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Block Play Performance Among Preschoolers As a Predictor of Later School Achievement in Mathematics
Abstract
In 1982, an intact group of 37 preschoolers (age 4) attending a play-oriented preschool were tested using the Lunzer Five Point Play Scale (1955) to obtain a block performance measure. To statistically control for social economic status (SES), IQ and gender, the McCarty Scales of Children's Abilities (1972) were given, the gender determined, and an SES score obtained (Hollingshead & Redlick, 1958). In 1998, after these same participants had completed high school, their records were obtained. Outcome measures for the 3rd, 5th, and 7th grades included standardized tests and report card grades in mathematics. High school achievement was determined by using 1) number of courses, 2) number of honors courses, 3) advanced math courses taken, and 4) grades. While controlling for IQ and gender, the block performance measure was correlated and regressed against these outcome variables. No significance was found at the 3rd- and 5th-grade levels by evaluating report card grades and standardized math scores. At 7th-grade, there was a significant correlation between blocks and standardized math scores, but not report card grades. At the high school level, there was a positive correlation with all high school outcome variables. There was no correlation between block performance and standardized math tests or grades at the elementary school levels. However, at the beginning of middle school, 7th grade, and in the high school grades, a positive correlation between preschool block performance and math achievement was demonstrated.
... Although the exact definition of play is debated (Smith 2005;Wallerstedt and Pramling 2012;Whitebread et al. 2012;Zosh et al. 2018), there is consensus on children's motivation for involvement in play for exploration and discovery and its exceptional complexity in inducing learning (Pyle et al. 2017;Smith 2005Smith , 2010; Whitebread et al. 2012). Play is also an integrating process (Wood and Bennett 1997), where children draw upon and connect previous experiences, represent their ideas in different ways, imagine possibilities, explore, and create new meanings (Dockett and Perry 2007). ...
... Researchers have explored specific types of play (e.g., pretend, construction, sensorimotor) and their capacity to enhance children's cognitive development (Lillard et al. 2013;Wolfgang et al. 2001;Smith 2017). The more complex the play, the more it impacts development (e.g., pretend play;Beckwith et al. 1994;Lifter et al. 2011;Lillard et al. 2013;Zosh et al. 2022). ...
... The more complex the play, the more it impacts development (e.g., pretend play;Beckwith et al. 1994;Lifter et al. 2011;Lillard et al. 2013;Zosh et al. 2022). What is evident is that children acquire foundational cognitive skills that drive learning during play, such as overcoming impulses through cognitive self-regulation, behavior control through emotional self-control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, receptive and expressive language, social interaction, and attention to processes and outcomes (Park 2019;Wolfgang et al. 2001). Many researchers recognize play as a medium for learning and the foundation for exploration (Bergen 2009;Pramling Samuelsson and Johansson 2009;White 2012;Whitebread et al. 2017). ...
Play is an integrative process, and the skills acquired in it-overcoming impulses, behavior control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, reasoning, drawing conclusions, and attention to processes and outcomes are foundational cognitive structures that drive learning and motivation. Loose parts play is a prominent form of play that many scholars and educators explicitly endorse for cognitive development (e.g., divergent thinking, problem-solving). It is unique among play types because children can combine different play types and natural or manufactured materials in one occurrence. While educators and policymakers promote the benefits of loose parts play, no previous research has explored the direct relationship between preschool-age children's indoor loose parts play experiences and cognitive development. We address this gap by bringing together the relevant literature and synthesizing the empirical studies on common play types with loose parts, namely object and exploratory, symbolic and pretend, and constructive play. We also focus on studies that examine children's experiences through loose parts, highlighting the impact of different play types on learning through the reinforcement of cognitive skills, such as executive function , cognitive self-regulation, reasoning, and problem-solving. By examining the existing literature and synthesizing empirical evidence, we aim to deepen our understanding of the relationship between children's play with loose parts and its impact on cognitive development. Ultimately, pointing out the gaps in the literature that would add to the body of knowledge surrounding the benefits of play for cognitive development and inform educators, policymakers, and researchers about the significance of incorporating loose parts play into early childhood education.
... Block play has been identified as an optimal early childhood activity for promoting children's spatial skills (Brosnan, 1998;Caldera et al., 1999;Casey et al., 2008;Ginsburg, 2006;Ness & Farenga, 2007) and is a ubiquitous classroom activity (Hirsch, 1974;Yelland, 2011). Beyond its relation to spatial reasoning, research has shown that block play is related more broadly to mathematics (Pirrone & Di Nuovo, 2014;Verdine et al., 2014;Wolfgang et al., 2001), and even literacy (Snow et al., 2015) and executive functioning . Early engagement in block play, specifically during the preschool years, is also predictive of later math achievement (Caldera et al., 1999;Stannard et al., 2001;. ...
... Studies on block building have typically focused on whether children accurately created an end product (e.g., block structure or design) and whether participating in block play, in general, was related to later mathematical skills (Verdine et al., 2017;Wolfgang et al., 2001). Evaluating only the end result of block building instead of the process of block building itself precludes any understanding of how and why block play may promote mathematics and other academic or cognitive skills (Bower et al., 2020a), including the mathematical language they may use while building with blocks. ...
The goals of the current study were: 1) to modify and expand an existing spatial mathematical language coding system to include quantitative mathematical language terms and 2) to examine the extent to which preschool-aged children used spatial and quantitative mathematical language during a block play intervention. Participants included 24 preschool-aged children (Age M = 57.35 months) who were assigned to a block play intervention. Children participated in up to 14 sessions of 15-to-20-minute block play across seven weeks. Results demonstrated that spatial mathematical language terms were used with a higher raw frequency than quantitative mathematical language terms during the intervention sessions. However, once weighted frequencies were calculated to account for the number of codes in each category, spatial language was only used slightly more than quantitative language during block play. Similar patterns emerged between domains within the spatial and quantitative language categories. These findings suggest that both quantitative and spatial mathematical language usage should be evaluated when considering whether child activities can improve mathematical learning and spatial performance. Further, accounting for the number of codes within categories provided a more representative presentation of how mathematical language was used versus solely utilizing raw word counts. Implications for future research are discussed.
... Of course, there may be benefits to gendered play as well, particularly when children of each sex experience both masculine and feminine forms of play since these different types of play activities offer different opportunities for learning (Blakemore & Centers, 2005;Granger et al., 2017;Kersh et al., 2008;Miller, 1987;Wolfgang et al., 2001). For example, research suggests that children who regularly participate in masculine play activities like building with blocks may develop better spatial skills and subsequently math skills (Ishikawa & Montello, 2006;Kersh et al., 2008;Wolfgang et al., 2001), while those engaging in feminine toy play may develop greater nurturance, creativity, and domestic skills (Blakemore & Centers, 2005;Miller, 1987). ...
... Of course, there may be benefits to gendered play as well, particularly when children of each sex experience both masculine and feminine forms of play since these different types of play activities offer different opportunities for learning (Blakemore & Centers, 2005;Granger et al., 2017;Kersh et al., 2008;Miller, 1987;Wolfgang et al., 2001). For example, research suggests that children who regularly participate in masculine play activities like building with blocks may develop better spatial skills and subsequently math skills (Ishikawa & Montello, 2006;Kersh et al., 2008;Wolfgang et al., 2001), while those engaging in feminine toy play may develop greater nurturance, creativity, and domestic skills (Blakemore & Centers, 2005;Miller, 1987). The traditional preschool in our study with its preponderance of toys and other items made by humans afforded many more opportunities for gendered play. ...
Early childhood experiences have lifelong physical, social, emotional, and cognitive impacts. High quality early childhood education and care (ECEC) can put children on the path to personal development, lifelong learning, and future employability. Among the fastest growing ECEC options are nature-based preschools, where children spend most or all of each day outdoors in natural environments, but comparative studies of children’s behavior in nature-based versus traditional preschools are needed. We conducted an observational study comparing conflict, activity patterns, and play behavior among children at a nature preschool and a traditional preschool, both in Norway, where access to high quality ECEC is a universal right. We found that preschool children’s behavior varied with time spent outdoors in natural environments: (1) play was more physically active, less gendered, and less often incorporated human-made items at the nature preschool, (2) conflict was almost twice as common at the traditional preschool, and (3) daily group activities at the traditional preschool like sitting down to a cooked meal and gathering up and putting away toys were absent from the nature preschool. While both the traditional and nature preschools offered children equal amounts of play time and a variety of physically and socially stimulating play activities, our results suggest that access to natural environments impacts preschool children’s behavior and interactions in meaningful ways.
... Likewise, children's block play is grounded in social-constructivist theory (Piaget, 1967). As children engage with materials and actively explore block properties, they construct knowledge in geometric and spatial principles, social language, and cooperative peer relationships (Ferrara, Hirsh-Pasek, Newcombe, Golinkoff, & Lam, 2011;Wolfgang, Stannard, & Jones, 2001). Observations of preschoolers' play with blocks and other loose parts materials indicate evidence of engineering play behavior. ...
