student motivation to learn. ...
Not only intelligence quotient (IQ) makes a good teacher, but also there are other traits required by teachers for effective teaching. This present study aims to identify the effective critical traits of teachers in higher education institutions (HEIs) and intends to outline the framework for effective teaching. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) of qualitative research methodology has been used in this research. In this research, teachers from HEIs have been selected as the respondents to understand the critical traits required for effective teaching. This research found that teachers' passion, self-efficacy, creativity, humour, paralanguage, and immediacy are critical traits for effective teaching. The teaching framework highlights that each critical trait has an impact in the classroom management and students' performance.
... To evaluate participants' levels of motivation, "Student Motivation Scale" (Christophel, 1990) was employed. The scale consists of 12 items that participants score on a bipolar scale. ...
Students’ personal, emotional, and psychological traits are perceived to be highly influential in their academic engagement; therefore, many investigations have been conducted into the role of students’ characteristics in their level of engagement. Yet, the role of L2 enjoyment and academic motivation as two instances of students’ emotional traits was disregarded. To narrow this gap, this article aimed to assess the effects of these two constructs on Chinese EFL students’ academic engagement. To accomplish this, three pre-designed scales were virtually administered to 490 Chinese students. Using the Spearman Rho test, significant correlations were discovered among the variables. Further, through regression analysis, the predictive power of dependent variables was also assessed. Chinese students’ academic engagement was proved to be favorably predicted by L2 enjoyment and academic motivation. The implications and limitations are finally discussed.
... n.d.). Generally verbal and nonverbal teaching behaviours are referred as the physical and psychological (e.g., compliment, using humorous comments, sustaining physical immediacy, making eye contact etc.) link between teacher and students in face-to-face teaching platform (Christophel, 1990;Weiner and Mehrabian, 1968). However, as identified by LaRose and Whitten (2000), online teachers use different types of media settings such as text-based, audio and video to improve their immediacy due to the absence of physical proximity. ...
COVID 19 made a great impact on education system especially on the university education system globally. The purpose of this systematic review of published literature was to trace the history of university teaching and examine the effects of the COVID 19 pandemic on traditional teaching. Systematic review started with 720 articles and ended with the inclusion of 136 articles based on bibliometric search process. Important understandings generated are that educational methods are constantly evolving as what the ruling society values changes and when new technologies that can be used for teaching are invented. Conclusions were that this deadly pandemic overturned the traditional offline teaching and learning process and facilitated the introduction of emergency online educational platforms to be used for university teaching and student learning.
... Learners considered that the responsibility for the quality of the interaction is firstly that of their teacher, a finding that coincides with the opinion of a number of researchers such as Eisenring & Margana (2019) and Gorham (1988) and Christophel (1990) who were the first ones in developing a verbal immediacy scale. ...
Blended learning has emerged in the context of new learning environments and pedagogies offering its potential for maximising the effectiveness of contemporary teaching and learning. If full advantage is taken of technology, there are opportunities to trigger new relationships among the teacher, the learner and the educational context. However, to achieve this, the use of technology must be re-thought in terms of how teachers handle their teaching time and pedagogy (Laurillard, 2002).
The focus and interest of this study are on the role of teachers and how they work to develop concrete skills and strategies for teaching effectively. It looks at how they attempt to bridge the distance between teachers and learners and to establish their presence in blended learning environments in both face-to-face and online contexts. Teaching in blended learning environments requires specific pedagogical approaches; and how educators prepare to teach in these environments will potentially impact the quality of the learning experience they provide (Kim et al, 2015).
Given the importance of teaching presence and based on the assumption that teachers are key if learners are to achieve appropriate learning outcomes, this study sets out to examine the role of the teacher and the perceptions of their learners through an analysis of teaching presence (Garrison et al, 2000) in both environments, face-to-face and online, and understand how teachers and learners make sense of that blend. The data was collected at a university in Northwest Mexico over three years between 2016 and 2019 from four undergraduate-level blended learning courses in the field of English Language Teaching, Software Engineering, and International Commerce.
