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Affectionate Communication Received from Spouses Predicts Stress Hormone Levels in Healthy Adults
Communication Monographs
Abstract
Recent research on the communication of affection illuminates its implications for mental and physical health. In particular, affectionate communication has been shown to covary with healthy hormonal variation and accelerated recovery from stress. The present study focuses on the association between marital affection and hormonal markers of stress regulation, including cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEA-S), and their ratio. Twenty healthy adults and spouses provided independent reports of their propensity for verbal, nonverbal, and support-based expressions of affection prior to providing saliva samples that were assayed for cortisol and DHEA-S. As hypothesized, spouses' reports of verbal, nonverbal, and supportive affection significantly predicted participants' waking cortisol levels, cortisol change, and cortisol:DHEA-S ratio. Participants' own reports of affection were predictive of cortisol:DHEA-S ratio for verbal affection behaviors only, and were not predictive of participants' waking cortisol, cortisol change, or DHEA-S. In addition, spouses' reports of verbal, nonverbal, and supportive affection predicted participants' evening cortisol levels. Results illustrate that affectionate communication from one's spouse is related to hormonal stress regulation and suggest the possibility that interventions designed to increase affectionate behavior in romantic relationships may have stress-ameliorating physiological effects.
... Self-compassion can potentially enhance romantic relationships by building trust, encouraging more expressions of love, and promoting commitment (Bolt et al., 2019;Neff & Beretvas, 2013). People who have high levels of self-compassion are likely to be trusting (Crocker & Canevello, 2008), express more emotional affection (Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008), and tend to have more stable and longer relationships (Neff & Beretvas, 2013). People who are in romantic relationships where there are high levels of trust, love expression, and commitment, are more likely to experience satisfaction, which leads to a higher level of well-being. ...
... Good control of emotion and positive attitudes often associated with high self-compassion can also contribute to higher quality and satisfaction of interpersonal relationships (Hill, 2009). Floyd and Riforgiate (2008) proposed that couples who constantly express their love towards each other tend to be more satisfied with their relationships. Neff and Beretvas (2013) also suggested that self-compassion is positively associated with the length of a romantic relationship. ...
... The relationship between love expression and satisfaction in a romantic relationship is rel atively well-established. According to past research, the frequency of love expression has a positive correlation with the satisfaction of a romantic relationship (Floyd, 2002;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). The more often the couple expressed their love, either verbally or non-verbally, the more satisfaction was reported (Floyd, 2002;Floyd & Morman, 1998;Floyd et al., 2005;Floyd & Pauley, 2011;Hesse & Floyd, 2008;Owen, 1987). ...
Self-compassion plays a critical role in romantic relationships in that it improves relationship quality through trust, expressions of love, and commitment, leading to more satisfying relationships and well-being. Fewer studies have examined the role of self-compassion as a relationship enhancing variable, especially in the context of romantic relationships in non-Western countries such as Malaysia. The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between self-compassion, satisfaction in romantic relationships, and psychological well-being among young emerging adults in Malaysia. In addition, the mechanism of how self-compassion may contribute to well-being was examined by focusing on the mediating effects of trust, expression of love, and commitment. Participants were 400 Malaysians aged 18 to 25 who had been in a relationship for at least six months but were not married at the time of data collection. They completed an online survey consisting of the Self-Compassion Scale, the Trust in Close Relationships Scale, the Adapted Version of the Affection Communication Scale, the Commitment Scale, the Relationship Assessment Scale, and the Psychological Well-Being Scale. A significant positive relationship was found between self-compassion, satisfaction with romantic relationships, and psychological well-being. Participants reported high levels of trust and commitment but relatively low levels of love expression in romantic relationships. The relationship between self-compassion and romantic relationship satisfaction was confirmed by the mediating effects of trust, love expression, and commitment. This study provides a better understanding of how self-compassion contributes to romantic relationships and psychological well-being in a broader cultural context.
... The current study used both attachment theory and AET to predict a mediating role of affectionate communication in the relationship between attachment and relationship satisfaction for husbands and wives. Because affectionate communication research shown affectionate communication impacts relationships when individuals both give and receive affection (e.g., Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008) as well as the dyadic influences of affectionate communication (e.g., Pauley et al., 2014), thereby showing the relational nature of affection, we utilized the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) to analyze the interconnections between married partners. Specifically, the APIM allows us to not only understand how affectionate communication might mediate the relationship between attachment style and relationship satisfaction for husbands and wives separately, but also how a husband's attachment style, for example, might influence a wife's affectionate communication and relationship satisfaction. ...
... As stated above, while some affectionate communication studies have investigated how partners might interpret each other's affectionate communication, few have actually examined affectionate communication using dyadic data analysis. However, because attachment style and affectionate communication have been shown to both be affected by relational partners (e.g., Bowlby, 1969;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008) and subsequently affect current relational behavior (e.g., Banse, 2004;Pauley et al., 2014), it stands to reason that attachment styles and affectionate communication can have systemlevel impacts in relationships. The need for further investigation of dyadic relationships, as well as the need to further explore the relationships between attachment style, affection, and relational satisfaction, led to our second hypothesis: ...
... However, for husbands, higher scores of affectionate communication led to decreased scores of wives' relationship satisfaction. This finding was surprising, seeing as most research finds positive relationships between affectionate communication and relationship satisfaction (Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008;Pauley et al., 2014). ...
Using affection exchange theory, this study proposed a mediating model between attachment style, affectionate communication, and relationship satisfaction. This dyadic model used marital couples to test actor and partner effects. Overall, results supported the predicted model, including several significant indirect effects. Specifically, affection mediated the relationships between anxious attachment for wives and relationship satisfaction for both wives and husbands. Affection also mediated the relationship between anxious attachment for husbands and husband relationship satisfaction. Affection also mediated the relationship between avoidant attachment for wives and wife relationship satisfaction, as well as between avoidant attachment for husbands and husband relationship satisfaction. Additionally, actor and partner effects were found for the relationship between affectionate communication and relationship satisfaction for both husbands and wives.
... Affectionate communication is a person's expression to another of feelings of closeness, caring, and fondness (Floyd & Morman, 1998). Affection that is both wanted and meets an individual's preferences is important for building and maintaining healthy relationships, as affectionate communication can help promote closeness, assist in increasing relational quality, and aid in improving relationship satisfaction (Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008;Floyd et al., 2014;Floyd, 2016). Affectionate communication can also help promote longevity in a relationship (Floyd, 2002) and help couples work through transgressions and conflicts (Horan, 2012). ...
... Importantly, affectionate communication has been linked with a range of physical health outcomes. Affection is often characterized as a stress buffer, promoting positive health outcomes and reducing the psychological and physiological risks associated with stress, as well as improving psychological well-being (Aloia & Brecht, 2017;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008;Floyd et al., 2014). When individuals receive affection that is wanted, there should be a positive physiological reaction, including improvements in immunocompetence, reductions in cortisol, and increases in oxytocin (Floyd, 2006;Jakubiak & Feeney, 2016). ...
... Regarding the relational consequences of affectionate communication, Floyd and Riforgiate (2008) characterize affection as among "the most consequential communicative behaviors for the formation and maintenance of marriages and other significant pair bonds" (p.1). Related, Horan (2012) states that affection is a "main indicator of relational climate" and that a lack of affection may indicate "decreased investment and future turbulence" (p. ...
Obesity is one of the greatest health challenges in the world today. As such, there is a large focus on weight-loss in order to improve health outcomes for those who are overweight or obese. One area that has an impact on obesity and weight-loss is communication. Communication behaviors are directly tied to health outcomes. Positive, constructive communication can help to improve health directly by improving physiological outcomes, including stress, which is in itself a factor co-morbid with obesity. Communication also helps to build and strengthen relationships, which in turn often lead to better health outcomes. Conversely, negative and destructive communication can lead to poor health outcomes and negatively impact relationships. Therefore, it is important to examine communication behaviors and how they impact stress and weight-loss in order to be able to better understand and prevent obesity. This study used a community sample to look at relational factors, communication behaviors, stress reactance, and weight-loss over the course of a yearlong intervention. Results indicated overall support for the TRRL in the context of weight-loss. There was some evidence that communication behaviors were related to physiological outcomes.
... These effects include increased psychological (e.g., Debrot et al., 2013;Floyd et al., 2005), physiological (e.g., Cohen et al., 2015;Holt-Lunstad et al., 2011) and relational 1 well-being (Floyd et al., 2009;Jakubiak & Feeney, 2019). With respect to physical wellness, research indicates that an individual's trait affection level-indexing how affectionate that individual typically is with others-is positively associated with natural killer cell toxicity and 24-h cortisol variation (Floyd, 2006b;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008), and is negatively associated with resting heart rate (Floyd, Mikkelson, Hesse, & Pauley, 2007) and resting blood pressure and blood glucose (Floyd, Hesse, & Haynes, 2007). Indirect/supportive affection, in particular, is further positively associated with a variety of immune markers, including immunoglobulins M and G, T-cells CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+, and the B-cell CD19+ (Floyd et al., 2018). ...
... Although additional pathways are articulated, the focus on stress is notable, given that elevated stress precipitates or intensifies numerous physical and mental detriments (e.g., Marketon & Glaser, 2008). AET, in particular, proposes that affectionate communication improves the body's stress response, buffers against heightened physiological responses to various stressors, and accelerates stress recovery more efficiently than other activities (e.g., Floyd, Hesse, & Haynes, 2007;Floyd, Mikkelson, Hesse, & Pauley, 2007;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). To that extent, then, the communication of affection has the potential to improve important cardiovascular, immune, and endocrine parameters that are exacerbated by stress. ...
A robust body of research attests to the mental and physical health correlates and consequences of affectionate communication. Like much research on personal relationships, however, this work may overrepresent certain portions of the population, may underrepresent others, and may not effectively account for intersections of identities. We define intersectionality as comprising the unique effects of two or more social identities interacting with each other. To assess this literature with an eye toward intersectionality and representation, the present article reports a systematic review of 86 individual empirical studies representing 26,013 participants. The review concludes that there is no explicit or implicit attention to intersectionality in the existing research on affectionate communication and health, and that U.S. Americans, women, younger individuals, white individuals, and students are overrepresented in research samples. The review ends with future directions to encourage more inclusive research on this topic.
... Affection may be expressed in numerous ways and in a variety of relationships, including between family members, friends, and romantic partners (Floyd, 1997;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). Behaviors communicating affection may range from words of affection (such as saying "I love you" or using pet names with a significant other) to physical contact that is affectionate (hugging, kissing, and holding hands). ...
... Behaviors communicating affection may range from words of affection (such as saying "I love you" or using pet names with a significant other) to physical contact that is affectionate (hugging, kissing, and holding hands). These behaviors have also been classified as verbal affection, nonverbal affection, and supportive affection (Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). Although some of these behaviors may be limited to specific relationships, many cut across relationship types. ...
Marriage offers a context where individuals may have to discuss difficult topics. Discussing such topics, especially when there is a chance of disagreement, may lead to differences in the ability for spouses to listen to one another. In this study, we surveyed 746 individuals in heterosexual marriages to understand their listening in conversations about the #MeToo movement. Our findings indicate that being a good trait listener does not help one’s situational listening ability. We also see evidence that perceiving disagreement from one’s spouse and perceiving the spouse’s ability to listen are more likely to predict one’s own situational listening. Marital quality significantly moderates these associations as well. We consider these findings in light of affection exchange theory, suggesting listening may be a form of affection exchange in marriage.
... There is some evidence that DHEA is increased among cisgender women who were separated from their partner or single compared to cisgender women who were in long-term relationships [70]. Additionally, affectionate communication has been linked to healthier stress hormone levels, in particular the cortisol:DHEA ratio [71]. While there are not clear direct effects of DHEA, healthier relationship dynamics appear to be related to more regulated HPA axis function. ...
... For instance, couples with more attuned cortisol levels tend to have fewer conflict behaviors [95]. Further, the amount of affectionate communication from a partner predicts both waking and evening cortisol levels, such that more affectionate communication promotes healthier cortisol function [71]. Additionally, family support has been found to serve as a protective factor against increased stress and cortisol levels among low-income Mexican-American folks during postpartum [96]. ...
Purpose of Review
Much research has documented changes in postpartum sexuality, including changes in sexual functioning and satisfaction for both the birthing parent and their partner(s). These changes are often linked to postpartum changes in hormonal and immune responses, which can have both direct and indirect effects on sexuality.
Recent Findings
Here, we review how postpartum sexuality may be changed via mental, physical, and social/relationship effects of a variety of hormones, including estrogens, progestogens, androgens, cortisol, and oxytocin. We also review the ways in which inflammation may act alongside hormones to influence postpartum sexuality.
Summary
We argue that, as each of these factors strongly influence the action of others, the next phase of research in postpartum sexuality must examine the bidirectional interactions of hormones and their effects on behavior, cognition, and social relationships.