... Preschoolers' informal mathematical knowledge predicts school achievement in formal mathematical skills, such as using and writing Arabic numerals, operational signs, and algorithms (Aunio & Niemivirta, 2010;Purpura, Baroody, & Lonigan, 2013). Moreover, preschoolers' block building complexity predicts later school mathematical achievement (Wolfgang et al., 2001(Wolfgang et al., , 2003. We The Preschool Engineering Play Behaviors (P-EBP) observation instrument is copyrighted and not to be used in research or for other educational purposes without permission of the author (Gold et al., 2015. ...
... But children are natural engineers, too, wanting to build things and design solutions, and this type of play can have beneficial effects in the long term. For example, preschool block building predicts math achievement as far out as high school (Wolfgang et al., 2001). ...
... Early engineering is a relatively young research field, although block building has been widely studied. For example, preschoolers' competence building with blocks predicts the number of mathematics courses they take and their grades in high school (Wolfgang et al., 2001). Further, developmental progressions for block building are well established (Sarama & Clements, 2009b). ...
... Construction open-ended play offers children the opportunity to "classify, measure, order, count, use fractions and become aware of depth, width, length, symmetry, shape and space" (p. 174) and understand concepts of space and physical properties of objects (Wolfgang et al., 2001). First, block play facilitated students to learn numeracy which includes counting, comparison, and operations (Schmitt et al., 2018). ...
... It offers a learning environment for children to plan the building structure, solve problems in the face of challenges and negotiate with peers (Yelland, 2011), which are important elements of self-regulation (Miyake et al., 2000). Moreover, block play could provide children with opportunities to practice mental representations of objects and products (Wolfgang et al., 2001). One of the focuses of this study is self-regulation, an important executive functioning skill to facilitate children to control their behaviour (Sniehotta, 2009) and manage their emotions to make good decisions (Fitzsimons & Bargh, 2004). ...
Programmable robotics is recently used in early childhood education (ECE) to introduce programming and computational thinking (CT) skills. However, there is a further need for research to contrast the efficacy of children's participation in robot programming and traditionally beneficial ECE activities. The present study thus investigated the effects of a robot programming intervention versus a block play program on kindergarteners' CT, sequencing ability, and self‐regulation. The experiment (robot programming) versus comparison (block play) condition was randomly assigned to four kindergarten classes, which included 101 kindergarteners (M = 64.78 months, SD = 7.64). Statistical analyses revealed that the robot programming group (N = 54) had experienced greater gains over time in sequencing ability relative to those in the block play group (N = 47; F = 5.09, p < 0.05). Children in the robot programming group with lower level of self‐regulation at baseline showed larger improvements in sequencing ability over time relative to the block play group (F = 2.37, p = 0.01). Also, children in the robot programming group with older age showed larger improvements in CT over time relative to the block play group (F = 2.40, p < 0.01). The study demonstrates the positive benefits of robot programming to early childhood development in terms of CT and sequencing ability, compared to a traditional curriculum activity in ECE—block play.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic Screen‐free robot programming can enhance preschool children's computational thinking (CT).
Block play can enhance preschool children's mathematics and executive functioning.
Both robot programming and block play are engaging for preschool children.
What this paper adds An unplugged CT assessment is used to measure and compare the effects of both robot programming and block play interventions among preschool children.
Robot programming outperforms block play in promoting children's school readiness skills such as sequencing ability.
Children with lower self‐regulation skills benefited more from the robot programming intervention.
Implications for practice and/or policy Robot programming and CT education should be expanded in diverse early childhood settings to boost the positive effects.
Technology‐enhanced curricula should be integrated into early childhood education.
Teachers should receive training on robot programming in addition to more traditional skills such as scaffolding children's block play.
... This demonstrates that construction play in kindergarten may have long-term effects on logical-mathematical knowledge (C. H. Wolfgang et al., 2001). ...
The importance of geometry has been highlighted since antiquity. Studies show that we have geometric knowledge from infancy age. Some geometric skills are innate and are not taught in school. However, cultivating them can be achieved in many ways at a very young age and has positive academic results in the future. Unfortunately, nowadays students do not show the necessary interest in the subject and as a result they have not developed their geometric thinking and encounter difficulties both in everyday life and at school.
... Groth-Marnat and Teal (2000) found that the BDT was related to everyday spatial abilities, such as arranging furniture and packing boxes, thus providing evidence of the measure's predictive validity in realworld settings. Block-based construction tasks, such as the BDT, predict achievement and entering careers in STEM fields (Fernández-Méndez et al. 2020;Hsi et al. 1997;Tian et al. 2023;Verdine et al. 2014;Wolfgang et al. 2001); consequently, the BDT is used frequently in educational assessment and research. Comprehensive cognitive assessment identifies patterns of strengths and weakness and supports the creation of individualized education plans (IEPs) (Grigorenko et al. 2020). ...
The block design test (BDT) has been used for over a century in research and clinical contexts as a measure of spatial cognition, both as a singular ability and as part of more comprehensive intelligence assessment. Traditionally, the BDT has been scored using methods that do not reflect the full potential of individual differences that could be measured by the test. Recent advancements in technology, including eye-tracking, embedded sensor systems, and artificial intelligence, have provided new opportunities to measure and analyze data from the BDT. In this methodological review, we outline the information that BDT can assess, review several recent advancements in measurement and analytic methods, discuss potential future uses of these methods, and advocate for further research using these methods.
... Through hands-on manipulation of play materials, children develop spatial literacy, cognitive flexibility, and mathematical classification knowledge such as color, size, shape, texture, and sequencing [43]. This creative exploration lays the foundation for future success in academic subjects like math, architecture, and engineering [44][45][46]. Additionally, research shows that constructive play in early childhood correlates with literacy and language development and that hands-on play with nonelectronic play materials is associated with improved quality and quantity of language growth [47,48]. ...
Constructive play is a creative process-oriented activity that promotes children’s engaged learning through building and designing with materials. This study investigated a parent-implemented intervention to promote active engagement in constructive play for preschool-aged children at risk for developmental delay. This study utilized a single-subject multiple-baseline across-participants design with four participants. Visual analysis of the data identified a functional relation between the temporal, physical, and social–emotional environmental support provided by the parents and the children’s active engagement in constructive play. Parents reported the intervention as meaningful to their lives, indicating strong social validity. These findings highlight the importance of centering and working with parents in their home environment and provide evidence that empowering parents to provide support and minimize barriers facilitates children’s active engagement in constructive play.
... The analysis results indicate a significant difference in favor of the experimental group in the EMAT total score and sub-dimensions of number/counting, geometry, and measurement. The study aligns with the existing literatüre (Akkuş-Sevigen, 2013; Alabay, 2006; Barnett et al., 2008;Bulut-Pedük, 2007;Chard et al., 2008;Clements and Sarama, 2008;Çamlıbel-Çakmak, 2012;Çelik & Kandir, 2013;Demirtaş, 2005;Erdoğan, 2006;Genç-Çopur, 2021;Giren, 2013;Kaufmann et al., 2005;Kırlar, 2006;Kıvılcım and Mertoğlu, 2017;Nas, 2021;Pagani et al., 2006;Toran and Temel, 2014;Wolfgang et al., 2001;Young-Loveridge, 2004), and the implemented program has proven effective in enhancing children's mathematical skills. ...
In this study, the effect of the Mathematics Bag Early Education Program (MAÇEP) on the mathematics skills (number/counting, geometry, measurement) of 57–69-month-old preschool children was investigated. A quasi-experimental design with a pretest, posttest, follow-up test, and control group were used in the study. The study group consisted of 22 children attending preschool education and their parents. In the study, MACEP was applied to the experimental group in the form of 50 activities for 12 wk outside the preschool education program. Data were collected using the Early Mathematics Test (EMAT) and Parent Focus Group Interview Form. Mann Whitney U Test, Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test, Friedman Test and content analysis were used to analyze the data. At the end of the study, it was determined that MACEP effectively improved the mathematics skills (number/counting, geometry, measurement) of 57–69-month-old children in the experimental group and the retention continued after the experimental period.
... In addition, children are naturally interested in learning to classify, order, count, and use numbers by playing with objects around them (Clements & Sarama, 2021;Wolfgang et al., 2001). For early childhood preservice teachers, having early real interaction with children and directing their learning brings many difficulties and anxieties, especially in teaching mathematics concepts. ...
This study explored how a scenario-based (SB), one-semester professional development program influenced the instructional practices of preservice early childhood mathematics teachers. The participants completed a 15-week program in which they engaged with modeled in-class teaching experience and subsequently answered a number of questions that prompted them to consider possible ways of reacting in similar, everyday interactions with children. The findings indicate that the SB activities enhanced the teachers’ perceived instructional practices and their motivation to use student-centered instruction when teaching early mathematical concepts to children. By contrast, results indicate that the preservice teachers developed lower scores on the teacher-centered practices construct after their engagement in the SB professional program. This research inspired the recommendation that early childhood teachers should find balance in focusing on direct math content with supporting children’s self-efficacy and emotional development through child-centered instruction.