Findings suggest that teaching presence can enhance the learners´ educational experience as it emphasises the organisation of instructional design in their courses. Evidence showed that learners feel a disconnection between the face-to-face and the online components if their teachers lack ownership of their blended course. Thus, there seems to be a need to further integrate both environments so that they become a real blend. In addition, the study reported lower levels of perceived teaching presence in the online component. Teacher immediacy is experienced by learners only in the classroom which does little to encourage their engagement as online learners.
... A vast body of research in the field of second/foreign languages emphasized that fostering a learner willingness to communicate in another language is one of the most ultimate goals of English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching and learning process (Khajavy et al., 2018;MacIntyre et al., 1998). Past research has also acknowledged that learner willingness to communicate in English (L2WTC (Foreign/second language willingness to communicate)) is closely linked with the language teacher interpersonal behaviors of immediacy (Fallah, 2014; associated with learner motivation, attitudes and confidence (Christophel, 1990;Gregersen, 2005;Henning, 2012;Hsu, 2010); similarly, teacher credibility is also positively linked to these learner affective variables (Tibbles et al., 2008;Zheng, 2021). While the predictive effect of teacher immediacy has been tested in previous models of L2WTC (Fallah, 2014;Sheybani, 2019), the role of teacher credibility in learner L2WTC has not been given due consideration to date. ...
Purpose
This study aims to propose and test a model that examines the potential connections between two teacher situational variables (teacher immediacy and credibility) and three learner affective factors (motivation, attitudes and communication confidence) and to examine how such associations predict learners’ L2WTC (Foreign/second language willingness to communicate) in a language class via a comprehensive communication model to structurally verify the theoretically based associations among these variables.
Design/methodology/approach
In total, 214 females and 198 males took part in the study with age range between 19 and 38 years. Participants filled in a verified, translated Arabic version of the questionnaires using an online questionnaire. Data were gathered using questionnaires and were analyzed using descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, path analysis and sequential mediation analysis using bootstrapping methods to identify and verify direct and indirect paths in the model.
Findings
The initial L2 communication structural model showed acceptable goodness of model fit. Teacher credibility and immediacy behaviors only indirectly predicted L2WTC through the mediation of affective variables. Motivation and communication confidence mediated the relationship between credibility and L2WTC, while the association between immediacy and L2WTC was mediated by communication confidence.
Originality/value
The findings of this study have important pedagogical implications globally for professions related to communication instruction, especially with regard to teacher credibility behaviors and particularly for practitioners and beneficiaries in EFL contexts where learners are widely acknowledged for their unwillingness to communicate in foreign language classes.
RESUMO Este artigo pretende destacar a relevância de estudos sobre o discurso de sala de aula, a partir de uma perspectiva multimodal, focalizando o modo como os gestos (linguagem não verbal) participam dos processos de significação e quais suas implicações para o engajamento interacional. Apresenta um estudo de pseudo-rastreamento ocular para examinar pistas não-verbais e inconscientes de professores ao buscar obter respostas dos alunos. Em particular, o estudo analisa como os professores se dirigem aos alunos a partir de dois gestos: apontando com o dedo indicador na direção deles ou com mão aberta de palma voltada para cima. O estudo foi realizado em três escolas no Chile e quatro escolas no Reino Unido. Os alunos não apenas seguem as pistas não-verbais muito bem (e muito sutilmente) como também exibem padrões particulares de comportamento proxêmico e não verbal. Os resultados mostram que ao pedir a um estudante uma resposta a uma pergunta com o dedo indicador apontado sua direção resultou em uma mudança negativa repentina, com o aluno se distanciando do professor. Em contraste, quando uma pergunta era acompanhada por um gesto de mão aberta e palma para cima, os alunos se aproximavam e viravam o corpo em direção ao professor. Tais resultados trazem questões importantes para pensar os processos de engajamento no discurso de sala de aula, a partir de aspectos que envolvem sinais não-verbais que participam da produção de sentidos na interação professor-aluno.
Teacher self‐disclosure occurs when teachers intentionally or unintentionally reveal information about themselves to students (Nussbaum & Scott 1979), often concerning their education, experience, family, friends and colleagues, beliefs, opinions, leisure activities, and personal problems (Downs et al. 1988). Moreover, these early studies suggest that teacher self‐disclosure is related in various ways to student learning and teachers’ overall effectiveness.