... Spouses' conflict, and the way they communicate with each other, also have important implications for their cortisol. The more people received affectionate communication from their spouses, the higher their own waking cortisol levels and the steeper their own cortisol declines across the day (Floyd and Riforgiate, 2008). People who were objectively rated as using more negative and hostile behaviors during conflict, such as demanding too much from each other and withdrawing from the conversation, had higher cortisol levels than their less negative counterparts (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 1997, 1996Miller et al., 1999). ...
... These findings are consistent with prior research showing that spouses impact each other's cortisol levels and diurnal rhythms. For instance, partners' physical intimacy (Ditzen et al., 2008), conflict behaviors (Heffner et al., 2006;Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 1997, 1996, affection (Floyd and Riforgiate, 2008), and general feelings that they are understood, cared for, and appreciated (Slatcher et al., 2015) were associated with cortisol levels and slopes over time. The present study extends this work by providing evidence that a partner's perceived stress is associated with how fast or slow a person's own cortisol declines across a day the couple experienced conflict. ...
... AET has provided a valuable framework in several studies investigating the relational and physiological correlates of affectionate communication. For example, affectionate communication is connected with robust individual and relational benefits, such as increased relational satisfaction and self-esteem, decreased depression and fear of intimacy, as well as physiological benefits connected to stress, immune system strength, vascular and metabolic health, and physical pleasure (Floyd, 2002;Floyd et al., 2005Floyd et al., , 2009Floyd et al., , 2007aFloyd et al., , 2007bFloyd & Riforgiate, 2008;Horan, 2012;Horan & Booth-Butterfield, 2010). Having couples increase affectionate behavior produces beneficial relational and physical health outcomes (Floyd et al., 2009). ...
... Moreover, given research showing that both affectionate communication (e.g., Floyd et al., 2007aFloyd et al., , 2007bFloyd & Riforgiate, 2008) and relational maintenance behaviors (Afifi et al., 2019) benefit stress responses and/or accelerate stress recovery, it is also likely that increasing pillow talk will help couples remain or become less physiologically stressed when discussing relational issues. In other words, because pillow talk and post sex behavior have been linked to a range of acute positive relational outcomes (e.g., Denes, 2012Denes, , 2018Muise et al., 2014), increasing the amount of time couples spend engaging in this unique, intimate form of communication (Veenestra, 2007) over the course of several weeks should foster a secure environment that promotes resilience to the stress associated with confronting a difficult issue. ...
This study examined the effects of pillow talk (i.e., communication after sexual activity) on relationship satisfaction and physiological stress responses to difficult conversations. Fifty heterosexual couples were randomly assigned to either a pillow talk condition
in which they doubled their pillow talk for three weeks or a control condition. After three weeks, participants came to the lab to engage in a conflict conversation. Saliva samples taken before and after the conversation were assayed for cortisol, a physiological marker of stress. The results indicate that increased pillow talk produces greater relationship satisfaction for men (but not women), but does not benefit either group’s physiological stress responses. The findings suggest that pillow talk has distinct benefits for romantic relationships.
... Considerable research connects affectionate communication to a variety of health outcomes (Burleson et al., 2007;Floyd, 2019). For example, receiving frequent passionate kisses from a romantic partner has been associated with decreases in cholesterol (Floyd et al., 2009), and affectionate communication received from a spouse has been linked to hormonal stress regulation via cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). Similarly, Ditzen et al. (2007) found that receiving positive touch from a partner significantly lowered cortisol and heart rate responses to a laboratory-induced stressor, compared to receiving no touch or only verbal social support. ...
... AET asserts that affectionate communication is adaptive with respect to human survival and fertility. For survival, affection can help buffer against harmful psychological and physiological stressors by strengthening pair bonds (Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). For example, past research has indicated that affection contributes to the development of pair bonds through processes such as relational satisfaction (Floyd et al., 2005), relational maintenance (Dainton, Stafford, & Canary, 1994), and investments (Horan & Booth-Butterfield, 2010). ...
This study examined the longitudinal effects of cuddling on relational quality for married couples. In a four-week experiment, 80 adults were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: increased cuddling (treatment), increased time spent together (comparison), or no change in behavior (control). Controlling for the pretest relational quality scores and changes in kissing behavior, individuals in the treatment condition reported more relational satisfaction and lower quality of alternatives after four weeks than did individuals in the comparison and control conditions. The comparison and control conditions did not differ from each other on any relational outcomes.
... Indeed, support that is provided responsively (i.e., sensitively, nonintrusively) reduces perceived and physiological stress during threats (e.g., Gerin, Pieper, Levy, & Pickering, 1992;Kane, McCall, Collins, & Blascovich, 2012). A similar construct, referred to as affectionate communication (the intentional expression of care and positive regard), has been shown to buffer cardiovascular and endocrine stress responses (e.g., Floyd & Morman, 1998;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008;Pauley, Floyd, & Hesse, 2014). ...
... The current study extends past research by showing that receiving touch is associated with reductions in stress during discussions of real, ongoing stressors (not imposed by an experimenter). The current research is also consistent with work demonstrating the benefit of affectionate communication broadly to reduce stress (e.g., Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008;Pauley et al., 2014). This work is also consistent with past research linking touch and relationship outcomes. ...
This investigation examined the extent to which receiving touch during discussions of stressors predicts subsequent personal and relational well-being. Married couples were unobtrusively videotaped as couple-members took turns discussing their personal stressors with one another. We assessed the degree to which couple-members received touch from their spouses during the discussions and investigated whether touch receipt predicted beneficial personal and relational outcomes after the discussions. Results indicated that disclosers who received greater (higher frequency and higher intensity) touch while they discussed their stressors perceived that they were more able to overcome their stressors, experienced greater decreases in self-reported stress, reported greater increases in self-esteem, and viewed their partners more positively than disclosers who received less touch. Additionally, helpers (spouses in the listening role) who received greater touch during their partner’s stressor discussion also viewed their partners more positively than helpers who received less touch. Implications and potential future directions are discussed.
... Önmagában -stresszfeladat nélkül -a laboratóriumi érintés-beavatkozás alacsonyabb kortizol szinttel járt (Grewen és mtsai., 2005). Az érintés csillapítani tudta a kortizolszint napi ingadozását is (Floyd, 2006;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). Azoknál, akik (több) szeretetteli érintésben részesülnek mindennapjaik során magasabb oxitocin szintet (Holt-Lunstad és mtsai., 2008; Floyd és mtsai. ...
Háttér: Számos kutatás támasztja alá, hogy az affektív érintés a pozitív kapcsolatok kontextusában a fizikai egészséghez és jólléthez kapcsolódik. Ezeket a tanulmányokat azonban nem a globális társadalmi távolságtartási intézkedések idején végezték. A COVID-19 megfékezésére világszerte elrendelt társadalmi távolságtartás – így az érintés és érintés hiánya kapcsán pedig csak annak pszichológiai és kapcsolati jólléttel való összefüggéseire irányultak kutatások. Jelen tanulmány kereteiben ezt a hiányzó területet vettük górcső alá. Cél: Az intézetben folyó „Életünk a koronavírus járvány idején” kutatásból az érintés és a fizikai egészség és jóllét kapcsolatára vonatkozó eredményeinket mutatjuk be. Módszer: Online keresztmetszeti vizsgálat keretében megközelítően reprezentatív mintán 1799 főtől a demográfiai adatok mellett, a társas érintés különböző formái, a fizikai egészség összevont mutatói és az egészségtudatosság közti összefüggéseket vizsgáltuk. Főbb eredmények: Összességében a válaszadók retrospektív adataiból az derül ki, hogy a COVID-19 előtti, a lezárások alatti és a korlátozások feloldása utáni időszakban valamennyi általunk vizsgált érintési típus esetében – kapott bizalmi, baráti és hivatalos érintések – jelentős változásokat észleltek a megkérdezettek azok mennyiségében. Azt találtuk, hogy a különböző típusú társas érintések a világjárvány minden szakaszában enyhe pozitív összefüggéseket mutattak a szubjektív egészségi állapottal, a fizikai jólléttel és az alvásminőséggel, negatívat a fizikai tünetekkel. A különböző érintési típusok esetében ezek az összefüggések eltérő erősségűek, erősebb együttjárásokat találtunk a bizalmas és baráti érintések esetében. Elvárásainkkal ellentétben nem találtunk szignifikáns összefüggéseket az érintés és az egészségtudatosság általunk vizsgált mutatói között. Eredményeink tovább erősítik a társadalmi távolságtartás egyénekre gyakorolt hatásának megértését.
... Therefore, when considering investments made in a relationship, the TRRL considers investments made by oneself, investments from a relational partner, and discrepancies between partners' investments . In addition, perceptions of contributions from partners have greater effects on the individual than their own contributions (e.g., Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008;. Nevertheless, all parties are likely to experience the benefit of emotional capital as investments are made into the relationship, regardless of who is contributing . ...
... Gratitude is a crucial factor for maintaining a relationship, especially close and intimate ones (Algoe et al., 2010).In general, gratitude can simplify the expansion of close relationship (Algoe, Haidt, & Gable, 2008). We hypothesized that gratitude would partially mediate the positive relation between relationship mindfulness and relationship satisfaction.Affectionate communicationNonetheless, one major component that can improve and sustain a relationship is affectionate communication(Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). It describes the way an individual communication glows and affects a partner, and hence improves interpersonal communication and acceptance(Denes, Bennett, & Winkler, 2017). ...
Mindfulness appears to be one of the important predictors of relationship satisfaction. The degree of mindfulness displayed by a partner when involved in romantic relationship is known as relationship mindfulness. When it comes to the romantic relationship, researchers need to look at the specific type of mindfulness designed for the field of romantic relationships. Therefore, the present study seeks to show whether relationship mindfulness can predict relationship satisfaction directly. Moreover, there is a difference in mindfulness between males and females in the romantic relationship and how the relationship mindfulness can predict relationship satisfaction in this situation. In the present study, a multistage cluster sampling method was adopted to select participants from among the study population (n=386 individual). Structural equation modeling (SEM) and MANOVA was used for data analysis. Based on the results of the present study, relationship mindfulness predicted relationship satisfaction directly and significantly (p < 0.05). Further, the level of mindfulness in romantic relationship was higher for females in the present study. In addition, gratitude has been shown to be an appropriate mediator for the association between relationship mindfulness and relationship satisfaction.
... Chronic stress and increased cortisol concentrations are thought to both contribute to weight gain and be indicative of obesity (see Jackson & Steptoe, 2018;Tomiyama, 2014, for reviews), and are positively associated with weight-related discrimination, stigma, and dieting (e.g., Epel et al., 2001;Jackson & Steptoe, 2018;Tomiyama, 2014;Tomiyama et al., 2010). In contrast, supportive and affectionate communication has stress-ameliorating effects (Cohen & Wills, 1985;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). ...
The aim of the study was to examine the impact of supportive communication on acute physiological stress responses during weight-related conversations taking place throughout a couples' weight loss program. Participants were 47 married or cohabitating couples where each partner had a BMI of 25-40 kg/m2. Couples were randomized as a dyad into a traditional weight loss program or a program that also included training in providing support to one's partner throughout the weight loss process. Structured conversations between partners about weight management were videotaped at baseline and 6 months. Participants provided saliva samples before and after the conversations, which were assayed for cortisol and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) to determine physiological stress and anxiety responses to conversations about weight. The results indicated that receiving support from one's partner when discussing weight-related issues was associated with greater physiological stress, as indicated by higher cortisol and sAA levels, whereas providing support to one's partner was associated with lower cortisol levels and higher sAA levels. The findings suggest that receiving support is not a universally positive experience, especially for populations facing health issues. The mixed findings for support provision align with previous studies identifying a negative association between affectionate communication and cortisol levels, as well as a positive association between sAA and anxiety and emotional arousal. The findings and their implications for understanding the physiological correlates of couples' conversations about weight are discussed.
... The HPA axis dysregulation is common in PCOS and obesity, and a previous study has found stress levels in the general population to be inversely related to sexual functioning. [43] Thus, for environmental and psychological effects, clinicians working with different cultures agree that women with obesity experience a greater difficulty in finding sexual partners. [44] Infertility has a complex effect on sexual functioning. ...
Objective:
The relationship between sexual functions and infertility remains controversial and there is a limited number of studies reporting the effects of infertility on sexual functions in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Aims: The present study aims to investigate the effects of infertility on sexual functions and depression levels in women with PCOS.
Methods:
A total of 150 participants who were either fertile patients with PCOS, infertile patients with PCOS, or fertile women without PCOS (control) (n = 50) were included for the study. Sociodemographic data were recorded and the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) were used for evaluation of subjects.
Results:
Body mass index (BMI) was found to be significantly higher in the PCOS plus infertility group (27.9 ± 2.9, P = 0.01) than the other groups. Total BDI score was higher and total FSFI score was significantly lower in the PCOS plus infertility group than in the other groups. The PCOS plus infertility group showed significantly lower FSFI scores than the PCOS group in terms of desire, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, and pain. A significant negative correlation was observed between BMI and BDI scores in the PCOS plus infertility group (r:-0.384, P = 0.04).
Conclusion:
Our study results show lower sexual functions in PCOS women with infertility and that infertility negatively affects sexual functions with obesity associated depression.