... La idea de esta asignatura es que, merced a su efecto motivador, el juego puede atraer a los niños hacia las matemáticas y las ciencias, haciendo más significativo el aprendizaje y evitando futuras dificultades. Por ello, los juegos y recursos lúdicos constituyen herramientas de gran interés en la formación de maestros en matemáticas y ciencias (Agostini, 1985;Henniger, 1987;Wolfgang, Stannard & Jones, 2001). ...
... The range of this relation across countries led us to examine the relation between individual HME items and children's mathematical achievement. These sensitivity analyses demonstrated parent engagement in some items, such as 'playing with blocks' and 'games with shapes', showed relatively stronger correlations with achievement, which would suggest these activities can be related back to the well-documented relation between spatial abilities and mathematics in the literature (Hawes et al., 2022;Wolfgang et al., 2001). However, the analyses also demonstrated that parent engagement in some items, such as 'counting songs', 'number toys', 'write numbers', 'draw shapes' and 'weigh or measure things' showed differential (very small positive to non-existent) relations to children's mathematical achievement across countries. ...
Background:
Home mathematics environment (HME) research has focused on parent-child interactions surrounding numerical activities as measured by the frequency of engaging in such activities. However, HME survey questions have been developed from limited perspectives (e.g., Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27, 2012, 231; Journal of Social Issues, 64, 2008, 95; Early childhood mathematics education research: Learning trajectories for young children, Routledge, New York, 2009), by researchers from a small subset of countries (15; Psychological Bulletin, 147, 2020, 565), which may skew our interpretations.
Aims and sample:
This study broadened international representation by leveraging secondary data from the 2019 TIMSS to examine the variation of the frequency and reliability of the HME scale and its relation to children's mathematical achievement. Across 54 countries, 231,138 parents and children (Mage = 10.22 years; 51% male) participated in the larger study.
Methods:
Parents completed a retrospective home environment survey and children were assessed on mathematics skills. Basic frequency descriptive statistics, Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients, and Pearson's r correlation coefficients were used to assess variability across countries.
Results:
Findings suggested that families in certain countries engaged in home mathematics activities more frequently than families in other countries; however, the HME scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency across families in all countries (M α = .79; range = [.73, .89]). Further, the average relation between HME and mathematical achievement was r = .15 with a range between r = .02 to r = .41.
Conclusion:
Our results indicate substantial variation across countries in the HME-mathematical achievement association. These findings underscore the importance of international representation in advancing research on the diversity of a child's home environment.
... [Author] & [Author], 2022; Borriello & Liben, 2018;Fisher et al., 2013;Park et al., 2008;Wolfgang et al., 2001), there is still a lack of studies exploring the connection between young children's self-concept and their skill development. Thus, we examined whether children's self-concept was associated with their skill development, i.e., knowledge about stability, spatial language and math knowledge. ...
... Third, several studies have reported that the relationship between spatial ability and mathematic achievement is stronger in the upper grades than in the lower grades (Kahl et al., 2021;Li & Geary, 2013;Mix & Cheng, 2012;Wolfgang et al., 2001). These studies were based on a cognitive neuroscience research, which reported that mathematics and science learning are subserved by similar brain mechanisms and that they both activate the visuospatial network and semantic network (Wang et al., 2021). ...
An abundance of empirical evidence indicates that spatial ability is significantly correlated with educational performance in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Previous studies have explored the relationship between spatial ability and science achievement in adults. However, the relationship between spatial ability and science achievement in children at different stages of learning remains unclear. This study examined how the relationship between spatial ability and science achievement differed by grade. A total of 29, 524 students, including 17, 378 fourth graders (boys = 9022, girls = 8365, mean age = 9.78) and 12, 137 eighth graders (boys =6294, girls = 5843, mean age =13.73), were selected from the Qingdao Basic Education Quality Assessment database using cluster random sampling. Participants were recruited to complete two basic cognitive processing tasks (three-dimensional mental rotation and nonverbal matrix reasoning), two self-report scales (multiple intelligence and learning persistence), and a curriculum-based science achievement assessment. The study demonstrated that spatial ability and science achievement are closely related in Chinese children. That this relationship was evident in every instance tested shows a certain stability. The relationship was stronger in eighth-grade students than in fourth-grade students, even after controlling for reasoning ability (measured via non-verbal matrix reasoning) and learning persistence. The relationship between spatial ability and science achievement over time depends on how spatial ability is assessed, either through self-reports or cognitive-based tests. This indicates that in children, as they advance in grade and science courses become more difficult, spatial abilities play an increasingly important role in science learning.
... In the Block Play Intervention, we hypothesized that participation in semi-structured block play sessions would lead to gains in the outcomes of interest through three points of potential active child engagement: the block play itself, positive interactions with peers, and working toward a provided, increasingly complex goal (see Row 1 of Figure 1). Block play provides children with opportunities to practice working with abstract concepts and representations, which may help to develop cognitive regulation (Wolfgang et al., 2001;Hadani and Rood, 2018). Children also get the opportunity to practice fine motor skills through block play, which relate to cognitive regulation and mathematical cognition development in the early years (Gashaj et al., 2019;McClelland and Cameron, 2019). ...
Social-emotional competencies are important for school-readiness and can be supported through social-emotional learning (SEL) interventions in the preschool years. However, past research has demonstrated mixed efficacy of early SEL interventions across varied samples, highlighting a need to unpack the black box of which early interventions work, under what conditions, and for whom. In the present article we discuss the critical implementation component of active child engagement in an intervention as a potential point of disconnect between the intervention as designed and as implemented. Children who are physically present but unengaged during an intervention may lead to decreased average impacts of an intervention. Furthermore, measuring young children’s active engagement with an intervention may help to guide iterative intervention development. We propose a four-step protocol for capturing the multi-dimensional and varied construct of active child engagement in a SEL intervention. To illustrate the utility of the protocol, we apply it to data from a pilot study of a researcher-implemented, semi-structured block play intervention focused on supporting the development of SEL and math skills in preschoolers. We then present future directions for the integration of active participant engagement into the measurement of implementation of SEL interventions for young children.
... Sebbene non ci sia un consenso generale sulla definizione di questo costrutto (Bruce et al., 2017), la maggior parte delle definizioni presenti in letteratura si basano su una lunga lista di abilità che includono (in modo non esaustivo) la localizzazione, la scomposizione (e ricomposizione) di figure, la trasformazione di figure anche attraverso variazione di dimensioni, la Promuovere l'autovalutazione coi giochi da tavolo: il modello del progetto Numeri e Pedine 57 -"Annali online della Didattica e della Formazione Docente" Vol. 14, n. 24/2022 -ISSN 2038-1034 visualizzazione di figure descritte verbalmente e così via (Whiteley et al, 2015). Assumiamo qui la definizione di spatial reasoning fornita da Bruce e colleghi (2017, p.146), per cui si tratta di "l'abilità di riconoscere e manipolare (mentalmente) le proprietà spaziali di oggetti e delle relazioni spaziali tra oggetti". ...
This contribution presents the role of self-evaluation within the project "Numeri e Pedine" based on a community of inquire formed, in the last two years, by researchers and primary mathematics teachers from the whole country. After a short introduction about the features of the boardgames chosen for this mathematics education project, we analyze the importance of self-evaluation models when using boardgames. Both the enhancement of children's mathematical learning and of teachers' daily practices are considered viable. Finally, we propose possible research pathways that could be integrated in the project in its next developments in future years and that will allow to better research the mathematical (and non-mathematical) abilities that are developed by children. The error is considered as tool for learning and enhancement when purposely used.
... U radu se ističe konstruktivna igra koja je prema Rubin (1976-1980prema Trageton, 2007) premalo zastupljena u istraživanjima iako je konstruktivna igra najzastupljenija i najraširenija igra djece predškolske dobi. Isto ističu Wolfgang, Stannard, Jones (2001) navodeći da je igra kockama centralna aktivnost u igrama djece predškolske dobi. Trageton (2007) smatra da postoji znatan nedostatak znanja o 3D konstruktivnim igrama, a upravo ona (Starks, 1960) se može povezati sa svim razvojnim područjima kod djece. ...
Music as an educational tool is represented in all phases of children's
upbringing. Starting from the earliest preschool age, through primary to secondary
education, music is one of the most important components in the development and formation
of personality. Child's first encounter with music happens mostly within the family and
usually appears through the game. The musical means which is the closest to the child's age
for simplicity, content and form, are certainly nursery rhymes. There are different definitions
of nursery rhymes, but maybe the simplest explanation is that they represent a prelude or an
introduction to the game, supplement to the game or the game itself. Nursery rhymes live all
over the world and regardless of different languages, rhythm is what places them in the field
of music. Nursery rhymes are importance in children's development, and they affect
physical, psychomotor, cognitive, social, emotional, and other abilities, but there is an issue of
their representation and importance given by educators/teachers. The purpose of this study
was to investigate the use, the method of application and the frequency of nursery rhymes, so
as the importance that educators/teachers give them in the upbringing of pre-school and early
school children. We conducted the research in kindergartens and schools that follow the
Croatian plan and program in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
... Games like Jenga are designed for cooperative play. Play with building materials was found to predict reading and mathematics abilities later in school ( Wolfgang et al., 2001 ). Additionally, play quality has been found to vary between toys ( Trawick-Smith et al., 2015 ), so a slight change in functional unit to include educational skill development, or a more specific type of entertainment, could exclude some of the selected toys. ...