Framed by Rhetorical and Relational Goals Theory, this investigation seeks to understand students’ perceptions of instructors’ motivational messages. College students completed an online questionnaire that asked them about a particular instructors’ use of motivational messages. Qualitative analysis revealed the following themes of instructors’ motivational messages: short, banal motivational messages; classroom ritual motivation; wellness messages; life lessons; personality-based motivation; messages connected to assignments; student-teacher relationship motivation; and, absence of motivational messages.
The purpose of this study was to explore how the new virtual learning environment has influenced apparel and textiles students’ learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study aimed to explore 1) the positive and negative effects of the new virtual learning environment on academic learning, 2) students’ perceptions of online learning tools and 3) students’ perceptions in regard to their employment prospects after graduation and their career in the apparel industry. The results revealed that motivation was a major factor that influenced students to engage in learning in a virtual learning environment. Students found synchronous lectures, guest speakers, and recordings of synchronous lectures to be effective and enhance their sense of social belonging and their motivation. Students also perceived that the job market would be more competitive, and they were underprepared for employment. Suggestions are made for instructors to help increase students’ motivation to learn in a virtual environment.
This study investigated the influence of teacher communication behaviours on predictors of alcohol use, snack intake, and physical exercise during a school-based health intervention. Additionally, we investigated whether students’ evaluations of the intervention mediated these effects. In a two-way prospective study, 389 adolescents (222 females; Mage = 16.64, SDage = 1.97) completed a survey. Key variables were teacher communication behaviours (i.e., clarity, verbal immediacy, and content relevance), predictors (i.e., attitudes, social norms, perceived behavioural control, and intentions) of alcohol use, snack intake, and physical exercise, and students’ evaluations of the health intervention were investigated. Results showed that teacher clarity resulted in significantly healthier injunctive norms and higher perceived behavioural control regarding alcohol use, and for exercise in significantly healthier attitudes, descriptive norms, and intentions to exercise. No effects of teacher clarity were found for snack intake. Furthermore, teacher clarity, verbal immediacy, and content relevance did not indirectly result in healthier predictors of health behaviour through evaluations of the intervention. Findings support the role of teacher clarity for intervention effectiveness, and advise designers of health interventions to incorporate the role of teacher clarity in their teacher training programs to achieve more desired changes in health behaviour.
The purpose of this study is to understand and describe Japanese high school students’ perspectives in using online whiteboards during face-to-face group discussions for design activities in the Covid-19 pandemic. Using the SDGs Challenge Project in Fukusho High School in Fukuoka City, a qualitative research approach where the case study which included quantitative and qualitative inputs was adopted. Based on the findings, the following main points can be concluded. Firstly, even though students may feel that they are not competent users of digital devices, they may still think that effective group discussions can be achieved using an online whiteboard during face-to-face group discussions. This may be because real-time social interactions can still be achieved as lessons are conducted face-to-face. Secondly, students’ perceptions of achieving effective group discussions and the ease of use of the online whiteboard may influence their motivations in using the online whiteboard in future lessons. This may be due to the perception that as long as the online whiteboard is easy to use and it enhances performance, students may generally feel motivated in using the online whiteboard in future discussions. The findings from this study will provide insights for academics and high school teachers when conducting face-to-face lessons and attempting to use of online tools to mitigate challenges offered by the pandemic.KeywordsDesign educationDesign discussionsOnline whiteboardSDGs educationDesign process
The present study was conducted to explore the perceptions of students about teacher's communication practices in the classroom at Institute of Education and Research, University of the Punjab, Lahore. The research was qualitative in nature and phenomenological research design was used in the study. The population of the study consisted of M.Phil. scholars of Institute of Education and Research (IER), University of the Punjab, Lahore. Purposive sampling technique was used in the study. Using purposive sampling 10 M. Phil (Education) scholars participated in the study. Semi-Structured interview were conducted in the study for data collection from the participants. The data was analyzed and transcribed using thematic analysis. After the analysis it was concluded that competitive environment set by the teacher in the classroom is beneficial for students as it motivates them to excel, negative behavior on the end of teachers decreases cognitive gains of students and it also decreases their motivational level for studies. Encouragement and praise by the teacher enhances the motivational of students for studies because it increases their interest in the content. Moreover, encouragement and praise by the teacher promotes affective learning on the end of students. In nutshell, students had a positive perception about teacher communication in the classroom.