... Gratitude is a crucial factor for maintaining a relationship, especially close and intimate ones (Algoe et al., 2010).In general, gratitude can simplify the expansion of close relationship (Algoe, Haidt, & Gable, 2008). We hypothesized that gratitude would partially mediate the positive relation between relationship mindfulness and relationship satisfaction.Affectionate communicationNonetheless, one major component that can improve and sustain a relationship is affectionate communication(Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). It describes the way an individual communication glows and affects a partner, and hence improves interpersonal communication and acceptance(Denes, Bennett, & Winkler, 2017). ...
Mindfulness appears to be one of the important predictors of relationship satisfaction. The degree of mindfulness displayed by a partner when involved in romantic relationship is known as relationship mindfulness. When it comes to the romantic relationship, researchers need to look at the specific type of mindfulness designed for the field of romantic relationships. Therefore, the present study seeks to show whether relationship mindfulness can predict relationship satisfaction directly. Moreover, there is a difference in mindfulness between males and females in the romantic relationship and how the relationship mindfulness can predict relationship satisfaction in this situation. In the present study, a multistage cluster sampling method was adopted to select participants from among the study population (n=386 individual). Structural equation modeling (SEM) and MANOVA was used for data analysis. Based on the results of the present study, relationship mindfulness predicted relationship satisfaction directly and significantly (p < 0.05). Further, the level of mindfulness in romantic relationship was higher for females in the present study. In addition, gratitude has been shown to be an appropriate mediator for the association between relationship mindfulness and relationship satisfaction.
Keywords: Relationship mindfulness, relationship satisfaction, gender, gratitude, affectionate communication.
... A number of studies by Floyd and colleagues support the contribution of affection to more beneficial physiological functioning. Some of these studies did not distinguish between verbal and physical affection (Floyd, Hesse, & Haynes, 2007;Floyd, Pauley, & Hesse, 2010;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008), or assigned participants to write about their affectionate ties and did not measure physical affection (Floyd, Mikkelson, Hesse, & Pauley, 2007;Floyd, Mikkelson, Tafoya, Farinelli, La Valley, Judd, Haynes et al., 2007). We focus here primarily on physical affection and its direct or indirect physiological effects. ...
... Second, this study was limited to self-report measures of stress and anxiety. Recent studies examining the impact of affection on physiological measures have used objective physiological biomarkers in saliva (Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008) and blood . Future research may augment this approach by collecting reports of health-related behaviors (such as sleep, diet, or exercise habits) and reports of objective health indices (such as body mass index or resting cardiac rate). ...
Although giving and receiving affection are beneficial, the benefits often depend on who is providing the affection and in what context. Some affectionate expressions may even reduce well-being. This mixed-method study examined perceptions of unwanted affection and its relationship to stress and anxiety. Participants described a memory of unwanted affection and their reactions to it. Additionally, participants reported on their stress, somatic anxiety, and cognitive anxiety. Thematic analyses revealed that expressions of unwanted affection ranged in verbal (e.g., disclosure rate, saying “I love you”) or nonverbal (e.g., hugs, handholding) behaviors and participants responded by explicit rejecting the affection, reduced/stopped contact with the person, and ignoring the affection. Feelings reflecting the perceived negativity of the event were related to higher stress, somatic, and cognitive anxiety. Generally, results indicated that retrospective cognitive anxiety and stress were worse when experiencing unwanted affection from well-known partners (e.g., romantic partners) than from strangers. Conversely, the perceived negativity of the recalled unwanted affectionate event tended to worsen with lesser known partners (e.g., strangers, acquaintances).
... Alternative explanations for these results are discussed. Touch is also often used as a demonstration of affection, and some forms of affection (though not always physical affection) have been associated with reduced cortisol levels and stress (e.g., Floyd et al., 2007;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008). Touch and other forms of tactile stimulation have also been implemented in sensorimotor therapy, which is used to help traumatized individuals reconnect with their bodies and modulate their own arousal (e.g., Ogden & Minton, 2000; for an overview, see Van der Kolk, 2015). ...
... Although many studies have confirmed the effect of spousal or romantic partners' behaviors on individuals' cortisol responses to conflict (e.g., Beck et al., 2013;Floyd & Riforgiate, 2008;Laurent et al., 2013;Rodriguez & Margolin, 2013), almost no work has examined the moderating effect of spousal behavior specifically on the relation of childhood family adversity to adult cortisol responses to conflict. Recent work (Arbel et al., 2016) has shown that in a three-person conflict discussion (mother, father, adolescent), spouses' hostility was a significant moderator of the effects of childhood family aggression on cortisol responses to the family conflict discussion, although the direction of effects differed by spouses' gender. ...
Childhood family adversity predicts adult interpersonal behavior and physiological responses to interpersonal stress. Additionally, negative marital behaviors (e.g., hostility and distress maintaining attributions) predict maladaptive stress responses and mental health problems, whereas positive marital behaviors (e.g., acceptance and relationship enhancing attributions) predict adaptive physiological and psychological outcomes. The present study examined potential marital behavior mediators and moderators of the link between childhood adversity and cortisol responses to conflict. In a sample of 218 different-sex newlywed couples, we examined (a) actors’ marital conflict behaviors as candidate mediators of the link between childhood adversity and cortisol responses to marital conflict discussions, and (b) partners’ marital conflict behaviors as candidate moderators of the relation between childhood adversity and cortisol responses to marital discussions. Path analysis using actor-partner interdependence modeling did not confirm mediation. Instead, wives’ childhood family adversity directly predicted husbands’ attenuated cortisol responses, and wives’ negative behavior predicted wives’ attenuated cortisol responses. As hypothesized, wives’ negative behaviors moderated the association between husbands’ childhood family adversity and husbands’ cortisol in response to conflict; husbands showed higher cortisol if they had experienced greater family adversity and if their wives displayed more negative behavior. Results suggest that childhood family adversity may carry forward to shape adult cortisol responses to conflict and highlights the importance of wives’ negative behavior for both husbands and wives. These findings add to the family psychology literature by further clarifying how the interaction of stressful childhood experiences and conflict behaviors in marriage are associated with adult physiological responses to conflict.
Swahili youths in Mombasa County to woo their beloved. The research was anchored within a descriptive research design. Primary data was collected from four purposively sampled Swahili male youths through an interview schedule. The collected data were then subjected to the Metaphor Identification Procedure Vrije Universitei (MIPVU) in which four annotators were used to identify endearing metaphors. Seven endearing metaphors that are commonly used by the Male Swahili youths in Mombasa County were identified through MIPVU. The endearing metaphors were then subjected to the principle of conceptual mappings to reveal their meaning. The paper reveals that young Swahili men in Mombasa County use endearing metaphors to express affection, admiration, and romantic interest in their beloved. They also use these metaphors to inspire a sense of connection and emotional intimacy while aiming at building a relationship based on care and mutual affection. The study concludes that endearing metaphors are useful communication tools, and should be interpreted within the Cognitive Linguistics framework.
Motivate your students to learn and apply strong communication principles in personal and business relationships as Adler/Proctor/Manning's popular LOOKING OUT, LOOKING IN, 16E with MindTap digital resources applies the latest research to students' everyday lives using magazine-style readings, the latest pop culture references and expanded discussion of social media.
In the past decade, there has been an increased focus on the role of physiology in interpersonal interactions, resulting in a surge of research exploring topics related to communication in close relationships. This growing line of research has explored topics such as affectionate communication, forgiveness, communication apprehension, and social support. Contributing to the increase in physiological research on communication processes is a greater recognition of the bidirectional nature of the associations among communication and the body. Researchers studied both the physiological outcomes of communication episodes (e.g., stress responses to conflict conversations) and the effects of physiology on the communication process (e.g., the influence of hormones on postsex communication). The Oxford Handbook of the Physiology of Interpersonal Communication offers a comprehensive review of the most prolific areas of research investigating both the physiological outcomes of interpersonal communication and the effects of physiology on interpersonal interactions. This edited volume serves as a resource for both researchers and students interested in investigating the mutual influence of physiology and communication in close relationships.
In the past decade, there has been an increased focus on the role of physiology in interpersonal interactions, resulting in a surge of research exploring topics related to communication in close relationships. This growing line of research has explored topics such as affectionate communication, forgiveness, communication apprehension, and social support. Contributing to the increase in physiological research on communication processes is a greater recognition of the bidirectional nature of the associations among communication and the body. Researchers studied both the physiological outcomes of communication episodes (e.g., stress responses to conflict conversations) and the effects of physiology on the communication process (e.g., the influence of hormones on postsex communication). The Oxford Handbook of the Physiology of Interpersonal Communication offers a comprehensive review of the most prolific areas of research investigating both the physiological outcomes of interpersonal communication and the effects of physiology on interpersonal interactions. This edited volume serves as a resource for both researchers and students interested in investigating the mutual influence of physiology and communication in close relationships.
In the past decade, there has been an increased focus on the role of physiology in interpersonal interactions, resulting in a surge of research exploring topics related to communication in close relationships. This growing line of research has explored topics such as affectionate communication, forgiveness, communication apprehension, and social support. Contributing to the increase in physiological research on communication processes is a greater recognition of the bidirectional nature of the associations among communication and the body. Researchers studied both the physiological outcomes of communication episodes (e.g., stress responses to conflict conversations) and the effects of physiology on the communication process (e.g., the influence of hormones on postsex communication). The Oxford Handbook of the Physiology of Interpersonal Communication offers a comprehensive review of the most prolific areas of research investigating both the physiological outcomes of interpersonal communication and the effects of physiology on interpersonal interactions. This edited volume serves as a resource for both researchers and students interested in investigating the mutual influence of physiology and communication in close relationships.
Romantic relationships are a key health determinant. Partners influence each other's psychological, behavioral, and biological trajectories in ways that can foster health and longevity or fuel disease risk and early mortality. A romantic relationship's health impact is considerable yet has historically garnered limited recognition from government agencies, healthcare providers, and policymakers. World‐wide public health organizations are increasingly attending to the importance of social connection and health and calling for action and intervention to improve social connection. In this review, we identify key areas to act on this call and advance research, practice, and policy on romantic relationships and health: dyadic effects in how partners influence each other's health; the socio‐historical context and systems of social stratification; and couple‐level prevention, intervention, and health‐promotion efforts. We connect these perspectives and offer next steps to further establish romantic relationships as a public health priority and target for policy and programming that foster social connection and health.
Drawing on Brashers’ (2001) theory of communication and uncertainty management, the study reported in this chapter examines the role of transformational leadership (TFL) in employees’ uncertainty management process in the context of DX and its impact on their appraisal of DX, self-efficacy, and job performance. The study examined the hypotheses regarding the complex interplay between these factors with the data collected over four waves from 873 employee–supervisor dyads in Japan. Structural equation modeling analyses have revealed that: (a) uncertainty is negatively associated with employees’ appraisal of DX, self-efficacy, and job performance; (b) TFL is positively associated with these factors; and, moreover, (c) TFL moderates the impact of uncertainty on appraisal and self-efficacy. Simple-slope analyses indicate that, when one’s direct supervisor exhibits low TFL behaviors, uncertainty is significantly negatively associated with their appraisal and self-efficacy; conversely, in the high-TFL condition, the adverse impact of uncertainty diminishes. These findings highlight the pivotal role of transformational leadership in shaping positive appraisals and self-efficacy among organizational members, thereby enhancing their job performance in the face of DX-driven uncertainty. Theoretical and practical implications of the obtained findings are discussed with reference to the relevant literature.
Affectionate communication consists of the verbal and nonverbal means through which people convey messages of love, fondness, appreciation, and commitment to others in close relationships. Like all interpersonal behaviors, affectionate communication has physiological antecedents, correlates, and consequences, many of which have implications for physical and mental wellness. This chapter begins by situating affectionate behavior in a bioevolutionary frame, noting its adaptive nature with respect to survival, procreation, and well-being. The chapter then reviews research on the genetic and neurological distinctions between highly affectionate and less affectionate individuals; the stress management and stress recovery benefits of affection exchange; the associations between affection, immunocompetence, and experiences of relaxation and calm; and the physical and psychological detriments associated with affection deprivation.
Affection exchange theory predicts that both excessive affection and affection deprivation are associated with poorer health, compared with receiving the level of affectionate communication that one desires. A similar yet‐untested prediction is that affection deprivation is more aversive than excessive affection. This preregistered study tested both hypotheses on a battery of mental and physical health outcomes, including depression, loneliness, stress, physical pain, frequency of nightmares, and sleep quality, using a Census‐matched sample of U.S. American adults (N = 827). As hypothesized, receiving the right amount of affection was associated with more health‐supportive scores on all outcomes than either excessive or deficient affection. Similarly, excessive affection was associated with lower depression, loneliness, stress, and pain, and higher sleep quality, than affection deprivation.