Quantifying product impact is one way to make the environmental consequences of purchases clear to consumers and retailers. This paper provides a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the environmental impacts of common children's toys. We compare 3 Lego™ sets, 1 Barbie™, 1 Jenga game, 1 plush dog, 1 plush dog with battery components, and 1 Marble Frenzy™ game, each representing a larger category of toy. After determining the materials in each toy, we built these toys in OpenLCA with existing materials data from LCA databases. Our results showed that a Lego Star Wars set had the highest eutrophication potential with the largest single contribution to impact from injection molding. This Lego set also had the highest GHG (Greenhouse Gas) emissions due to the use of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic. Jenga had the highest acidification impact but the lowest GWP of all the toys despite having the highest mass. Our results indicate low GHG emissions and eutrophication potential of wood as a toy material. Wood's acidification potential, however, was the highest of all studied toy materials since impacts included land management for forestry though final wood processing. While plastic had a higher impact per mass than wood, the type of plastic used was important in determining the GHG emissions: ABS and polyvinylchloride (PVC) composition was lower impact than nylon granulate, and other plastics. Since our functional units determined impact per twenty hours of use over 2 years, increased toy longevity was one option to reduce toy impact, though even increased toy longevity should be combined with design for sustainability coupled with transparent environmental labeling to communicate the environmental value of low impact toys to consumers.
... This is not unique to young children, with research showing that older children's play with play tools such as bikes or skateboards has been capitalised on by researchers and educationalists to assist disadvantaged adolescents in their understanding of mathematical concepts (Robertson, Meyer and Wilkerson, 2012). Studies evidence that these benefits of play with tools can have longterm consequences for mathematical ability and learning (Wolfgang, Stannard and Jones, 2001;Trawick-Smith et al., 2016). ...
The right to play is a multifaceted right and in its very nature crosses boundaries. Whilst human rights are indivisible, interrelated and interdependent, this article explores unique aspects of economic, social and cultural rights. It examines the ways in which the right to play applies to these categories of rights through looking at the nature and impact of play. The article argues that the right to play should be established and understood as an economic right, a social right and a cultural right, enabling discussion on the right to play to move forward to address its implementation.
... While previous work has emphasized connections between motor skills and social and communicative development in early childhood (Schneider & Iverson, 2022;Leonard & Hill, 2014), our findings suggest that these relations influence development into middle childhood. As a related example, both motor and visual-spatial skills develop through block play, which in turn promotes mathematical skills (Verdine et al., 2014;Wolfgang et al., 2001), reading (Hanline et al., 22010), visual perspective taking and ToM (Tian et al., 2021). Upon school entry, children's fine motor skills, especially handwriting and drawing, contribute to their learning the alphabet and acquiring basic reading (decoding) skills (Suggate et al., 2016(Suggate et al., , 2019 which, in combination with oral language skills, support the development of reading comprehension (Hoover & Tunmer, 2018;Kim, 2017). ...
Motor skills have been linked to language and social development with implications for theory of mind. This study examined theory of mind (attribution of intentions task) in school-age children ( N = 62, mean age 8 years; 2 months, standard deviation [ SD] = 1;3) in relation to fine motor skills (grooved pegboard), receptive vocabulary (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test), receptive grammar (Test for the Reception of Grammar), reading comprehension (Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests), verbal short-term (nonword repetition), and visual-spatial working memory (one-shape array memory). All variables except verbal short-term memory correlated with accuracy on theory of mind. In regression models, fine motor skills accounted for variance in theory of mind after controlling for age, language, and working memory. The results add to research linking fine motor skills with faux pas understanding, indicating the potentially broad impact of motor skills on social cognition. Given the cross-sectional study design, longitudinal research is warranted to address causality.
... itive, motor, language, social-emotional development, play also improves their creativity skills, problem solving, developing different perspectives, taking responsibility and fulfilling the responsibility (Bodrova and Leong, 2007;Ginsburg, 2007;Johnson et. al., 2005;O'Sullivan and Ring, 2018;Özgünlü and Veziroğlu-Çelik, 2018;Scalise et. al., 2017;Wolfgang et. al., 2001). These features of the game become even more important in the preschool period. ...
In this study, it is aimed to examine the participation of children with special needs in open
space and garden activities in special educational institutions according to teacher opinions.
The study was designed in qualitative research pattern. It is a study for due diligence. The
study group was formed 10 special education teachers who could be reached with easy-toreach
sampling method. In the study, interview method was used in the collection of data. The
semi-structured interview form included open-end questions in accordance with the objectives
and sub-objectives of the study. Teacher interviews were made by phone and recorded out
loud. Written breakdown of the interviews was made in the analysis of the data. The data was
encoded and interpreted as themes. Direct excerpts from the participants' opinions were
included. Special education teachers stated that they used the schoolyard especially in
physical education class. They stated that they use the open space not only for physical
education, but also to support the physical and social development of children. The teachers’
views were that open space supports peer interaction of children with special needs. It has
been determined that weather conditions are effective in removing children to the open area,
and children are not taken to the open area in rainy or snowy weather conditions. The
schoolyard and its surroundings were not considered safe areas, which were among the
reasons why children were not taken to the open area.
... In particular, studies have suggested that there is a link between parent-child block play and puzzle play and children's spatial and numeracy development (e.g., Levine et al., 2012;Verdine et al., 2014;Wolfgang et al., 2001), yet very little attention has been paid to other types of parent-child tasks that also involve spatial features, such as collaboratively drawing different shapes. Playing with drawing materials relates to children's spatial skills as drawing demands analyzing and visualizing spatial information and visual-motor coordination (Caldera et al., 1999;Tzuriel & Egozi, 2010;Wai et al., 2009). ...
Parents provide motivational and cognitive support within the same interaction, yet researchers have investigated these separately. We examined two key aspects of parental support, praise (motivational support) and spatial language (cognitive support), from fathers and mothers during three tasks with their first-grade children (6-7-year-olds; N = 107; 56 girls; 72.0% White, 23.4% Black). Parents' praise and spatial language varied by task but not child sex: Both parents produced more praise in the Etch-a-Sketch and block tasks than the card game and produced more spatial language in the Etch-a-Sketch task than other tasks. We further examined whether praise and spatial language in the two spatial tasks (Etch-a-Sketch and block construction) were related to children's later math and spatial skills. We found neither additive nor multiplicative effects of parents' praise or spatial language. We also did not see additive or multiplicative effects of fathers' and mothers' support. However, fathers' greater spatial language at first grade was negatively associated with boys' (but not girls') math achievement in third grade, with greater father spatial tokens related to their sons' lower math achievement. This suggests that boys may perceive fathers' support more negatively than girls do or that fathers may offer additional support for boys with lower abilities. Taken together, this study emphasizes the importance of considering contexts in examining parental support. The correlational nature of the study warrants future research to establish causal relations and to enhance our understanding of multifaceted parent-child interactions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Block play is a common activity in the early years, which has also been defined as an open-ended, creative, and valuable play and learning experience available to every setting, offering children enormous opportunities to explore their surrounding world by taking apart and putting back together any blockbased creation they can think of (Rybczynski and Troy, 1995;Ferrara et al., 2011;Cai et al., 2020). In the past decades, researchers reached a consensus that block play in the early years generates various kinds of benefits for children's development, which include but are not limited to: motor and fine-motor skills (Hanline et al., 2001), social development (i.e., peer-relationship, cooperation, prosocial behaviors, etc., see Rybczynski and Troy, 1995), cognitive development [i.e., spatial ability, see Wolfgang et al. (2001) for example; math achievement, see Hanline et al. (2010) for example; engineering potentials, etc., see Cai et al. (2020) for example], and language development (Stroud, 1995;Pickett, 1998;Christakis et al., 2007;Cohen and Uhry, 2007;Ferrara et al., 2011). ...
This study investigated the role of theme-based blocks play in enhancing Chinese children's language capacity with a quasi-experiment. Altogether 61 young children were assigned to the experiment group (M age = 5.83, SD = 0.25, 56.25% girls) and the control group (M age = 5.87, SD = 0.28, 51.72% girls). The experiment group was engaged in a 12-week theme-based block play intervention programs, whereas the control group received no interventions but free block play during the parallel time sessions. All the children were tested with the Language Assessment for Preschool Children (LAPC) before and after the intervention. The ANCOVA results indicated that the experimental group significantly improved in LAPC test, whereas the control group showed no significant change. The educational implications of these findings are discussed.
... Being less math-ready at the start of school is associated with lower achievement in mathematics, less literacy, an increased chance of failing to graduate from high school, and increased future unemployment (Duncan et al., 2007). Furthermore, in long-term research, it is stated that spatial ability can be a predictor of mathematical ability at the next level and in the future (Wolfgang, C. H., Stannard, L. L., & Jones, 2001). ...