In developing countries like Pakistan, digitized text books are one of the most recent educational reforms brought about by the educational technology This study analyzed the effectiveness of Punjab Information Technology Board’s (PITB) digitized textbooks on students’ cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning. The study was delimited to only those levels of learning domains that were specified in National Curriculum of Pakistan, 2006. The nature of the study was quantitative and employed Quasi Experimental Non-Equivalent Control Group Design. Sample of the study comprised of 56 students studying Chemistry in grade 9 at a public sector school of district Lahore, Pakistan. Experimental group was taught by using digitized Chemistry textbook and control group was taught by using conventional mode of instruction. The intervention lasted for 12 weeks. Data was collected by using three different valid and reliable instruments. Data was then analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. All hypotheses were tested at a significance level of 0.05. The results revealed that there was no significant effect of digitized textbooks on students’ cognitive domain. But there was statistically significant effect of digitized Chemistry textbook on students’ affective and psychomotor domains. Recommendations were made to bring learning in cognitive domain at par with affective and psychomotor domains.
Companies’ demands and competition in the job market push International Business students to become ready to work in multilingual environments where English is the main language of communication. Rather than expecting students to learn English by exposure or on their own there are content and language integrated approaches (such as Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education (ICLHE)) which support the development of a language while the student learns specific content. Using a case study approach, the study approaches the collaborative work of an Accounting teacher and an English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teacher in tertiary education, through the process of planning, designing, and implementation of a teaching module on Accounting. Results show that the teachers’ collaborative work for the construction and implementation of the integrated CLIL module produced positive outcomes for the teaching and learning process. Furthermore, students found the used methods highly motivating and engaging, contributing positively to their future professional careers. It is argued that the CLIL approach may be beneficial and approximates the environment of International Business, by demanding collaboration of individuals from different contextual backgrounds, whose main language is not English and promoting bilingualism and cross-cultural competence development.
This study examined the relationship between differential use of Behavior Alteration Techniques (BATs) by teachers trained or untrained in communication in instruction and learning of students of varying quality levels. Results indicated that increased use of Immediate Reward from Behavior, Deferred Reward from Behavior, Self‐Esteem, and Teacher Feedback as well as decreased use of Punishment from Teacher, Legitimate‐Teacher Authority, Debt, Responsibility to Class, and Peer Modeling were associated with increased student learning. Results also indicated that appropriate training in communication in instruction may lead to more appropriate choices of BAT usage and increased student learning. The results of this investigation were found to be generally consistent with previous studies in this series.
Presents a theory of motivation based on attributions of causality for success and failure. The heart of the theory consists of an identification of the dimensions of causality and the relation of these underlying properties of causes to psychological consequences. Three central causal dimensions have been discerned: stability, locus, and control; these dimensions, respectively, are linked with expectancy change, esteem-related emotions, and interpersonal judgments. (81 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This investigation examined teacher immediacy as a potential predictor of teaching effectiveness. Teacher immediacy was conceptualized as those nonverbal behaviors that reduce physical and/or psychological distance between teachers and students. Teaching effectiveness was examined in light of teacher ability to produce affective, behavioral and cognitive student learning.
Hypothesized results indicated that in a multiple regression model, teacher immediacy predicted 46% of the variance in student affect toward the course instructor and about 20% of the variance in student affect toward the course content. Immediacy also predicted 18% of the variance in student behavioral commitment. Cognitive learning as operationalized by test score was not significantly predicted by teacher immediacy. Canonical correlation analysis produced one significant canonical relationship between specific and generalized teacher immediacy and teaching effectiveness.
This investigation is the sixth in a series of projects designed to programmatically examine teacher power in the classroom. Recognizing that nonverbal behaviors typically provide the framework for interpreting verbal messages, this project proposed and sequentially tested a heuristic model of student affective learning as a function of behavior alteration techniques and teacher nonverbal immediacy. Employing a two‐study correlational design, the model was tested in five stages across secondary and college students. Results supported the proposed positive relationships among teachers’ use of. behavior alteration techniques, immediacy and student affect for both studies. Teachers’ selective use of verbal control strategies in the classroom was shown to be indirectly related to affective learning as a function of students’ perceptions of teacher immediacy. Interpretations focus on the model, previous power in the classroom studies, and the design of future studies in this program.