Researchers focus on non-verbal communication to better understand how relationships of various types are initiated, maintained, deepened, and sometimes terminated. Non-verbal communication is typically less filtered than verbal communication, thus non-verbal cues often reveal the “truth” of what is happening inside a relationship. However, we know less about non-verbal cues in relationships in trouble—ones that experience turmoil. Turmoil emerges in relationships going through turbulence, defined as periods of uncertainty and flux in partner interdependence during significant relationship transitions. Non-verbal communication central to romantic relationships experiencing turmoil and turbulence is the focus of this chapter, with specific attention paid to touch/affection, proxemics, eye behaviour, vocalics, and dyadic synchrony.
Previous studies have identified associations between affectionate communication and blood lipid levels but been limited by small, homogenous samples and failed replication attempts. Moreover, no study has tested the prediction derived from affection exchange theory that stress mediates the association between affectionate behavior and health. Using secondary analyses of data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) Refresher study Biomarker Project, this paper remedies these limitations by testing the prediction that stress mediates the association between kissing and serum levels of triglycerides, high-density lipoproteins, and low-density lipoproteins using a large probability sample of U.S. American adults (N = 863). Results indicate significant indirect effects of kissing frequency on triglycerides and high-density lipoproteins for participants who reported kissing seven or more times in the previous month.
Affectionate communication may play a key role in how military couples navigate the transition from deployment to reintegration. Informed by relational turbulence theory, this study considered how the trajectory of relational turbulence experienced by military couples over time predicted their verbal and nonverbal expressions of affection. Online self-report data were gathered from 268 U.S. military couples across eight months beginning at homecoming. Relational turbulence increased over time and affectionate communication decreased over time. Also as predicted, the trajectory of increasing relational turbulence corresponded with greater declines in verbal and nonverbal expressions of affection. These results advance relational turbulence theory, illuminate the trajectory of affectionate communication over time, and inform ways to assist military couples upon reunion after deployment.
Humans are highly social beings who need intimate relationships to thrive and survive. Integral to human physical and emotional wellness is the need for affection. A substantial body of evidence has found that expressing and receiving affection with significant others is associated with a multitude of positive health outcomes. The primary goal of the current study was to create a generalizable typology of affectionate behaviors embedded within close relationships and experienced within the daily lives of U.S. American adults from across the country. The study identified 13 discrete forms of daily affectionate communication. Implications for such a typology of daily affection within the United States are discussed.
This chapter covers the intricate relationship between and influence of sexuality, intimacy, relational dynamics, and love. It describes what enhances satisfactory sexual relationships, what encourages couples to maintain intimacy, and what the concerns and obstacles are in reaching, or keeping, a satisfying intimate and sexual relationship.
The current study asked a sample (N = 20) of healthy young adults to report their daily hugging behaviors over a 14-day period and to collect their saliva at the beginning and end of the study. Based on affection exchange theory, we hypothesized that the frequency of hugging would be inversely related to proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukins (IL) 1-β, 6, and 8, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Controlling for baseline levels, hugging was significantly and inversely related to IL1-β and TNF-α after the 14-day period. Associations with IL-6 and IL-8, although nonsignificant, were also in the hypothesized direction.
Intimate relationships matter to health and happiness. However, the vast scope of relationship research and the abundance of precise micro-theories has presented obstacles to the development of integrative theories with contextual-behavioral foundations that are oriented towards application of findings in domains of public health significance. Derived from the well-validated Interpersonal Process Model, which described intimacy as a dyadic exchange in which Person A engages in a vulnerable self-disclosure, Person B enacts a response, and Person A perceives the response as responsive, we present an integrative, analytic-abstractive, contextual-behavioral model of intimate relations. The model describes the intimacy process as a set of functional relations describing behaviors and responses of Persons A and B in context, languaged as middle-level terms to facilitate cross-disciplinary applications. Three primary relations of the model are non-verbal emotional expression (Person A) and safety (Person B), verbal self-disclosure (Person A) and validation (Person B), and asking (Person A) and giving (Person B). The model also emphasizes the importance of self- and other-awareness, expressions of closeness, and reciprocity as additional terms. Future research directions and potential applications are discussed.
A robust literature documents the health benefits of affectionate communication. The present study offers a meta-analysis of this literature to estimate general effects of affectionate communication on several areas of health, including cardiovascular, stress hormonal, stress reactivity, and mental health. We also examined potential moderators, including the type of affectionate communication and sex, while predicting that the benefits of expressed affection outweigh the benefits of received affection. We found a weighted mean effect of r = .23 for the relationship between affectionate communication and health, with differences based on type of health outcome but none for type of affection or sex. The effect of expressed affection exceeded the effect of received affection. The paper discusses the implications of these results.
Cambridge Core - Social Psychology - Interdependence, Interaction, and Close Relationships - edited by Laura V. Machia
Interdependence, Interaction, and Close Relationships - edited by Laura V. Machia June 2020
Objectives
The goal of this study was to investigate associations of the positivity and negativity of couple communication behaviors during a novel stressor, representative of dyadic coping, with diurnal cortisol patterns, an indication of stress physiological functioning.
Background
Previous research suggests that less positive and more negative couple interactions about reoccurring relationship issues are stressful and, as a result, are associated with physiological stress dysregulation. Past research has also indicated that behaviors during novel, as opposed to reoccurring, stressors are uniquely predictive of couple outcomes because behaviors during novel stressors are indicative of patterns of dyadic coping. However, there is not yet evidence linking couple behaviors in response to novel stressors to physiological stress functioning.
Methods
Sixty‐one (N = 122 individuals) heterosexual couples completed a novel stress task, and recordings of their interactions were coded for negative and positive communication behaviors. Couples provided saliva samples at home for 2 days, which were assayed for diurnal cortisol concentrations.
Results
Results of linear regression and structural equation modeling analyses suggested that women's greater positive, in relation to negative, communication behavior during the novel stressor was associated with women's greater cortisol awakening levels and cortisol awakening responses. Men's greater positive behavior was associated with men's and women's greater cortisol awakening levels, that is, signs indicating healthy physiological functioning.
Conclusion
Couples' dyadic coping has implications for the functioning of stress systems.
Implications
Specifically, couples' communication quality during novel stressors may protect from physiological stress dysregulation; the manner in which couples treat each other when facing novel stress can get “under the skin.”
Using the tenets of Affection Exchange Theory, the study predicted longitudinal effects of alexithymia on both romantic relational outcomes (satisfaction and commitment) and relational communication (affectionate communication and relational maintenance behaviors). The study also predicted that Time 2 levels of relational communication would mediate the longitudinal effects of alexithymia on the relational outcomes. The results largely supported the predictions, with Time 1 alexithymia significantly negatively related to both relational outcome measures, affectionate communication, and two types of relational maintenance behaviors (understanding and assurances) at Time 2. Alternate models predicting alexithymia at Time 2 using the relational variables were nonsignificant. Finally, mediation was shown for both affectionate communication and understanding. Implications and possible directions for future research are explored.
The current study sought to assess the dyadic effects of affection deprivation in marital relationships. We used the tenets of affection exchange theory to examine the actor and partner effects between affectionate communication, affection deprivation, and mental and relational outcomes. Moreover, we tested whether affection deprivation mediated the association between affectionate communication and outcome variables. In terms of actor effects, affectionate communication was associated with husbands’ depression, wives’ loneliness, and both husbands’ and wives’ marital quality and emotional intimacy. Affection deprivation was associated with all outcome variables for husbands and wives, except for wives’ emotional intimacy. We observed significant partner effects between affectionate communication and affection deprivation for both husbands and wives, as well as between wives’ affectionate communication and husbands’ emotional intimacy. Affection deprivation mediated some of the actor and partner effects between affectionate communication and outcome variables. Implications, connections to theory, and directions for future research are discussed.
Komunikowanie czułości (Floyd, 1997) czy ekspresja uczuć (Greszta, 2000a) są tutaj rozumiane, jako intencjonalne i jawne wyrażanie uczuć bliskości, czułości i zamiłowania do drugiej osoby. W literaturze podkreśla się korzystne efekty okazywania czułości, zarówno na poziomie fizycznym, jak i psychicznym. Czułość staje się szczególnie ważna w sytuacjach trudnych, a do takich należy choroba nowotworowa, zwłaszcza u dziecka. Diagnoza nowotworu jest sytuacją trudną zarówno dla rodziców, jak i młodego pacjenta. Stres, lęk, napięcie mogą istotnie zaburzać proces komunikowania czułości w relacji rodzic-dziecko. Celem badań, których wyniki są przedstawione w niniejszym artykule, było uzyskanie odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy wymiana czułości między rodzicami i dziećmi chorującymi na ostrą białaczkę limfoblastyczną (ALL) różni się od wymiany czułości w rodzinach dzieci zdrowych, a jeżeli tak-to na czym ta różnica polega. Badania zostały przeprowadzone w grupie 134 dzieci (67 dzieci z ALL oraz 67 dzieci zdrowych). Łącznie przebadano 54 dziewczynek i 80 chłopców (po 27 dziewczynek i 40 chłopców w każdej z grup), w wieku 6-16 lat. Zastosowano narracyjne narzędzie, autorstwa E. Greszty, pozwalające na pomiar liczby, przyczyny oraz odczuć towarzyszących wymianie czułości między rodzicami i dziećmi. Uzyskane wyniki ujawniły istotne statystycznie różnice w rozkładach liczby przejawów czułości niewerbalnej oraz średniej ich liczby. Dzieci chorujące na białaczkę uzyskują istotnie niższe wyniki m.in. w zakresie: okazywania czułości niewerbalnej w celu ekspresji miłości w stosunku do matki. Natomiast w przypadku obu grup najczęstszym powodem inicjacji czułości z obojgiem rodziców okazała się potrzeba wsparcia. Słowa kluczowe: komunikowanie czułości, rodzice, dzieci z białaczką, narracje Abstract: Affectionate communication is conscious and overt displays of affection like love, fondness, and positive regard to each other (Floyd, 1997; Greszta, 2000a). The benefits of affectionate communication on both physical and mental levels are emphasized in the literature. Affection exchange is particularly important in difficult situations. Especially essential when a child has leukemia. Diagnosis of cancer is a difficult situation for both parents and young patients. Stress, anxiety and tension can significantly disturb the process of affectionate communication in a parent-child relationship. The aim of the study, the results of which has presented in this article, was to answer whether the affection exchange between parents and children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) differs from the affection exchange in families of healthy children, and if so-what is the difference. The study was conducted on the group of 134 children (67 children with ALL and 67 healthy children), including 54 girls and 80 boys (27 girls and 40 boys in each group), aged 6-16 years. The narrative method, by E.Greszta, was
Previous research suggests that more negative or less positive couple communication can be stressful and that chronic stress can lead to less healthy patterns of physiological stress functioning. Our goal was to investigate whether couples’ observed communication behaviors and reported relationship conflict were related to diurnal cortisol patterns, an important indicator of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis functioning. Sixty-two couples ( n = 124 individuals) reported marital conflict and were video-recorded engaging in a coded conflict discussion. Diurnal cortisol samples were collected. Results suggested that men’s greater observed communication quality predicted women’s higher awakening cortisol levels as well as men’s steeper decreases in cortisol across the day (i.e., slopes), men’s greater reported conflict predicted women’s lower awakening levels, and, in some models, women’s greater reported resolution predicted women’s lower awakening levels and men’s steeper slopes. These findings suggest that less positive and more negative marital conflict contribute to dysfunction of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.
Scholars have stated that humans have a fundamental need to belong, but less is known about whether individuals can use other resources to substitute for close relationships. In this study, 357 adults reported their level of affection deprivation, their weekly pornography consumption, their goals for using pornography (including life satisfaction and loneliness reduction), and indicators of their individual and relational wellness. We hypothesized that individuals might consume pornography as a coping mechanism (either adaptive or maladaptive) to deal with affection deprivation, with affection deprivation relating to the goals for using pornography and consumption potentially moderating the relationships between affection deprivation and the outcome measures. As predicted, affection deprivation and pornography consumption were inversely related to relational satisfaction and closeness, while being positively related to loneliness and depression. Affection deprivation was positively related with most stated goals for pornography use (although the relationship between affection deprivation and pornography consumption was nonsignificant). The moderation hypothesis, however, showed little evidence, yielding a moderating effect only on the relationship between affection deprivation and depression (with nonsignificant effects for relational satisfaction, closeness, and loneliness). Overall, there is some evidence that pornography consumption is used as a form of affection substitution (dealing with the perception of affection deprivation). However, there is no evidence of consumption being either adaptive or maladaptive when it comes to relationship satisfaction, closeness, and loneliness, although it is possibly maladaptive in terms of depression.
Affectionate Communication in Close Relationships - by Kory Floyd December 2018
Cambridge Core - Communications - Affectionate Communication in Close Relationships - by Kory Floyd
Background:
During intensive care unit (ICU) admission, patients and their carers experience physical and psychological stressors that may result in psychological conditions including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Improving communication between healthcare professionals, patients, and their carers may alleviate these disorders. Communication may include information or educational interventions, in different formats, aiming to improve knowledge of the prognosis, treatment, or anticipated challenges after ICU discharge.
Objectives:
To assess the effects of information or education interventions for improving outcomes in adult ICU patients and their carers.