This study aims to determine the effect of RME on the spatial abilities of Year 8 students concerning cuboids and cubes. Geometry problems often experienced by junior high school students, such as difficulty knowing the difference between cuboids and cubes, difficulties showing elements of cuboids and cubes, and difficulty imagining cuboids and cubes in the case of rotation. The teacher should not underestimate it because it will impact the next level of learning. Besides, spatial abilities are closely related to other mathematical concepts. One alternative is using RME. This research employed the quasi-experimental method, and samples were selected using purposive sampling techniques. The two classes were selected as samples in this study: the experimental and the control classes. Before conducting the main analysis test, the pre-test score students were tested with the t-test. The initial conclusion was that there was no difference in the spatial ability of the experimental class and the control class. The main analytic test in the post-test was done using U-test. The post-test results show that the average score of the experimental class is higher than the control class; RME positively influences students' spatial abilities.
... Just as the influence of domain-general cognitive processes on the relation between spatial and mathematical skills is unclear, whether the relation between the skill sets varies across development is also unknown. Much prior research suggests that the relation between spatial skills and mathematical skills could vary depending on participants' age or grade level (Battista, 1990;Stannard et al., 2001;Wolfgang et al., 2001). For instance, in a longitudinal study by Li and Geary (2013), first-to fifth-grade gains in visuospatial memory predicted the end of fifth-grade mathematical achievement. ...
Much recent research has focused on the relation between spatial skills and mathematical skills, which has resulted in widely reported links between these two skill sets. However, the magnitude of this relation is unclear. Furthermore, it is of interest whether this relation differs in size based on key demographic variables, such as gender and grade-level, and the extent to which this relation can be accounted for by shared domain-general reasoning skills across the two domains. Here we present the results of two meta-analytic studies synthesizing the findings from 45 articles to identify the magnitude of the relation, as well as potential moderators and mediators. The first meta-analysis employed correlated and hierarchical effects meta-regression models to examine the magnitude of the relation between spatial and mathematical skills, and to understand the effect of gender and grade-level on the association. The second meta-analysis employed meta-analytic structural equation modeling to determine how domain-general reasoning skills, specifically fluid reasoning and verbal skills, influence the relationship. Results revealed a positive moderate association between spatial and mathematical skills (r = .36, robust standard error = 0.035, τ2 = 0.039). However, no significant effect of gender or grade-level on the association was found. Additionally, we found that fluid reasoning and verbal skills mediated the relationship between spatial skills and mathematical skills, but a unique relation between the spatial and mathematical skills remained. Implications of these findings include advancing our understanding for how to leverage and bolster students’ spatial skills as a mechanism for improving mathematical outcomes.
... Lippard et al. (2017) identified and reviewed only 27 studies related to engineering thinking in preschool. The majority of these studies measured a construct theoretically related to engineering, without directly measuring engineering (e.g., associations of spatial ability and mathematics with block building; Verdine et al., 2014;Wolfgang et al., 2001) or studied engineering thinking in less-traditional play contexts such as robotics, often with school-age children (e.g., Bers, 2007). Moreover, many of these studies discussed implications of preschool-age engineering skills using theory and related developmental constructs as proxies (Lippard et al., 2017). ...
Background
Engineering play is an emerging framework for understanding young children's constructive block play as an engineering design process. Few studies have evaluated engineering thinking, language, or behavior in preschool-age children, especially quantitative evaluations that systematically document specific early engineering behavior. More research is needed to support diverse children's engineering education in ecologically valid classroom contexts and understand relations with the key cognitive domains that predict school readiness.
Purpose/Hypothesis
The present study investigated the associations of executive functioning and planning skills with preschoolers' engineering play behaviors with wooden unit blocks, tested the moderating role of disability status in these associations, and provided additional reliability and validity data on the Preschool Engineering Play Behaviors (P-EPB) measure.
Design/Method
Participants were 110 preschoolers (44% female; 25% children with disabilities) observed and coded during 15-min block play sessions with a peer partner. Children completed separate formal assessments of executive function and planning.
Results
A one-factor engineering play variable including six behavior categories (i.e., communicating goals, problem-solving, explaining how things are built/work, following patterns and prototypes, logical and mathematical words, and technical vocabulary) was significantly and positively associated with executive function and planning for children with disabilities.
Conclusions
Results provide new knowledge about early engineering measurement and implications for teaching and learning engineering across multiple academic disciplines and with children from diverse developmental backgrounds.
... The strength of such a link made researchers explore whether interventions on visuospatial abilities transfer to mathematical skills. Wolfgang et al. (2001) found that preschool children who engage in more block play perform better in school math, even if this effect appears only during high school. Similar findings were also reported by Mix and Cheng (2012). ...
Cognitive abilities are essential to children's overall growth; thus, the implementation of early and effective training interventions is a major challenge for developmental psychologists and teachers. This study explores whether an intervention simultaneously operating on fluid reasoning (FR), visuospatial, narrative, and motor abilities could boost these competencies in a group of Italian preschoolers (N = 108, 54 males 54 females, Agemean = 4.04). FR and visuospatial abilities showed training‐related increases at the end of the training and 1‐year follow‐up (moderate effect size). Interestingly, positive correlations with working memory and mathematical abilities were found. Beyond their scientific relevance, the short‐ and long‐term effects provide fundamental indications for designing and implementing educational programs dedicated to preschoolers.
... Another study with three-year-olds found evidence that spatial skills were even more important than early mathematics skills in predicting mathematics achievement at the age of five [17]. Contradicting others [17,64], it was noted that the level of SV is independent of gender [50]. ...
In science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) for instance, interdisciplinary studies have noted positive correlation between spatial-visualization (SV skills) and mathematical problem solving. The majority of these studies sharing a link between SV skills and problem solving were contextualized in urban settings and only a few in rural settings. This investigation analyses how rural-based pre-service teachers apply their SV skills in problem-solving in a South African university, in the context of vector calculus. One hundred rural-based pre-service teachers in a second year vector calculus class at University of Zululand (UNIZULU) were randomly selected into control and experimental groups. MATLAB was used as a dynamic visual tool to analyse how research participants applied their SV skills. A mixed method approach was employed in data collection (quantitative and qualitative). Our findings revealed that the rural-based pre-service teachers’ SV skills correlate with their problem-solving skills in vector calculus.
... In some intervention studies, participation in block play supported both improvement of math achievement and growth in EF skills (Blair & Raver, 2014;Schmitt et al., 2018). During block play, children may have opportunities to practice mental representations of objects and products (Wolfgang et al., 2001) that lay the foundations for cognitive development (Kamii, 1972;Piaget, 1962). The last activity in the scale represents engagement in memory games since participation in these activities may support the growth of EF, especially working memory (Thorell et al., 2009). ...
Executive function (EF) skills are considered to be important factors for the development of children’s school readiness and academic achievement. These skills may be developed in the home environment. The relation between home environment and the development of children’s EF has been widely discussed in the literature on early childhood education. It is also important to investigate the relation between EF-specific activities at home and the development of children’s EF skills. The Home EF Environment (HEFE) scale was recently developed and it was found that the parents’ EF-specific activities were positively correlated to the children’s EF. However, the items of the scale didn’t reflect all EF-specific activities at home and the scale cannot be administrated to Korean children without modification since the home environment varies in different cultures. For this reason, in the present study, we detailed the items of HEFE scale and analyzed the association between the parent-reported HEFE scale and EF skills of children with a sample of 146 preschool children and one of their parents in Pyongyang, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. For the sample, the mean age of children ranged from 34 to 57 months (M = 46.66, SD = 6.99), and 50.7% were male. On the basis of a correlational matrix, we found that the HEFE scale was positively correlated to the inhibitory control and working memory of children, but not to cognitive flexibility. We also found that the Home Learning Environment (HLE) was significantly and positively related to all three domains of children’s EF. In addition, some of the EF-specific activities (block play, memory game, concentration game and jogging) were significantly correlated to the HLE. The potential importance of the HLE and EF-specific activities at home are addressed in the discussion.
The ability to reason about how things were made is a pervasive aspect of how humans make sense of physical objects. Such reasoning is useful for a range of everyday tasks, from assembling a piece of furniture to making a sandwich and knitting a sweater. What enables people to reason in this way even about novel objects, and how do people draw upon prior experience with an object to continually refine their understanding of how to create it? To explore these questions, we developed a virtual task environment to investigate how people come up with step‐by‐step procedures for recreating block towers whose composition was not readily apparent, and analyzed how the procedures they used to build them changed across repeated attempts. Specifically, participants ( N = 105) viewed 2D silhouettes of eight unique block towers in a virtual environment simulating rigid‐body physics, and aimed to reconstruct each one in less than 60 s. We found that people built each tower more accurately and quickly across repeated attempts, and that this improvement reflected both group‐level convergence upon a tiny fraction of all possible viable procedures, as well as error‐dependent updating across successive attempts by the same individual. Taken together, our study presents a scalable approach to measuring consistency and variation in how people infer solutions to physical assembly problems.