L EARNING, particularly that which takes place in the traditional classroom setting, is an interactional process. Although curricular decisions, materials development, the organization of lectures, and the like focus primarily on the teacher's transmission of content-and student evaluation on comprehension and retention of that content-there is little disagreement that interpersonal perceptions and communicative relationships between teachers and students are crucial to the teaching-learning process. From a theoretical standpoint, Bloom's (1956) conceptualization of learn-ing as affective (development of a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward learning), behavioral (development of psychomotor skills or observable behavior change as a result of learning), and cognitive (comprehension and retention of knowledge) has for several decades been accepted widely as an elegant characterization of the learning construct. An interdepen-dence among these domains of learning generally has been recognized among educators, an assumption crucial to the fact that evaluation of learning outcomes often is focused on measurement within a selected domain. Physical and vocational education skills, which are clearly observ-able psychomotor skills, are often assessed in the behavioral domain. Stu-dents' learning of traditional "academic subjects," for which generalization of learning to behavior outside the classroom is more difficult to assess, is generally measured via tests of recall, analysis, and synthesis, elements of the cognitive domain. Evaluation of teaching effectiveness, particularly that which is based on the ubiquitous student course evaluation form, is drawn largely from assessment of affective dimensions of teaching.
Because classrooms are work settings in which students are engaged in compulsory activities and because the work involved is largely intellectual rather than physical, concepts and measures developed for studying motivation in free choice play situations have limited application to the study of student motivation for engaging in academic activities. More attention is needed to the cognitive aspects of motivation (not just its affective aspects) and to the value that students place on academic activity (not just their performance expectations and attributions). This article discusses these issues and offers suggestions about how teachers might become more successful than they are now in socializing their students to become motivated to learn. Motivation to learn in school means seeking to acquire the knowledge or skill that an academic activity is designed to develop, not merely getting the activity finished or doing the minimum necessary to meet requirements.
This study examines immediacy salience and teacher nonverbal immediacy as potential indicators of student affective learning across different types of course content. Divergent courses were defined on a continuum ranging from P to T‐Type. P‐Type courses focus primarily on people‐oriented content, while T‐Type classes include content which is product or task‐oriented. Two research questions were addressed which were based on the logic that there is little reason to expect that teacher behaviors that are judged effective in one type of course content will be so in a very different type of course. Tests of the research questions in both P and T‐Type classes included multiple regression, commonality, and canonical correlation analyses. Results indicated that the actual magnitude of the impact of teacher immediacy on student affective learning and students’ perceptions of the importance of immediacy for instruction are a function of the type of course content taught. The findings are discussed in terms of affective learning and the relative importance of particular teacher communication behaviors for instruction in P and T‐Type classes.
The important role played by nonverbal communication in the teaching process is emphasized. Following a discussion of semantic issues and general nonverbal research, school-related research is reviewed under seven categories of nonverbal communication: environmental factors, proxemics, kinesics, touching behavior, physical characteristics, paralanguage, and artifacts. Characteristics of general educational theory and the process-product paradigm are outlined and the relationship of nonverbal research to these areas is discussed. Finally, several technological and statistical concerns are presented.
This study was designed to investigate the effects of immediacy on cognitive learning in an experimental situation which removed the effects of affect from the measurement of cognitive learning. The theoretical rationale examines immediacy behaviors as arousal stimuli which are associated with attentional focus, enhanced memory and recall. Results indicated that a combination of eye contact and physical immediacy accounted for 19.5% of the overall variance in recall, with equivalence and interaction of the two immediacy agents suggesting that other immediacy behaviors should produce potentially similar beneficial results.
This study investigated the effects of teacher nonverbal immediacy and strategy type on college students' likelihood of resisting teacher compliance‐gaining attempts. Employing a 2 × 2 design, students were asked to indicate their likelihood of complying to teacher demands in one of the following scenarios: An immediate teacher who used prosocial (or antisocial) behavior alteration techniques; a nonimmediate teacher who used either strategy type. Predicting an interaction, results confirmed that students were less likely to resist an immediate teacher who employed prosocial techniques, but more likely to resist an immediate teacher who used antisocial techniques. In contrast, students reported greater resistance to a nonimmediate teacher employing prosocial techniques, but less resistance to a nonimmediate teacher who used antisocial techniques. Students' locus of control, gender, and class ranking were nonsignificant covariates. Findings were interpreted in terms of the interaction and the overwhelming influence of teacher nonverbal immediacy on students’ decisions to resist or comply.