Search methods:
We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and PsycINFO from database inception to 10 April 2017. We searched clinical trials registries and grey literature, and handsearched reference lists of included studies and related reviews.
Selection criteria:
We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs), and planned to include quasi-RCTs, comparing information or education interventions presented to participants versus no information or education interventions, or comparing information or education interventions as part of a complex intervention versus a complex intervention without information or education. We included participants who were adult ICU patients, or their carers; these included relatives and non-relatives, including significant representatives of patients.
Data collection and analysis:
Two review authors independently assessed studies for inclusion, extracted data, assessed risk of bias, and applied GRADE criteria to assess certainty of the evidence.
Main results:
We included eight RCTs with 1157 patient participants and 943 carer participants. We found no quasi-RCTs. We identified seven studies that await classification, and three ongoing studies.Three studies designed an intervention targeted at patients, four at carers, and one at both patients and carers. Studies included varied information: standardised or tailored, presented once or several times, and that included verbal or written information, audio recordings, multimedia information, and interactive information packs. Five studies reported robust methods of randomisation and allocation concealment. We noted high attrition rates in five studies. It was not feasible to blind participants, and we rated all studies as at high risk of performance bias, and at unclear risk of detection bias because most outcomes required self reporting.We attempted to pool data statistically, however this was not always possible due to high levels of heterogeneity. We calculated mean differences (MDs) using data reported from individual study authors where possible, and narratively synthesised the results. We reported the following two comparisons.Information or education intervention versus no information or education intervention (4 studies)For patient anxiety, we did not pool data from three studies (332 participants) owing to unexplained substantial statistical heterogeneity and possible clinical or methodological differences between studies. One study reported less anxiety when an intervention was used (MD -3.20, 95% confidence interval (CI) -3.38 to -3.02), and two studies reported little or no difference between groups (MD -0.40, 95% CI -4.75 to 3.95; MD -1.00, 95% CI -2.94 to 0.94). Similarly, for patient depression, we did not pool data from two studies (160 patient participants). These studies reported less depression when an information or education intervention was used (MD -2.90, 95% CI -4.00 to -1.80; MD -1.27, 95% CI -1.47 to -1.07). However, it is uncertain whether information or education interventions reduce patient anxiety or depression due to very low-certainty evidence.It is uncertain whether information or education interventions improve health-related quality of life due to very low-certainty evidence from one study reporting little or no difference between intervention groups (MD -1.30, 95% CI -4.99 to 2.39; 143 patient participants). No study reported adverse effects, knowledge acquisition, PTSD severity, or patient or carer satisfaction.We used the GRADE approach and downgraded certainty of the evidence owing to study limitations, inconsistencies between results, and limited data from few small studies.Information or education intervention as part of a complex intervention versus a complex intervention without information or education (4 studies)One study (three comparison groups; 38 participants) reported little or no difference between groups in patient anxiety (tailored information pack versus control: MD 0.09, 95% CI -3.29 to 3.47; standardised general ICU information versus control: MD -0.25, 95% CI -4.34 to 3.84), and little or no difference in patient depression (tailored information pack versus control: MD -1.26, 95% CI -4.48 to 1.96; standardised general ICU information versus control: MD -1.47, 95% CI -6.37 to 3.43). It is uncertain whether information or education interventions as part of a complex intervention reduce patient anxiety and depression due to very low-certainty evidence.One study (175 carer participants) reported fewer carer participants with poor comprehension among those given information (risk ratio 0.28, 95% CI 0.15 to 0.53), but again this finding is uncertain due to very low-certainty evidence.Two studies (487 carer participants) reported little or no difference in carer satisfaction; it is uncertain whether information or education interventions as part of a complex intervention increase carer satisfaction due to very low-certainty evidence. Adverse effects were reported in only one study: one participant withdrew because of deterioration in mental health on completion of anxiety and depression questionnaires, but the study authors did not report whether this participant was from the intervention or comparison group.We downgraded certainty of the evidence owing to study limitations, and limited data from few small studies.No studies reported severity of PTSD, or health-related quality of life.
Authors' conclusions:
We are uncertain of the effects of information or education interventions given to adult ICU patients and their carers, as the evidence in all cases was of very low certainty, and our confidence in the evidence was limited. Ongoing studies may contribute more data and introduce more certainty when incorporated into future updates of the review.
Cambridge Core - Social Psychology - Interpersonal Emotion Dynamics in Close Relationships - edited by Ashley K. Randall
The words people use in disclosing a trauma were hypothesized to predict improvements in mental and physical health in 2 studies. The first study reanalyzed data from 6 previous experiments in which language variables served as predictors of health. Results from 177 participants in previous writing studies showed that increased use of words associated with insightful and causal thinking was linked to improved physical but not mental health. Higher use of positive relative to negative emotion words was also associated with better health. An empirical measure that was derived from these data correlated with subsequent distress ratings. The second study tested these models on interview transcripts of 30 men who had lost their partners to AIDS. Cognitive change and empirical models predicted postbereavement distress at 1 year. Implications of using computer-based text analyses in the study of narratives are discussed.
Research by James J. Lynch and his colleagues demonstrates that as people speak, their blood pressure rises. Factors which accelerate or diminish this association include the social status of the listener, rate of speaking and resting blood pressure level. Another group of studies indicates that people high in social support are buffered from the negative health consequences of stressful life events. Is talking a stressor? Does social support mediate the effects of talking on blood pressure? Using procedures similar to those of Lynch, the study compared the cardiovascular responses of people high and low in perceived satisfaction with support provided by social contacts. Analysis of variance and simple correlations indicated that cardiovascular reactivity during both resting and talking states was negatively associated with social support.
Infant monkeys were reared with the aid of a laboratory constructed mother-substitute. "We produced a perfectly proportioned streamlined body stripped of unnecessary bulges and appendices. Redundancy in the surrogate mother's system was avoided by reducing the number of breasts from two to one and placing this unibreast in an upper-thoracic, sagittal position, thus maximizing the natural and known perceptual-motor capabilities of the infant operator. The surrogate was made from a block of wood, covered with sponge rubber, and sheathed in tan cotton terry cloth. A light bulb behind her radiated heat. The result was a mother, soft, warm, and tender, a mother with infinite patience, a mother available twenty-four hours a day, a mother that never scolded her infant and never struck or bit her baby in anger." The data obtained "make it obvious that contact comfort is a variable of overwhelming importance in the development of affectional responses, whereas lactation is a variable of negligible importance." It is suggested that the primary function of nursing "is that of insuring frequent and intimate body contact of infant with mother." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article defines stress and related concepts and reviews their historical development. The notion of a stress system as the effector of the stress syndrome is suggested, and its physiologic and pathophysiologic manifestations are described. A new perspective on human disease states associated with dysregulation of the stress system is provided.
Published original articles from human and animal studies and selected reviews. Literature was surveyed utilizing MEDLINE and the Index Medicus.
Original articles from the basic science and human literature consisted entirely of controlled studies based on verified methodologies and, with the exception of the most recent studies, replicated by more than one laboratory. Many of the basic science and clinical studies had been conducted in our own laboratories and clinical research units. Reviews cited were written by acknowledged leaders in the fields of neurobiology, endocrinology, and behavior.
Independent extraction and cross-referencing by the authors.
Stress and related concepts can be traced as far back as written science and medicine. The stress system coordinates the generalized stress response, which takes place when a stressor of any kind exceeds a threshold. The main components of the stress system are the corticotropin-releasing hormone and locus ceruleus-norepinephrine/autonomic systems and their peripheral effectors, the pituitary-adrenal axis, and the limbs of the autonomic system. Activation of the stress system leads to behavioral and peripheral changes that improve the ability of the organism to adjust homeostasis and increase its chances for survival. There has been an exponential increase in knowledge regarding the interactions among the components of the stress system and between the stress system and other brain elements involved in the regulation of emotion, cognitive function, and behavior, as well as with the axes responsible for reproduction, growth, and immunity. This new knowledge has allowed association of stress system dysfunction, characterized by sustained hyperactivity and/or hypoactivity, to various pathophysiologic states that cut across the traditional boundaries of medical disciplines. These include a range of psychiatric, endocrine, and inflammatory disorders and/or susceptibility to such disorders.
We hope that knowledge from apparently disparate fields of science and medicine integrated into a working theoretical framework will allow generation and testing of new hypotheses on the pathophysiology and diagnosis of, and therapy for, a variety of human illnesses reflecting systematic alterations in the principal effectors of the generalized stress response. We predict that pharmacologic agents capable of altering the central apparatus that governs the stress response will be useful in the treatment of many of these illnesses.
To prove the clinical usefulness of cortisol measurements in saliva for the exact assessment of a patient's corticoid status under therapeutic hormone substitution, we measured simultaneously total cortisol in serum and non-protein-bound cortisol in saliva after administration of different forms of hydrocortisone (cortisol) in eight cortisol-suppressed, healthy male volunteers. The intravenous and oral administration of 20 mg of cortisol exceeds the binding capacity of the corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG), leading to an increase of the ratio between salivary and serum cortisol at the higher cortisol concentrations in blood. After rectal administration of 100 mg of cortisol acetate, the serum cortisol concentration does not exceed the binding capacity of CBG, so the ratio between salivary and serum cortisol remains nearly constant. However, this ratio was higher after rectal administration than after intravenous and oral administration, probably because of weaker binding of the acetate form of cortisol to CBG. Thus, the salivary measurement of the non-protein-bound (i.e., biologically active) cortisol offers a convenient way to monitor the effectiveness of various forms of systemic corticoid substitution.
The measurement of cortisol in saliva provides the basic scientist as well as the clinician with a reliable tool for investigations of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Since saliva samples can be obtained stress-free and independent from medically trained personnel this method may be well suited for use in psychobiological studies. This overview intends to give a comprehensive introduction to the method of salivary cortisol assessment and to briefly discuss its application in different scientific disciplines.
This study examined whether heightened cardiovascular reactivity and low socioeconomic status had synergistic effects on the progression of carotid atherosclerosis in a population of eastern Finnish men.
Data from the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study were used to measure 4-year progression of intima-media thickness in 882 men according to cardiovascular reactivity and socioeconomic status. Associations were examined in relation to risk factors and were stratified by baseline levels of atherosclerosis and prevalent ischemic heart disease.
The effect of reactivity on atherosclerotic progression depended on socioeconomic status. Men who had heightened cardiovascular responsiveness to stress and were born into poor families, received little education, or had low incomes had the greatest atherosclerotic progression.
An understanding of associations between individual risk factors and disease should be based on etiologic hypotheses that are conceived at the population level and involve fundamental social and economic causes of disease. This study demonstrates how examining the interaction of an individual biological predisposition will low socioeconomic status over the life course is etiologically informative for understanding the progression of atherosclerotic vascular disease.
The human stress response has been characterized, both physiologically and behaviorally, as "fight-or-flight." Although fight-or-flight may characterize the primary physiological responses to stress for both males and females, we propose that, behaviorally, females' responses are more marked by a pattern of "tend-and-befriend." Tending involves nurturant activities designed to protect the self and offspring that promote safety and reduce distress; befriending is the creation and maintenance of social networks that may aid in this process. The biobehavioral mechanism that underlies the tend-and-befriend pattern appears to draw on the attachment-caregiving system, and neuroendocrine evidence from animal and human studies suggests that oxytocin, in conjunction with female reproductive hormones and endogenous opioid peptide mechanisms, may be at its core. This previously unexplored stress regulatory system has manifold implications for the study of stress.
This study showed that couples' newlywed marriages and changes in their union over the first 2 years foreshadow their long-term marital fate after 13 years. Consistent with the enduring dynamics model, differences in the intensity of newlyweds' romance as well as the extent to which they expressed negative feelings toward each other predicted (a) whether or not they were happy 13 years later (among those who stayed married) and (b) how long their marriage lasted prior to separation (for those who divorced). The results provide little support for the idea that emergence of distress (e.g., increasing negativity) early in marriage leads to marital failure but instead show that disillusionment--as reflected in an abatement of love, a decline in overt affection, a lessening of the conviction that one's spouse is responsive, and an increase in ambivalence--distinguishes couples headed for divorce from those who establish a stable marital bond.
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a steroid that shows a marked age-related decline in humans. Previous research suggests potential for DHEA replacement in old age to enhance cognition and well-being. We conducted a clinical trial to test these hypotheses in a non-clinical sample of 46 men aged 62–76. Participants received either 50 mg DHEA daily for 13 weeks, followed by placebo for 13 weeks, or the reverse, in a randomised double-blind cross-over trial design. Levels of salivary cortisol and DHEA were measured at 0800 h and 2000 h prior to each assessment session. Cognition was assessed with tests of speed, attention and episodic memory. Well-being was measured with questionnaires of mood and perceived health. Mood questionnaires were completed at the assessment session as well as concurrently with saliva sampling.