In Vietnam, implementing the new general education curriculum focuses on nurturing students' competencies and character development. A significant emphasis does place on fostering communication and collaboration skills among students. Consequently, the role of communication skills education within schools is paramount. This article presents various strategies for imparting communication skills through engaging games designed for elementary school students.
Lego construction ability is associated with a variety of spatial skills and mathematical outcomes. However, it is unknown whether these relations are causal. We aimed to establish the causal impact of Lego construction training on: Lego construction ability; a broad range of spatial skills; and on mathematical outcomes in 7-9-year-olds. We also aimed to identify how this causal impact differs for digital versus physical Lego construction training. One-hundred and ninety-eight children took part in a six-week training programme, delivered twice weekly as a school lunch time club. They completed either physical Lego training (N = 59), digital Lego training (N = 64), or an active control condition (crafts; N = 75). All children completed baseline and follow-up measures of spatial skills (disembedding, visuo-spatial working memory, spatial scaling, mental rotation, and performance on a spatial-numerical task, the number line task), mathematical outcomes (geometry, arithmetic, and overall mathematical skills) and Lego construction ability. Exploratory analyses revealed evidence for near transfer (Lego construction ability) and some evidence for far transfer (arithmetic) of Lego training, but overall transfer was limited. Despite this, we identified key areas for further development (explicit focus on spatial strategies, training for teachers, and embedding the programme within a mathematical context). The findings of this study can be used to inform future development of Lego construction training programmes to support mathematics learning.
Mounting longitudinal evidence demonstrates that young children's numeracy knowledge before kindergarten determines their mathematics achievement path in primary grades and high school graduation. Mathematics education and children's play do not have to be binary and compete for time in early learning and childcare learning environments. Indeed, researchers demonstrate that play and planned mathematical activities enrich one another and ultimately contribute to children's learning outcomes. Guided play, in which educators combine planned learning experiences with the child-directed nature of play, focuses on learning outcomes through adult scaffolding. This chapter synthesizes research on how play experiences can be an organic but powerful process for scaffolding and elevating young children's mathematical understanding in light of current evidence from early numeracy research. In the conclusion of this chapter, evidence-based recommendations are introduced for facilitating children's developing numerical competencies and activating existing knowledge through guided play.
Spatial skills are fundamental for mentally manipulating objects, visualizing and remembering the locations of objects and their paths, reconstructing patterns, and recognizing locations from a variety of perspectives. Despite their link to children's performance in mathematics and to later success in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers, spatial skills are notably absent from most educational curricula. This chapter addresses key questions in the field of spatial development: What do we mean when we talk about spatial skills? How do they develop during early childhood? And why is it important to promote them early in life? This chapter reviews the available evidence for these general questions and discusses the efficacy of playful interventions and educational technology to incorporate spatial learning into homes, preschool classrooms, and community settings.
Some psychological factors related to preschool teachers significantly impact mathematics teaching in early childhood classrooms. Thus, examining teachers' views on preschool mathematics will guide teachers in understanding which concepts were included in early childhood mathematics and preparing an educational environment and program appropriate for children's developmental levels. This research was a descriptive-study, and was implemented using general-survey model with 107 preschool teachers. Data were collected by teacher views form on early childhood mathematics. Data were evaluated with descriptive and non-parametric statistical methods. Results showed that the teachers used math activities with games, art, drama activities and used limited methods to assess whether children have learned mathematics concepts. In addition, most teachers stated that data analysis, proof, and probability cannot be taught in preschool. Finally, most teachers considered preschool mathematics moderately important and that there was no significant difference among ages, professional service periods, the institution and school types they work in, and the order of importance of mathematics (p > .05).
Physical manipulatives (PMs) are concrete objects used during hands‐on learning activities (e.g., building blocks, fraction tiles, counters), and are widely used in primary‐school teaching, especially during maths instruction. This scoping review collated studies that have examined the effectiveness of educational PM interventions with pre‐primary and primary‐age children. A total of 102 studies met the inclusion criteria and were synthesised in the review. Most studies included a sample of children aged 4–6 years and were conducted in a school setting. They spanned 26 different countries, but almost all took place in high‐ or middle‐income contexts, mainly in the USA. Interventions were grouped into three main learning domains: maths, literacy and science. Considerable heterogeneity was identified across the review studies in terms of the PMs and hands‐on activities used (e.g., block building, shape sorting, paper folding, enactment with figurines). Evidence relating to effectiveness of the intervention programmes was synthesised, with the most promising findings identified in the maths domain. Benefits to children's spatial, literacy and science skills were also reported. Overall, however, the evidence was mixed: other studies found that PMs were not associated with learning benefits, and many were hindered by methodological shortcomings. This calls for caution when drawing conclusions about the overall effectiveness of PM interventions. Nevertheless, the findings illustrate the many ways hands‐on PM activities can be incorporated into children's early learning experiences. Recommendations for further research and for using PMs in practice are made.
Context and implications
Rationale for this study
Physical manipulatives (PMs) are used during hands‐on learning activities and promote children's active involvement in learning. The review sought to map a broad range of interventions using PMs.
Why the new findings matter
Findings reveal gaps in the research and highlight the many facets to consider when developing and testing educational interventions using PMs.
Implications for practitioners
Recommendations for using PMs in practice: (a) choose materials and activities that are age‐appropriate and focused on the learning goal; (b) consider the type and amount of instructional guidance needed (adjusted based on learning content and children's needs); and (c) consider the level of physical interaction afforded by PMs and activities and its importance for the learning goal.
As play is diminishing and the need to prepare students to enter the STEM workforce is rising, we conducted a literature review to examine how play in STEM learning environments may address issues in STEM, and conversely, how STEM learning environments can be framed as a context for human development through play. Findings highlight the value of all types of play for development within STEM across a range of learning environments. Yet, the scholarship seems to point to adults as vital to the play STEM learning environment as they provide connections between play and STEM concepts, practices and processes.
Written for pre-service and in-service educators, as well as parents of children in preschool through grade five, this book connects research in cognitive development and math education to offer an accessibly written and practical introduction to the science of elementary math learning. Structured according to children's mathematical development, How Children Learn Math systematically reviews and synthesizes the latest developmental research on mathematical cognition into accessible sections that explain both the scientific evidence available and its practical classroom application. Written by an author team with decades of collective experience in cognitive learning research, clinical learning evaluations, and classroom experience working with both teachers and children, this amply illustrated text offers a powerful resource for understanding children's mathematical development, from quantitative intuition to word problems, and helps readers understand and identify math learning difficulties that may emerge in later grades. Aimed at pre-service and in-service teachers and educators with little background in cognitive development, the book distills important findings in cognitive development into clear, accessible language and practical suggestions. The book therefore serves as an ideal text for pre-service early childhood, elementary, and special education teachers, as well as early career researchers, or as a professional development resource for in-service teachers, supervisors and administrators, school psychologists, homeschool parents, and other educators.
The right to play has been widely regarded as a forgotten right – forgotten by states implementing the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Convention), ignored by the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child (Committee) in monitoring and providing guidance on the Convention, and neglected by human rights academics. Wide-ranging extensive research shows the vital importance of play in supporting the holistic development of the child. In light of this, the thesis scrutinises the right to play – the raison d’être of the right, the challenges faced in realising the right, and the obligations pertaining to the right. It does so in order to investigate the causes of the right’s ‘forgotten’ status and to offer recommendations for remedying such. The thesis provides a vital investigation into and critique of the situation facing the realisation of the right to play, providing a necessary and overdue contribution to the child rights field. The thesis examines the right to play and its implementation through analysing extensive multidisciplinary research on the value of play for children, both intrinsically and instrumentally, and the wide-ranging challenges surrounding children’s play, providing in-depth discussion on implications for the realisation of the right to play. The thesis considers the legal background of the right to play, from the drafting process of the Declaration of the Rights of the Child and Convention to the work of the Committee in its General Comments, Concluding Observations and Days of General Discussion. The author then investigates the obligations pertaining to the right to play before triangulating the research in the thesis through a multiple case study of the United Kingdom and Tanzania. The thesis highlights elements of best practice, challenges and weaknesses in realising the right to play, and recommendations for continued and improved realisation of the right to play.
The aim of the research is to examine the scientific researches on constructive play in early childhood between 2015-2021; the data base, subject, scientific research method, study group, publication year and the country in which it was made are examined. Research data were obtained by document analysis which is a data collection method in qualitative research. The research sample, which was determined by using the purposive sampling method, consists of full-text accessible studies accessed from ERIC, SpringerLink and Taylor & Francis databases using the keywords “constructive play, construction play”. In this research, "descriptive analysis" was conducted because the themes were determined beforehand. The data were collected by taking into account the "The Form for Analyzing Studies of Constructive Play Conducted Abroad" created by the researchers. According to the research results; The most publications on the subject were made with children in the SpringerLink database. The most quantitative method was used. The country with the highest number of publications was the USA, and the highest number of studies was in 2019. On the other hand, researches mostly; the subject is children's play behaviors in the context of play time, material selection and active participation of the child.