Communication apprehension (CA) has attracted considerable attention in the research literature over the past fifteen years. The present study attempted to predict the duration of informative speeches using an interactive model employing CA scores and estimates of situational motivation. Results indicated that CA alone accounted for a significant but small proportion of variance in speech duration. However, a full regression model accounted for 37.41% of the variance in the duration of the speeches. Overall, the results indicated that the amount of time speaking was, in part, a function of the CA x motivation interaction.
This study examined the impact of video taped‐lecturer communication style on student learning. The lecturer was video taped employing three different levels of nonverbal expressiveness and these tapes were presented to different student audiences. Lecturer nonverbal expressiveness predicted 22% of the variance in student affective learning, but it was not a significant predictor for behavioral commitment or cognitive learning. These relationships, as well as the implications for videotaped instruction, are discussed.
This essay reports three investigations which examined the relationship between perceived teacher communication behavior and either student perceptions of teaching effectiveness or student learning. Teachers who were perceived as having greater interpersonal solidarity and a more positive communicator style (more dramatic, open, relaxed, impression leaving, and friendly) were perceived as more effective. Furthermore, positive perceptions of teacher communicator style resulted in greater student affect toward the instructor, the course content, and the overall course. It also resulted in greater student behavioral intent to use the course. The relationship of communicator style to cognitive learning, however, was less clear and basically nonexistent. The relationship between perceived teacher immediacy (a variable previously demonstrated to be highly predictive of affective and behavioral commitment) and communicator style was also examined and discussed.
Previous research has indicated that nonverbal teacher behaviors such as smiling, vocal expressiveness, movement about the classroom, and relaxed body position are salient low‐inference variables of a process which results in a product of increased cognitive and affective learning. This study identified a set of verbal teacher immediacy behaviors which similarly relate to increased student learning. Results indicated differentiated use of various types of verbal immediacy messages between small and larger classes, and that the impact of teacher immediacy behaviors (both verbal and nonverbal) on learning is coincidentally enhanced as class size increases. The study provides empirical definition of a specific set of low‐inference verbal variables which, in combination with previously identified nonverbal variables, clarify a single process‐product model for effective instructional interaction.
Synthesizes the conclusions drawn from a literature review on principles for motivating students to learn. Outlines numerous pointers for creating essential learning preconditions and for motivating, including maintaining high expectations, supplying extrinsic incentives, and capitalizing on students' intrinsic motivation. Provides strategies for stimulating students to learn course content. Includes 23 references. (MLH)
Describes how motivational processes influence a child's acquisition, transfer, and use of knowledge and skills. Recent research within the social-cognitive framework illustrates adaptive and maladaptive motivational patterns, and a research-based model of motivational processes is presented that shows how the particular performance or learning goals children pursue on cognitive tasks shape their reactions to success and failure and influence the quality of their cognitive performance. Implications for practice and the design of interventions to change maladaptive motivational processes are outlined. It is suggested that motivational patterns may contribute to gender differences in mathematics achievement and that empirically based interventions may prevent current achievement discrepancies and provide a basis for more effective socialization. (79 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Nonimmediacy has been defined as the degree of attenuation of directness and intensity of interaction between a communicator and the object of his communication, in a verbal message. The present study tested the hypothesis that non-Immediacy of a communication about an object is a monotonically increasing function of the degree of negative communicator attitude towards the object. The hypothesis was generally supported, except in the case of communications about people reported as being liked very much.
Motivation and teaching. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. Downloaded by
- R J Wlodkowski
Wlodkowski, R. J. (1978). Motivation and teaching. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 02:29 05 September 2013
A taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 2: The cognitive domain Human characteristics and school learning
- B S Bloom
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). A taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 2: The cognitive domain. NY: Longmans, Green. Bloom, B. S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning. NY: McGraw-Hill.