The human hypothalamus produces an endogenous membrane Na+-K+ ATPase inhibitor, digoxin, which can regulate neuronal transmission. The digoxin status and neurotransmitter patterns were studied in individuals with a predilection to fall in love. It was also studied in individuals with differing hemispheric dominance to find out the role of cerebral dominance in this respect. In individuals with a predilection to fall in love there was decreased digoxin synthesis, increased membrane Na+-K+ ATPase activity, decreased tryptophan catabolites (serotonin, quinolinic acid, and nicotine), and increased tyrosine catabolites (dopamine, noradrenaline, and morphine). This pattern correlated with that obtained in left hemispheric chemical dominance. Hemispheric dominance and hypothalamic digoxin could regulate the predisposition to fall in love.
To fall in love is the first step in pair formation in humans and is a complex process which only recently has become the object of neuroscientific investigation. The little information available in this field prompted us to measure the levels of some pituitary, adrenal and gonadal hormones in a group of 24 subjects of both sexes who had recently (within the previous six months) fallen in love, and to compare them with those of 24 subjects who were single or were part of a long-lasting relationship. The following hormones were evaluated by means of standard techniques: FSH, LH, estradiol, progesterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS), cortisol, testosterone and androstenedione. The results showed that estradiol, progesterone, DHEAS and androstenedione levels did not differ between the groups and were within the normal ranges. Cortisol levels were significantly higher amongst those subjects who had recently fallen in love, as compared with those who had not. FSH and testosterone levels were lower in men in love, while women of the same group presented higher testosterone levels. All hormonal differences were eliminated when the subjects were re-tested from 12 to 24 months later. The increased cortisol and low FSH levels are suggestive of the "stressful" and arousing conditions associated with the initiation of a social contact. The changes of testosterone concentrations, which varied in opposite directions in the two sexes, may reflect changes in behavioural and/or temperamental traits which have yet to be clarified. In conclusion, the findings of the present study would indicate that to fall in love provokes transient hormonal changes some of which seem to be specific to each sex.
Recently, a growing body of research has provided evidence that dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) is involved in an organism's response to stress and that it may provide beneficial behavioral and neurotrophic effects.
To investigate plasma DHEA-S and cortisol levels, psychological symptoms of dissociation, and military performance.
Prospective study. Setting and
Twenty-five healthy subjects enrolled in military survival school.
The DHEA-S-cortisol ratios during stress were significantly higher in subjects who reported fewer symptoms of dissociation and exhibited superior military performance.
These data provide prospective, empirical evidence that the DHEA-S level is increased by acute stress in healthy humans and that the DHEA-S-cortisol ratio may index the degree to which an individual is buffered against the negative effects of stress.
Previous research has provided evidence of autonomic, endocrine, and immunological dysregulation in repressers and a possible association with cancer incidence and progression. Recently published data from the authors' laboratory demonstrated that flatter diurnal cortisol slopes were a risk factor for early mortality in women with metastatic breast cancer. In the current analysis of this same sample (N=91), the authors tested differences at baseline between groups scored using the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory on diurnal cortisol slope and mean cortisol levels. When compared with self-assured and nonextreme groups, the represser and high-anxious groups had a significantly flatter diurnal slope. Diurnal slope was similar for repressers and high-anxious groups. Groups did not differ on mean cortisol levels, nor did they differ on intercept (morning) values.
Fear conditioning reliably increases the startle reflex and stress hormones, yet very little is known about the effect of stress hormones on fear-potentiated startle. Cortisol and the sulfate ester of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA-S) are involved in stress and anxiety. Evidence suggests that low cortisol/DHEA-S ratio has a buffering effect on stress and anxiety in preclinical and clinical studies, suggesting that there may be a relationship between fear-potentiated startle and cortisol and DHEA-S activity.
The aim of the study was to examine whether there is a relationship between cortisol/DHEA-S ratio and fear-potentiated startle.
Thirty healthy subjects participated in a differential aversive conditioning experiment during which one of two stimuli (CS+) was paired with a shock, and the other was not (CS-). Conditioned responses were assessed with the startle reflex, defined as startle potentiation during CS+ compared to CS-. DHEA-S and cortisol levels were assayed from blood samples collected in both a baseline and an aversive conditioning session. Subjective state anxiety, arousal, and valence were assessed at various times during testing.
Fear-potentiated startle was larger in individuals with high compared to low cortisol/DHEA-S ratio. Multiple regression analyses revealed that fear-potentiated startle was positively associated with cortisol and negatively associated with DHEA-S. There was no significant correlation between DHEA-S and cortisol levels.
These data suggest that cortisol and DHEA-S are involved in fear conditioning.
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is not a hormone but it is a very important prohormone secreted in large amounts by the adrenals in humans and other primates, but not in lower species. It is secreted in larger quantities than cortisol and is present in the blood at concentrations only second to cholesterol. All the enzymes required to transform DHEA into androgens and/or estrogens are expressed in a cell-specific manner in a large series of peripheral target tissues, thus permitting all androgen-sensitive and estrogen-sensitive tissues to make locally and control the intracellular levels of sex steroids according to local needs. This new field of endocrinology has been called intracrinology. In women, after menopause, all estrogens and almost all androgens are made locally in peripheral tissues from DHEA which indirectly exerts effects, among others, on bone formation, adiposity, muscle, insulin and glucose metabolism, skin, libido and well-being. In men, where the secretion of androgens by the testicles continues for life, the contribution of DHEA to androgens has been best evaluated in the prostate where about 50% of androgens are made locally from DHEA. Such knowledge has led to the development of combined androgen blockade (CAB), a treatment which adds a pure anti-androgen to medical (GnRH agonist) or surgical castration in order to block the access of the androgens made locally to the androgen receptor. In fact, CAB has been the first treatment demonstrated to prolong life in advanced prostate cancer while recent data indicate that it can permit long-term control and probably cure in at least 90% of cases of localized prostate cancer. The new field of intracrinology or local formation of sex steroids from DHEA in target tissues has permitted major advances in the treatment of the two most frequent cancers, namely breast and prostate cancer, while its potential use as a physiological HRT could well provide a physiological balance of androgens and estrogens, thus offering exciting possibilities for women's health at menopause.
Few behavioral processes are more central to the development and maintenance of intimate relationships than the communication of affection. Indeed, affectionate expressions often initiate and accelerate relational development. By contrast, their absence in established relationships frequently coincides with relational deterioration. This text explores the scientific research on affection exchange to emerge from the disciplines of communication, social psychology, family studies, psychophysiology, anthropology, and nursing. Specific foci include the individual and relational benefits (including health benefits) of affectionate behavior, as well as the significant risks often associated with expressing affection. A new, comprehensive theory of human affection exchange is offered, and its merits relative to existing theories are explored. © Cambridge University Press 2006 and Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Affection is central to the communicative processes of personal relationships. While several empirical investigations have examined the communication of affection, there is little consistency from study to study in how affectionate communication is operationally defined, making it difficult to interpret the findings of such research and to compare findings across studies. The present paper reports the results of a multi‐phase scale development procedure and two supplemental studies, involving a total of 781 participants, utilizing and validating a new self‐report measure of affectionate communication. The resulting scale, the Affectionate Communication Index, is offered as a practical and psychometrically sound operational definition for the overt communication of affection in personal relationships.
The present study examines differences in the individual‐and social‐level characteristics of high‐affection and low‐affection communicators. One hundred nine adults completed extensive questionnaires about their happiness, attachment patterns, susceptibility to depression and stress, mental health, social activity, relationship satisfaction, and other variables. Results revealed that highly affectionate people are advantaged in numerous psychological, mental, emotional, social, and relational characteristics, relative to those who communicate little affection to others.
Recent research on the communication of affection has begun to illuminate its implications for mental and physical health. Specifically, when compared to non-affectionate people, self-report studies have indicated that highly affectionate people are less susceptible to depression and stress, and endocrine studies have shown that highly affectionate people have more differentiated 24-hour cortisol rhythms (a pattern indicative of adaptive physiological stress management). The present studies extend this knowledge by focusing on the associations that trait affection has with cardiologic (resting heart rate), vascular (resting blood pressure), and metabolic (glycosylated hemoglobin) properties of physical health. Participants in both studies provided self-assessments of their trait levels of expressed affection and received affection (the latter for use as a covariate). Resting heart rate and blood pressure were assessed in the first study, and glycosylated hemoglobin was assessed in the second study. Results indicate that when the influence of received affection is controlled for, trait expressed affection was inversely related to resting blood pressure and glycosylated hemoglobin (but not heart rate), suggesting that the expression of affection is associated with a healthy vascular and metabolic profile.
The present study tested the general hypothesis that, irrespective of the amount of affectionate communication one typically receives, the amount of affectionate communication one typically expresses to others is associated with the body's ability to handle stress. Twenty healthy young adults reported on their trait levels of expressed and received affection and then took four saliva samples over the course of a normal workday. The saliva samples were assayed for levels of free cortisol, an adrenal steroid hormone associated with physiological responses to stress. Controlling for received affection, expressed affection was strongly and positively associated with waking cortisol values and with aggregate values. It was also strongly and positively related to the magnitude of morning-to-evening decrease in cortisol levels, a rhythm indicative of an adaptive ability to handle stress. Theoretic and methodological implications are discussed.
The Relationship Events Scale is presented as a self-report measure of courtship progress, reflecting increasing intimacy, interdependence, and commitment in dating relationships. The scale consists of 19 items marking the occurrence of specific events in dating relationships. Items are grouped in six levels to form a Guttman scale. The reliability of the scale is demonstrated by concordance of scores of both members of 55 couples. The concurrent validity of the scale is supported by substantial associations with the length of the relationship, the degree of emotional attachment, the expectancy that the relationship will be permanent, and the subject's classification of the relationship as casually dating, going steady, etc. Couples ranked higher on the scale were more likely to remain together at follow-up, five months later. The content of the six levels of the scale suggests a predictable sequence of stages that occur in the development of courtship relationships.
Affection exchange theory speaks to the benefits that affectionate communication elicits, not only when it is received but also when it is communicated to others. Previous research has provided evidence for the individual and relational benefits of having a high trait affection level, yet these benefits may partially be accounted for by the affectionate behavior one elicits from others by being affectionate in the first place. We addressed the validity of this alternative hypothesis in this project, first by re-analyzing data in which we compared correlations between trait affection level and various benefits with the same correlations after controlling for received affection. Next, in three studies involving a total sample of 1,144 people, we further investigated the benefits of expressed affection, both on its own and when received affection is covaried out. Results indicated that affection expressed to others is associated with numerous individual and relational benefits, including increased happiness and self esteem, decreased fear of intimacy and susceptibility to depression, and higher relationship satisfaction. Many of these effects are attenuated—and some are intensified—when affection received from others is held constant.
In two 5-week trials, healthy college students were randomly assigned either to experimental or control groups. Participants in the experimental groups wrote about their affection for significant friends, relatives, and/or romantic partners for 20 minutes on three separate occasions; on the same schedule, those in the control groups wrote about innocuous topics. Total cholesterol was assessed via capillary blood at the beginning of the trials and again at the end. Participants in the experimental groups experienced statistically significant reductions in total cholesterol. Control participants in the first study experienced a significant increase during the same period, whereas those in the second study did not. Cholesterol changes were largely unmoderated by linguistic features of the writing produced in the intervention. Potential therapeutic implications are discussed.
A new understanding of the endocrinology of menopause is that women, at menopause, are not only lacking estrogens resulting from cessation of ovarian activity but have also been progressively deprived for a few years of androgens and some estrogens originating from adrenal DHEA and androstenedione (4-dione). In fact, serum DHEA decreases by about 60% between the maximal levels seen at 30 years of age to the age of menopause. This decreased secretion of DHEA and DHEA-S by the adrenals is responsible for a parallel decrease in androgen and estrogen formation in peripheral tissues by the steroidogenic enzymes specifically expressed in each cell type in individual target tissues. This new field of endocrinology, called intracrinology, describes the local synthesis of androgens and estrogens made locally in each cell of each peripheral tissue from the adrenal precursors DHEA and 4-dione. These androgens and estrogens exert their action in the same cells where their synthesis takes place and they are released from these target cells only after being inactivated. To further understand the effect of DHEA in women, DHEA has been administered in postmenopausal women for 12 months. Such treatment resulted in increased bone formation and higher bone mineral density accompanied by elevated levels of osteocalcin, a marker of bone formation. Vaginal maturation was stimulated, while no effect was observed on the endometrium. Preclinical studies, on the other hand, have shown that, due to its predominant conversion into androgens, DHEA prevents the development and inhibits the growth of dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced mammary carcinoma in the rat, a model of breast cancer. DHEA also inhibits the growth of human breast cancer ZR-75-1 xenografts in nude mice. The inhibitory effect of DHEA on breast cancer is due to an androgenic effect of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone made locally from DHEA. When used as replacement therapy, DHEA is free of the potential risk of breast and uterine cancer, while it stimulates bone formation and vaginal maturation and decreases insulin resistance. The combination of DHEA with a fourth generation SERM, such as EM-652 (SCH 57068), a compound having pure and potent antiestrogenic activity in the mammary gland and endometrium, could provide major benefits for women at menopause (inhibition of bone loss and serum cholesterol levels) with the associated major advantages of preventing breast and uterine cancer. A widely used application of intracrinology is the treatment of prostate cancer where the testicles are blocked by an LHRH agonist while the androgens made locally in the prostate from DHEA are blocked by a pure antiandrogen. Such treatment, called combined androgen blockade, has led to the first demonstration of a prolongation of life in prostate cancer.