Considering that geometry is taught according to certain principles that do not
encourage creativity, I have decided to employ the mixed methods philosophical framework
applying the concurrent transformative design in the form of an exploratory case study. The
case study to (i) explore and design a model that influences learning using polygon pieces
and mathematics dictionary in the teaching and learning of geometry to grade 8 learners; (ii)
investigate if the measurement of angles and sides of polygons using polygon pieces assisted
by mathematics dictionary promote learners’ comprehension of geometry and (iii) investigate
how mathematics teachers should use polygon pieces along with mathematics dictionary to
teach properties of triangles in order to promote learners’ conceptual understanding.
Drawing from my research findings a model has been developed from the use of
polygon pieces and mathematics dictionary. The model use of mathematics dictionary in
teaching and learning geometry is to develop learners’ mathematics vocabulary and
terminology proficiency. Polygon pieces are to enhance the comprehension of geometric
concepts.
The quantitative data emerged from marked scripts of the diagnostic and postintervention tests, the daily reflective tests and intervention activities were analysed as
percentages and presented in line and bar graphs. Qualitative data obtained from observation
notes and transcribed interviews were analysed in three forms: thematically, constant
comparison and keywords in context.
These findings support other research regarding the importance of using physical
manipulatives with mathematics dictionary in teaching and learning geometry. They align
with other findings that stress that manipulatives are critical facilitating tools for the
development of mathematics concepts. The investigations led into the designing of a teaching
model for the topic under study for the benefit of the mathematics community in the teaching
and learning of geometry, focusing on properties of triangles. The model developed during
this study adds to the relatively sparse teaching models but growing theoretical foundation of
the field of mathematics.
Spatial construction—the activity of creating novel spatial arrangements or copying existing ones—is a hallmark of human spatial cognition. Spatial construction abilities predict math and other academic outcomes and are regularly used in IQ testing, but we know little about the cognitive processes that underlie them. In part, this lack of understanding is due to both the complex nature of construction tasks and the tendency to limit measurement to the overall accuracy of the end goal. Using an automated recording and coding system, we examined in detail adults’ performance on a block copying task, specifying their step‐by‐step actions, culminating in all steps in the full construction of the build‐path. The results revealed the consistent use of a structured plan that unfolded in an organized way, layer by layer (bottom to top). We also observed that complete layers served as convergence points, where the most agreement among participants occurred, whereas the specific steps taken to achieve each of those layers diverged, or varied, both across and even within individuals. This pattern of convergence and divergence suggests that the layers themselves were serving as the common subgoals across both inter and intraindividual builds of the same model, reflecting cognitive “chunking.” This structured use of layers as subgoals was functionally related to better performance among builders. Our findings offer a foundation for further exploration that may yield insights into the development and training of block‐construction as well as other complex cognitive‐motor skills. In addition, this work offers proof‐of‐concept for systematic investigation into a wide range of complex action‐based cognitive tasks.
Playing represents a fundamental activity for children’s growth. Games consisting in manipulating blocks, especially, seems to have an important role in the child’s cognitive development. Many studies have been conducted for investigating the various aspects of playing with blocks, in order to understand its actual effectiveness in relation to different cognitive skills. A first area of research regards the relationship between playing with building blocks and visual-spatial ability; a second one examines the relationship between playing with building blocks and mathematic skills; a third one explores the relationship between buil�ding blocks, visual-spatial skills, numerical intelligence in its various components and mental imagery. These studies suggest that playing with blocks represents an important recreational and educational tool with a high capacity to enhance the overall cognitive development and specific skills like the mathematical ones. This narrative review offers an analysis of the existing empirical evidence on playing with building blocks in order to understand its actual effectiveness. In an historical period where electronic devices are gradually replacing the manual games that have always accompanied human development, knowing the state of this kind of research may represent a source of reflection for reconsidering scholastic programs with the aim of a possible return to specific manual playing activities, in order to enhance cognitive functioning and specific school skills.
COVID-crisis has made significant changes in the educational process of many coun-tries, including the need for new management decisions that would solve the complex problem of accelerating the development of online resources for distance learning. Management, particularly in education, is valuable when it is able to combine both general and specific goals. Especially when it comes to a specific educational process for training future TV and radio journalists, advertisers and PR-managers, screenwrit-ers and directors, sound directors, TV presenters, film and cameramen. The peculiarity of these professions is the combination of both creative and technological components of production and placement of professional audio-video content, i.e. content pro-duced by TV and radio companies, film or TV studios, advertising agencies, and aimed at a mass audience. One of the basic priorities in training such specialists is, first of all, the practice, which is based on the planned implementation of educational audiovisual projects and the ability to put them into effect in certain circumstances, including COVID-crisis caused by COVID-19 virus. Therefore, the aim of the article is to hypothesize how to build a productive distance educational strategy in the condi-tions of COVID-crisis, which specifically affected the quality of practical training of specialists in the field of audiovisual media and arts in Ukraine.
A 25-year study of the Perry Preschool program provides the basis for a comprehensive benefit-cost analysis of the long-term effects of a preschool education program on children growing up in poverty. Findings indicate that the preschool education program produced economic benefits to participants and to the general public that greatly exceeded the costs of the program.
Most, if not all, geometry learned in the early years should be conceptual in nature, state Hiebert and Lindquist in Mathematics for the Young Child (1990). The authors point out that students need the opportunity to develop spatial sense, and they share the observation that “[t]oday, children are often able only to name selected examples of geometric figures.
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This study examined changes in the beliefs and instruction of 21 primary grade teachers over a 4-year period in which the teachers participated in a CGI (Cognitively Guided Instruction) teacher development program that focused on helping the teachers understand the development of children's mathematical thinking by interacting with a specific research-based model. Over the 4 years, there were fundamental changes in the beliefs and instruction of 18 teachers such that the teachers' role evolved from demonstrating procedures to helping children build on their mathematical thinking by engaging them in a variety of problem-solving situations and encouraging them to talk about their mathematical thinking. Changes in the instruction of individual teachers were directly related to changes in their students' achievement. For every teacher, class achievement in concepts and problem solving was higher at the end of the study than at the beginning. In spite of the shift in emphasis from skills to concepts and problem solving, there was no overall change in computational performance. The findings suggest that developing an understanding of children's mathematical thinking can be a productive basis for helping teachers to make the fundamental changes called for in current reform recommendations.
Relationships were investigated between mathematics learning, verbal ability, spatial visualization, and eight affective variables. Subjects were 1320 sixth through eighth graders. No sex-related differences over all schools were found for any cognitive variable. Females were significantly less confident of themselves in mathematics, and males stereotyped mathematics as a male domain higher than did females. Results were synthesized with those obtained at the high school level. Significant sex-related differences found in high school areas were not found in the same middle school areas. Where significant differences in achievement were found at both levels, they were accompanied by significant differences in many affective variables.
Pretend play is a pervasive behavior that has attracted considerable attention over the past decade. In the article, the research is reviewed in the context of the diverse theoretical orientations that have stimulated these efforts. The most productive theoretical positions tend to deal with selected aspects of the behavior (e. g., solitary or social pretense, developmental change, individual differences, environmental factors) rather than its entirety. Recent contributions have offered a refined account of developmental changes in pretense and an examination of the behavioral processes involved. Studies of individual differences suggest that pretense may reflect a stable personality trait, although evidence concerning antecedent factors is inconclusive. Training studies have demonstrated procedures for increasing spontaneous pretense, and some of these suggest a relation between enhanced play and improved performance on measures of social and cognitive functioning. Other procedures have been used to demonstrate a relation between pretense and creativity. Although outcome studies have become increasingly sophisticated, they pose numerous interpretive problems. Areas in need of further inquiry are discussed with respect to issues that require theoretical or empirical clarification.
This study examined the numeracy behavior of children in two nursery schools in Britain. Videotaped observations and field notes from children's free play sessions revealed that teacher intervention strategies (resource enhancement and thematic focusing) had a positive impact on the children's numeracy development. (MDM)
Compared areas of alternative dramatic play, using 12 children (aged 55–67 mo) who were observed in 15 20-min visits in a 12 × 14 ft playroom over a 3-wk period. The room was periodically redesigned so that types of environments signaled the kind of play that should go on in the area. Manipulation and construction, pretend roles, and large motor activity were encouraged by the materials available. Results indicate that the setting had an effect on the dramatic play of older preschoolers, but its influence was felt at the level of play themes; highly structured settings suggested specific roles and events, while areas that were neutral in their connotation supported a range of thematic narratives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Comments on a report by L. J. Schweinhart et al (see record
1988-07790-001) that purports to show that preschoolers taught by direct instruction end up with twice the rate of delinquency of children who come through the program with which Schweinhart is affiliated. It is argued that Schweinhart's data (1) argue against a difference in delinquency rates, (2) do not show a statistically significant difference between the direct-instruction group and the child-centered nursery school group, and (3) were geared toward male delinquency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The aim of the study was to assess the effects of a previous play experience on a test of concept formation involving base four arithmetic. Twenty-four children from 10 to 12 years of age were divided into three groups of eight subjects each, matched on teachers' ratings of mathematical ability. A concept formation task was given as an initial measure of ability. Members of group one were permitted total autonomy as to which buttons they pressed on a specially designed toy whose operation embodied base four rules; members of group two were yoked to members of group one so that they observed the same sequence of information; members of group three had no experience with the toy. Each subject was then administered a further concept formation task which involved the same rules existing in the ‘toy.’ The results showed that group one gained a greater insight into the task and remembered the information more effectively in the short-term. Suggestions for further research are made.