The relationship of free salivary cortisol stress recovery and basal cortisol with psychological, cardiovascular and metabolic factors was investigated in 82 healthy young men. Blood pressure, heart rate, cortisol and mood were assessed during a single laboratory session involving mental arithmetic and speech tasks, and lipid profiles were analysed from a fasting blood sample. Participants were divided into high (n=31) and low (n=51) cortisol stress recovery groups on the basis of the magnitude of changes between the peak cortisol responses to tasks and the lowest levels recorded at the end of a 30 min post-stress rest period. The high recovery group showed consistent increases in cortisol following each of the tasks, while the low recovery group showed little change across the session. Cortisol levels in the two groups did not differ at the end of the post-stress recovery period. The groups were indistinguishable in age, body mass index, smoking and alcohol consumption, and did not differ in psychological characteristics including anxiety, depression and perceived social support. However, the high stress recovery group had elevated low density lipoprotein cholesterol and total cholesterol/high density lipoprotein ratios, suggesting raised cardiovascular disease risk. The high stress recovery group also reported greater psychological activation during tasks, and greater recent minor life stress, than did the low recovery group. There was no association between rate of cortisol recovery and cardiovascular responses to tasks. But resting cortisol was related to blood pressure stress reactivity, suggesting that cortisol played a permissive role in augmenting sympathetically-driven cardiovascular responses. The results suggest that the rate of cortisol stress recovery is associated with variations in metabolic risk, and with differences in psychological state but not trait characteristics.
It has been suggested that heightened cardiovascular responses to behavioral stressors play some role in the development of arterial hypertension. Two aspects of this hypothesis are discussed here: (a) current conceptualizations of cardiovascular reactivity as a dimension of individual differences; and (b) models of potential association between such reactivity and hypertension. Considered first are matters bearing on the quantification of cardiovascular responses to stress and on the stability of individual differences in cardiovascular reactivity, both over time and between laboratory and natural (field) settings. While inter-individual differences on some measures of behaviorally-evoked cardiovascular response are reproducible (stable) on retesting, evidence that these differences predict reactions to stressors encountered during the course of daily activities is scant and inconclusive. We suggest that inconsistencies in the latter literature are due to methodologic deficiencies, to an absence of clearly articulated hypotheses describing expected associations between cardiovascular reactions to laboratory stressors and to naturally-occurring life events, and in part, to a confusion of objectives among investigators. Regarding hypertension, hypertensive individuals and offspring of hypertensives consistently show elevated cardiovascular reactions to laboratory stressors; also, the two existing longitudinal studies involving follow-up intervals of more than twenty years show significant prospective associations between cold pressor reactivity and subsequent hypertension. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that behaviorally-evoked cardiovascular reactivity plays some role in essential hypertension and justify further research in this area. As a guide to design of such research, five hypothetical relationships are proposed - that an enhanced reactivity: (a) potentiates vascular and end-organ complications of hypertension; (b) is a marker for increased risk conferred by an associated pathogenic factor; (c) directly promotes hypertension; (d) contributes to the development of hypertension only with exposure to psychosocial stressors of sufficient intensity and chronicity, or in conjunction with predisposing dispositional attributes; or (e) modifies the influences of another pathogenic factor. It is also recommended that future research employ more comprehensive assessments of reactivity and investigate factors underlying an enhanced cardiovascular responsivity to stress (particularly in relation to CNS and peripheral mechanisms of relevance to hypertension).
Dehydroisoandrosterone (DHA) and cortisol were measured by radioimmunoassay and protein binding techniques respectively in plasma from blood taken at 20-min intervals over 24-h periods in 3 normal men, 2 women with Stein-Leventhal syndrome and a man with a benign adrenocortical adenoma. In all subjects but the latter, DHA and cortisol were episodic and synchronous throughout the entire day; in this patient, continuous secretion of cortisol by the tumor apparently abolished stimulation of the contralateral adrenal, and DHA production was negligible. Dehydroisoandrosterone sulfate analysis in plasma displayed a pattern which, probably because of its origin both by secretion and sulfation and its long half-life showed less synchronicity with DHA and cortisol and less fluctuation than did the free hormones.
Dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate are endogenous steroids largely produced in the adrenal cortex and excreted in the urine. Many studies have demonstrated that administration of dehydroepiandrosterone to animals protects against a variety of chemical carcinogens. Epidemiological studies suggest that the circulating levels of these steroids in humans are related to the risk of developing some cancers and of dying from atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. We measured serum levels of both of these steroids in 35 individuals who donated serum to a community-based serum bank in 1974 and who subsequently developed bladder cancer and in 69 matched controls from the same cohort of volunteers. Prediagnostic serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate were significantly lower among cases compared with controls. The risk of developing bladder cancer increased monotonically with decreasing serum levels of both steroids. The observed associations were not affected by adjustment for smoking or the time interval between serum collection and diagnosis. These results support a role for dehydroepiandrosterone and/or dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in the prevention of bladder cancer.
To evaluate the usefulness of the plasma dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)-to-cortisol ratio (D/C) and the plasma aldosterone-to-plasma renin activity ratio (ALDO/PRA) as indicators of stress, we first monitored changes in these ratios associated with surgery in 13 patients who were healthy except for their localized gynecologic diseases. D/C and ALDO/PRA ratios were reduced by 37 and 42%, respectively, 4-5 days postsurgery compared to those 3-4 days before surgery (P less than 0.05 and P less than 0.01, respectively) and returned to preoperative levels 11-13 days after surgery. In contrast, individual hormone levels showed no significant changes associated with surgery. Having documented that these ratios may serve as indicators of stress, we then sequentially measured D/C ratios in patients with gynecologic malignancy subjected to cytotoxic chemotherapy or radiation therapy and in patients in the terminal stage. Although such therapies did not affect D/C ratios to a measurable extent, patients in the terminal stage gave consistently low D/C ratios in spite of normal vital signs (a D/C ratio below 6 was deemed low). Such low ratios occurred only sporadically in other patients and, again, individual values for DHEA and cortisol showed no consistent pattern. We believe that use of D/C ratios as an indicator of stress warrants further investigation.
The effects of stress on leukocyte membrane sodium efflux rate constant and plasma norepinephrine levels were studied before and during cold pressor test in normotensive subjects with and without a family history of hypertension. After 20 minutes of supine rest, no significant differences in total, ouabain-resistant or ouabain-sensitive sodium efflux rate constants were apparent between the two groups. In normotensive subjects with no family history, there was no significant change in any efflux rate constant during cold pressor test, although there was a highly significant negative correlation between change in total efflux rate constant and change in norepinephrine levels (r = -0.82, p less than 0.01, n = 12). During cold pressor test in subjects with a family history of hypertension, there was a significant rise in the ouabain-resistant efflux rate constant (1.5 +/- 0.1 vs 1.0 +/- 0.1 hr-1; p less than 0.01, n = 10); this level was also significantly higher than that in control subjects (p less than 0.002). In this group, the ouabain-sensitive efflux rate constant fell slightly but not significantly (1.8 +/- 0.2 vs 2.1 +/- 0.2 hr-1; n = 10). These results suggest that stress in the form of a cold stimulus produces qualitative differences in leukocyte cation transport in normotensive offspring of hypertensive patients as compared with subjects without such a family history.
A significant protective effect of a native adrenal steroid, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), was demonstrated in studies of two lethal viral infection models in mice: systemic coxsackievirus B4 and herpes simplex type 2 encephalitis. The steroid was active either by long-term feeding or by a single subcutaneous injection. A closely related steroid, etiocholanolone, was not protective in these models. Histopathological analysis, leukocyte counts, and numbers of spleen antibody forming cells in the coxsackievirus B4 model suggests that DHEA functions by maintaining or potentiating the immune competence of mice otherwise depressed by viral infection. DHEA was not effective in genetically immunodeficient HRS/J hr/hr mice and did not demonstrate antiviral activity in vitro. While the molecular basis for DHEA's effect on the immune system is not known, studies by others suggest that it may counteract the stress related immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids stimulated by viral infection. Because DHEA is a native steroid that has been used clinically with minimal side effects, the utility of DHEA in the therapeutic modulation of acute and chronic viral infections including the acquired immune deficiency syndrome deserves intensive study.
During serious illness, there are characteristic increases in serum cortisol concentrations and urinary cortisol excretion. In the present studies, we investigated these changes in glucocorticoid metabolism in relation to adrenal androgen metabolism, as measured by RIA of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHA) and DHA sulfate (DHAS). A group of 23 seriously ill men with various disorders, ill for a week or longer, was age-matched to a control group of 25 men, and the following changes were found: 1) basal serum cortisol concentrations were elevated in the ill group (P less than 0.001), 2) basal serum DHA and DHAS concentrations tended to be lower in the ill group (P less than 0.1); 3) basal serum DHA to cortisol and DHAS to cortisol ratios were decreased in the ill group by 80.3% and 77.2%, respectively (P less than 0.001); 4) ACTH-stimulated serum cortisol concentrations increased by the same absolute amount in both groups, whereas the increase in stimulated DHA concentrations in the ill group was 57.2% less (P less than 0.05), indicating a defect in ACTH-stimulated DHA reserve in serious illness; 5) basal daily unconjugated DHA excretion was lower in the ill group (P less than 0.05); (6) basal daily cortisol excretion was higher in the ill group (P less than 0.05); and 7) the basal daily urinary unconjugated DHA to cortisol ratio was 85.4% lower in the ill group (P less than 0.001). Recently, Zipser et al. described the entity of hyperreninemic hypoaldosteronism in the seriously ill. Their findings combined with our own indicate a relative shift in the metabolism of adrenal pregnenolone in serious illness away from mineralocorticoids and adrenal androgens and toward glucocorticoids. The cause of this change is unknown. We speculate that this shift of relative biochemical pathway predominance may be a factor necessary for survival during chronic severe stress.
Although acute stress has been associated with transient immunosuppression, little is known about the immunologic consequences of chronic stress in humans. In order to investigate possible health-related consequences of a long-term stressor, we obtained blood samples for immunologic and nutritional analyses and psychologic data from 34 family caregivers of Alzheimer's disease (AD) victims and 34 sociodemographically matched comparison subjects. Family caregivers for AD victims were more distressed than comparison subjects without similar responsibilities. Greater impairment in the AD victim was associated with greater distress and loneliness in caregivers. Caregivers had significantly lower percentages of total T lymphocytes and helper T lymphocytes than did comparison subjects, as well as significantly lower helper-suppressor cell ratios; caregivers also had significantly higher antibody titers to Epstein-Barr virus than did comparison subjects, presumably reflecting poorer cellular immune system control of the latent virus in caregivers. The percentages of natural killer cells and suppressor T lymphocytes did not differ significantly. These data suggest that chronically stressed AD family caregivers do not show immunologic or psychologic adaptation to the level of their well-matched age peers.
Twenty-four-hour mean plasma concentrations of cortisol, dehydroisoandrosterone (DHA), and dehydroisoandrosterone sulfate (DHAS) were measured in 14 young women (aged 19-29 yr) with anorexia nervosa (AN) in relapse and 10 age-matched healthy control women. Six of the AN patients were restudied after 5-35 months, when they were in partial remission. The AN patients in relapse showed significantly elevated plasma cortisol levels (11.3 vs. 7.3 μg/dl; P<0.0001), as previously reported, but had subnormal adrenal androgen levels; DHA averaged 375 ng/dl (vs. 540 ng/dl in controls; P<0.05), and DHAS averaged 64 μg/dl (vs. 86 μg/dl in controls; P=NS). The DHA to cortisol ratio, which reflects the relative activities of the 17-hydroxypregnenolone → DHA and 17-hydroxypregnenolone → cortisol pathways, averaged less than half of normal (32 vs. 74; P<0.001). Each of the 6 patients restudied while in partial remission showed an increase in the DHA to cortisol ratio, and the group as a whole showed a significant increase (P<0.001), from a mean of 36 to a nearly normal value of 62. The failure of DHA levels to rise in AN patients in response to increased ACTH levels that result in elevated cortisol production and plasma cortisol levels resembles the picture seen in normal preadrenarcheal children; presumably, it is due to low activity of 17,20-lyase (the enzyme that converts 17-hydroxy-pregnenolone to DHA), physiological in preadrenarcheal children and pathological in AN. The subnormal DHA to cortisol ratio in AN, therefore, constitutes a second hormonal parameter of ontogenic regression, regression of the 24-h plasma LH profile being the first.
Serum concentrations of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) were measured in patients with hyperadrenocorticism. When compared to normal subjects of corresponding age, serum DHEA-S levels were normal or elevated in 37 patients with Cushing's disease. In contrast, DHEA-S levels were significantly lower than those of normal subjects in all 28 patients with hyperadrenocorticism due to benign adrenocortical adenoma, suggesting that ACTH is the major determinant of DHEA-S secretion and that determination of serum DHEA-S concentrations is useful in the biochemical differential diagnosis of the etiology of Cushing's syndrome. In six patients with adrenocortical adenoma, the recovery of suppressed DHEA-S secretion after removal of the adrenal gland affected by a tumor was studied. Serum cortisol levels normalized by the end of the second year after unilateral adrenalectomy, while DHEA-S levels remained low for at least 2 succeeding yr. The results suggest that deficient ACTH secretion may result in a greater and longer lasting loss in the ability of the adrenal cortex to secrete androgens than in the ability to secrete cortisol.
This study addressed the effects of a naturally occurring stressor on components of the immune response. Blood was drawn twice from 75 first-year medical students, with a baseline sample taken one month before their final examinations and a stress sample drawn on the first day of final examinations. Median splits on scores from the Holmes--Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale and the UCLA Loneliness Scale produced a 2 X 2 X 2 repeated measures ANOVA when combined with the trials variable. Natural killer (NK) cell activity declined significantly from the first to the second sample. High scorers on stressful life events and loneliness had significantly lower levels of NK activity. Total plasma IgA increased significantly from the first to second sample, while plasma IgG and IgM, C-reactive protein, and salivary IgA did not change significantly.
Plasmatic and salivary levels of six steroid hormones in adult males and females are given and compared to the data of the literature. These steroids are: cortisol (F), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHA) and its sulphate (DHAS), androstenedione (A), testosterone (T) and 11 beta OH androstenedione (OHA). The salivary assay of the last compound is an original. The correlations between salivary and plasmatic values are presented and confirm that this method is a reliable alternative for hormonal investigations. From these data and from those of the literature, the salivary versus plasmatic ratio are calculated. From the fact that high concentrations of DHAS in saliva generally stem from blood contamination, we derive a method to estimate the amount of this contamination and its impact on other steroids measured on the same saliva sample.
In an attempt to evaluate possible adrenal abnormalities in Alzheimer's disease (AD), prestimulus levels and ACTH-stimulated serum levels of steroid hormones, corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG), and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) were measured in 18 patients with early AD (8 men, 10 women; 74.6 +/- 6.5 years, mean +/- SD) and 19 healthy controls (10 men, 9 women; 74.2 +/- 7.6 years, mean +/- SD). Steroid hormone levels were measured before and after an intravenous bolus injection of 250 micrograms ACTH. AD per se had an independent influence on hormone levels when evaluated in MANOVA models. AD patients had significantly higher prestimulus levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and androstenedione (p = .04 and p = .003, respectively) with accentuated differences after ACTH (p = .02 and p < .001 for peak responses, respectively). Serum levels of cortisol, CBG, free cortisol, 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone (17 alpha-OHP), and IGF-I did not differ between groups. These abnormalities may have implications for neuronal degeneration as well as for behavioural symptoms in AD.
There is significant variability among individuals in the cardiovascular responses to both physical and psychologic stimuli, a phenomenon called cardiovascular reactivity. The magnitude of cardiovascular reactivity may distinguish those prone to develop cardiovascular disease or differentiate pathophysiologic states among individuals who have existing pathologies such as hypertension. This article describes the cardiovascular reactivity hypothesis as a proposed mechanism of hypertension development. Furthermore, proposed mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of hyperreactivity are also discussed. The value of assessing stress-induced cardiovascular reactivity is evaluated with special regard to hypertension, and future avenues for nursing research are presented.
To examine the hypothesis that diverse ties to friends, family, work, and community are associated with increased host resistance to infection.
After reporting the extent of participation in 12 types of social ties (eg, spouse, parent, friend, workmate, member of social group), subjects were given nasal drops containing 1 of 2 rhinoviruses and monitored for the development of a common cold.
Quarantine.
A total of 276 healthy volunteers, aged 18 to 55 years, neither seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus nor pregnant.
Colds (illness in the presence of a verified infection), mucus production, mucociliary clearance function, and amount of viral replication.
In response to both viruses, those with more types of social ties were less susceptible to common colds, produced less mucus, were more effective in ciliary clearance of their nasal passages, and shed less virus. These relationships were unaltered by statistical controls for prechallenge virus-specific antibody, virus type, age, sex, season, body mass index, education, and race. Susceptibility to colds decreased in a dose-response manner with increased diversity of the social network. There was an adjusted relative risk of 4.2 comparing persons with fewest (1 to 3) to those with most (6 or more) types of social ties. Although smoking, poor sleep quality, alcohol abstinence, low dietary intake of vitamin C, elevated catecholamine levels, and being introverted were all associated with greater susceptibility to colds, they could only partially account for the relation between social network diversity and incidence of colds.
More diverse social networks were associated with greater resistance to upper respiratory illness.
This study examined the effects of a 10-week cognitive-behavioral stress management (CBSM) intervention on dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) levels and the ratio of cortisol to DHEA-S (cortisol/DHEA-S), potential surrogate adrenal markers of HIV disease progression, in relation to alterations in mood and distress. HIV-seropositive men were randomized to either a group-based CBSM intervention (n = 43) or to a wait-list control group (n = 24), with both hormonal and distress measures assessed just prior to and immediately following the 10-week period. Results showed that CBSM buffers decreases in DHEA-S and increases in the cortisol/DHEA-S ratio. Further examination also revealed that changes in the cortisol/DHEA-S ratio were significantly and positively related to changes in total mood disturbance and perceived stress over time. These findings demonstrate that a short-term CBSM intervention can buffer against decrements in DHEA-S and increments in the cortisol/DHEA-S ratio among symptomatic, HIV-positive men, and that alterations in the cortisol/DHEA-S ratio move in concert with changes in mood and distress observed during CBSM.
The neurohormone oxytocin is responsible for initiating childbirth and the let-down reflex in lactating women and is released during sexual orgasm. Oxytocin has been thought of as an affiliation hormone because research on nonhuman mammals has demonstrated that it plays a key role in the initiation of maternal behavior and the formation of adult pair bonds. It has been speculated that social stimuli may induce oxytocin release and that oxytocin may make positive social contact more rewarding. Data are presented from an initial study to examine change in plasma oxytocin in response to a standard imagery task that elicits emotion related to attachment. Twenty-five normal cycling, healthy women underwent imagery tasks and completed questionnaires on attachment and interpersonal problems. Blood draws (5 ml) were bone via an indwelling catheter before, during, and after three interventions (massage, positive emotion, and negative emotion) and to establish baselines. Overall, the data showed a tendency for oxytocin levels to be elevated in response to relaxation massage and decreased in response to sad emotion. There were individual differences in response to the interventions. Those who showed evidence of increased oxytocin levels for positive emotion and massage and who maintained oxytocin levels during negative emotion were less likely to report interpersonal problems associated with intrusiveness. Maintaining oxytocin levels during sadness was also correlated with lower anxiety in close relationships. Women who were in a couple relationship had greater increases in oxytocin in response to positive emotion. In contrast, higher basal levels of oxytocin were associated with greater interpersonal distress. These data suggest that peripheral secretion of oxytocin in response to emotional stimuli is associated with the individual's interpersonal characteristics.
Representing a challenge for current concepts of stress research, a number of studies have now provided convincing evidence that the adrenal gland is hypoactive in some stress-related states. The phenomenon of hypocortisolism has mainly been described for patients, who experienced a traumatic event and subsequently developed post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, as presented in this review, hypocortisolism does not merely represent a specific correlate of PTSD, since similar findings have been reported for healthy individuals living under conditions of chronic stress as well as for patients with several bodily disorders. These include chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, other somatoform disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, and asthma, and many of these disorders have been related to stress. Although hypocortisolism appears to be a frequent and widespread phenomenon, the nature of the underlying mechanisms and the homology of these mechanisms within and across clinical groups remain speculative. Potential mechanisms include dysregulations on several levels of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis. In addition, factors such as genetic vulnerability, previous stress experience, coping and personality styles may determine the manifestation of this neuroendocrine abnormality. Several authors proposed theoretical concepts on the development or physiological meaning of hypocortisolism. Based on the reviewed findings, we propose that a persistent lack of cortisol availability in traumatized or chronically stressed individuals may promote an increased vulnerability for the development of stress-related bodily disorders. This pathophysiological model may have important implications for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of the classical psychosomatic disorders.
In recent years, adrenal function and aging has been the subject of intense interest. This cross-sectional study examines age and gender differences in plasma levels of cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA-sulfate (DHEAS), and the molar ratio of cortisol/DHEAS in 50-89-yr-old community-dwelling adults. Plasma hormone levels were assayed in samples obtained between 0730 h and 1100 h from 857 men and 735 nonestrogen-using, postmenopausal women. Hormone levels were stratified by 10-yr age groups and compared by two-factor (gender and age) ANOVA. Overall, age and BMI-adjusted DHEA and DHEAS [collectively DHEA(S)] levels were 40% lower and cortisol levels 10% higher in women than men, resulting in a 1.7-fold higher cortisol/DHEAS molar ratio for women (both, P < 0.001). Cortisol levels increased progressively (20% overall) with age in both men and women (both, P < 0.01). Although DHEA(S) levels declined 60% and the cortisol/DHEAS ratio increased 3-fold across the 40-yr age range for both men and women (all P < 0.001), the pattern of the change differed (all P < 0.01 for interaction). For men, DHEA(S) fell in a curvilinear fashion, with the degree of change decreasing with each decade. In contrast, DHEA(S) levels in women fell 40% from the 50s to 60s, were unvarying from 60-80 yr of age, and declined an additional 18% in the 80s. The cortisol/DHEAS ratio increased in a linear fashion for men, but was flat during the 60-80-yr age range for women. Despite these differences in the effect of aging, levels of DHEA(S) remained lower and cortisol and the cortisol/DHEAS ratio higher, in women than men throughout the 50-89-yr age range. These results were independent of adiposity, smoking, and alcohol consumption. In summary, among older, healthy adults DHEA(S) levels are lower and cortisol levels higher in women than men. The age-related decline in adrenal androgens persists into advanced age for both men and women, but exhibits a sexually dimorphic pattern. In contrast, cortisol levels in men and women show a parallel, linear increase with aging. These findings may have important implications for a host of age-related processes that exhibit gender differences, including brain function, bone metabolism, and cardiovascular disease.
Diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer can be a stressful experience, putting women at risk of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The current study investigated morning cortisol levels in newly diagnosed (i.e., within 6 months) breast cancer patients.
Structured DSM-IV interviews determined current and past incidence of PTSD and major depressive disorder (MDD) in 71 women with Stage 0-3 breast cancer.
Significantly decreased plasma cortisol was found in women meeting current or lifetime criteria for PTSD or past diagnosis of MDD.
These results reinforce the importance for both psychological and physiological outcomes of a clinical evaluation of both current and past psychiatric status in newly diagnosed cancer patients.
This study examines whether pre- or post-dexamethasone salivary cortisol is related to cumulative critical incident exposure, peritraumatic responses, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity. Thirty active duty police officers completed the study protocol, which included measures of peritraumatic emotional distress, peritraumatic dissociation, duty-related trauma exposure, and PTSD symptoms. Salivary cortisol was consolidated into three outcome variables: (1) pre-dexamethasone free cortisol levels at 1, 30, 45, and 60 min after awakening, (2) post-dexamethasone cortisol levels at the identical wake times, and (3) percentage of cortisol suppression. Control variables included age, gender, average daily alcohol use, night shift work, routine work environment stressors, and salivary dexamethasone levels. Zero order correlations showed that greater levels of PTSD symptoms, peritraumatic distress, and peritraumatic dissociation were associated with lower levels of pre-dexamethasone cortisol levels on awakening, but were not associated with the other two cortisol variables. A trend was also noted for older subjects to have lower pre-dexamethasone cortisol on awakening. When these four predictors were entered simultaneously in a regression analysis, only age and PTSD symptom severity significantly predicted pre-dexamethasone awakening cortisol levels. These results replicate previous research indicating a relationship between greater PTSD symptoms and lower levels of basal cortisol on awakening, and extend this finding to a previously unstudied non-treatment seeking population, urban police.
We examined whether the magnitude of plasma oxytocin (OT), norepinephrine (NE), cortisol, and blood pressure (BP) responses before and after a brief episode of warm contact (WC) with the spouse/partner may be related to the strength of perceived partner support.
Subjects were 38 cohabiting couples (38 men, 38 women) aged 20 to 49 years. All underwent 10 minutes of resting baseline alone, 10 minutes of WC together with their partner, and 10 minutes of postcontact rest alone.
Greater partner support (based on self-report) was related to higher plasma oxytocin in men and women across the protocol before and after WC. In women, higher partner support was correlated with lower systolic blood pressure (SBP) during solitary rest after WC but not before. Also, higher OT in women was linked to lower BP at baseline and to lower NE at all 4 measurements.
Greater partner support is linked to higher OT for both men and women; however, the importance of OT and its potentially cardioprotective effects on sympathetic activity and BP may be greater for women.