The study examined the relationship between play and selected demographic variables (sex and SES) and kindergartners' achievement in prereading, language, and writing. Play was observed and ranked according to Smilansky's cognitive play categories. Prereading and language achievement were measured by the Metropolitan Reading Readiness Test; writing achievement was measured by students' word writing fluency. Sixty-five kindergartners (37 male, 28 female) were tested and observed in the classrooms over a four-week period. Multiple regression and ANOVA procedures were employed to determine the extent to which play, SES, and sex predicted student achievement. Play was a significant predictor of success on all three measures of achievement (p < .01). SES and sex appeared to have little influence on the prediction of achievement. There were significant main effects due to play for all achievement variables (p < .001). Post hoc analyses indicated that dramatic play had the most significant impact on play (p < .05). Pedagogical implications are made.
This report of the High/Scope Preschool Curriculum study traces the effects on young people through age 15 of three well-implemented preschool curriculum models—the High/Scope model, the Distar model, and a model in the nursery school tradition. Sixty-eight impoverished children in Ypsilanti, Michigan were randomly assigned to these three programs, attending them at ages 3 and 4. Fifty-four of the youngsters (79% of the original sample were interviewed at age 15. The mean IQ of the children who had attended these three high-quality preschool programs rose a dramatic 27 points during the first year of the program, from 78 to 105 (on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale) and at age 10 was 92 (on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, or WISC). The three preschool curriculum groups differed little in their patterns of IQ and school achievement over time. According to self-reports at age 15, the group that had attended the Distar preschool program engaged in twice as many delinquent acts as did the other two curriculum groups, including five times as many acts of property violence. The Distar group also reported relatively poor relations with their families, less participation in sports, fewer school job appointments, and less reaching out to others for help with personal problems. These findings, based on one study with a small sample, are by no means definitive; but they do suggest possible consequences of preschool curriculum models that ought to be considered.
In accordance with major theories of handedness and brain organization, differential predictors for math achievement were found as a function of sex and handedness subgroups among eighth graders. Although there was no difference in absolute levels of performance as a function of either sex or handedness, predictive structures did differ. Regression analyses showed that spatial ability predicts math achievement for: (1) girls with anomalous dominance (non-right-handers and right-handers with non-right-handed relatives), and (2) all boys (independent of handedness group). In contrast, for the standard dominance girls who are right-handed with all right-handed relatives (considered strongly left-hemisphere dominant for language), spatial ability did not predict for math achievement. These findings occurred, even when scholastic aptitude and verbal achievement factors were controlled. It was concluded that further studies of sex differences in math achievement should consider subgroup differences within the sexes, based on handedness patterns.
This study investigates the sustained effects into kindergarten and grade 1 of Project Head Start for disadvantaged black children. Participation in generic Head Start programs was compared to both no preschool and other preschool experience for disadvantaged children in two American cities in 1969-1970. Incorporating both pretest/posttest and comparison group information, the study has advantages over other Head Start impact studies. Both preprogram background and cognitive differences were controlled in a covariance analysis design, using dependent measures in the cognitive, verbal, and social domains. Children who attended Head Start maintained educationally substantive gains in general cognitive/analytic ability, especially when compared to children without preschool experience. These effects were not as large as those found immediately following the Head Start intervention. Findings suggest an effect of preschool rather than of Head Start per se. Initial findings of greater effectiveness of Head Start for children of below average initial ability were reduced but not reversed. The diminution of effects over time, especially for low-ability children, may reflect differences in quality of subsequent schooling or home environment.
Social class and mental illness Intellectual growth in young chilo dr en
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- F C Redlick
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S patia l ability as a pred ict or of math achieveme nt: Th e im portance of sex a nd handedness patterns
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Casey, G., Peza ris, L., & Nu t tal, M. (199 2). S patia l ability as a pred ict or of math achieveme nt: Th e im portance of sex a nd handedness patterns. Neu ropsych ologia, 30, 35-45.
Th e effects ofsoci od ramatic play on d isadvan taged preschool child ren
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Smilan sk y, S. (1968). Th e effects ofsoci od ramatic play on d isadvan taged preschool child ren. New York : J ohn Wiley & Son s.
Th e effect of preschool ed ucation on math ach ievement. (ERIC Docum ent Reproduc-tion Se rv ice No
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Vondrak, M. (1996 ). Th e effect of preschool ed ucation on math ach ievement. (ERIC Docum ent Reproduc-tion Se rv ice No. Ed 399017).
Pretend play in chil dhood: An integrat ive review. Child Develop m ent
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Th e child 's const ruction ofk nowl edge: Piaget for teaching chil-d ren . Wa shington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Ch ild re n
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Forman, G., & Ku schner, D. (1984). Th e child 's const ruction ofk nowl edge: Piaget for teaching chil-d ren. Wa shington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Ch ild re n. Gin sburg, H. P., Balfanz, R, & Gr een es, C. (1999 ).
McCarty scales of children's abi lities
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McCarty, D. (1972). McCarty scales of children's abi lities. Ne w York : Th e Psyc ho logica l Corporation.
Mathem atic s sens e makin g and role play in the nursery schoo l. Early Chi ld hood Devel-opmen t and Care
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Cook, D. (199 6). Mathem atic s sens e makin g and role play in the nursery schoo l. Early Chi ld hood Devel-opmen t and Care, 121, 55-65.
A lon gitudinal st udy oflea rning to use chi ldre n's th in kin g in m ath -ema tics in struct ion
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Fennema, M., Ca rpente r, A, Franke, R, Levi, W., J acobs, R, & Empson, J. (1996). A lon gitudinal st udy oflea rning to use chi ldre n's th in kin g in m ath -ema tics in struct ion. J ourn al for Research in Math-ematics Ed ucation, 27, 8-25.
Numb er in preschool and kindergar-ten
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Mathematics and gen -der (pp. 60-95 ) New York : Teachers College Press Long-term effects of four presch ools: Sixth, seve nt h, a nd eight h grades
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Sex -related differ en ces in m athema ti cs ach ieve me n t a nd re-lated fact ors: A fu rt he r st u dy
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- J She Rman
Fenn em a, E., & She rman, J. (197 8 ). Sex -related differ en ces in m athema ti cs ach ieve me n t a nd re-lated fact ors: A fu rt he r st u dy. J ourn al for R esearch in Mathem ati cs Educat ion, 9, 863-870.
Children 's dr amatic play
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Studies in th e developm en t of play beha vior in young ch ild ren bet ween th e ages ot two and six . Unpub lish ed doctora l di ssertation , Bir mi ngham Unive rs ity As the twig is bent: Lasti ng effect» of preschool programs
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Lu nzer, E. A (1955 ). Studies in th e developm en t of play beha vior in young ch ild ren bet ween th e ages ot two and six. Unpub lish ed doctora l di ssertation, Bir mi ngham Unive rs ity, London. Lu zar, E. (1981). As the twig is bent: Lasti ng effect» of preschool programs. Hillsdale, NJ : Consortiu m for Longitudinal Studies.
Intern al in fluences on ge nder differences in mathematics
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Meyer, M., & Koehl er, M. (1990). Intern al in fluences on ge nder differences in mathematics. In E.
The complete book of children's play Th e block book
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- L Frank
- R M Goldenson
Hartley, R E., Frank, L., & Goldenson, R M. (1957). The complete book of children's play. New York: Crowell. Hirsch, K (1996 ). Th e block book. Wash ington, DC: Na tiona l Associatio n for th e Education of Youn g Children.
Spatial representat ion in block construction. P ap er presented at annual meeting of the
- S Reifel
Reifel, S. (1996b). Spatial representat ion in block construction. P ap er presented at annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Ca nada. Schweinhart, L., Weikart, D., & Lamer, M. (1986).
Significant benefits: Th e High/Scope Perry Preschool st udy th rough age 27. Monographs of th e High Las ti ng differ en ces: The High/Scope presch ool curriculum compa riso n study through age 23. Monographs of th e High
- L J Schweinhart
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- A S Epstein
Schweinhart, L. J., Barnes, V., & Weik art, D. P., with Barnett, W. S., & Epstein, A. S. (1993). Significant benefits: Th e High/Scope Perry Preschool st udy th rough age 27. Monographs of th e High/Scope Educational R esearch Foun dation, 10. Schw einhart, L. J., & Weikart, D. P. (1997). Las ti ng differ en ces: The High/Scope presch ool curriculum compa riso n study through age 23. Monographs of th e High / Sco pe Educat ional R esearch Fou ndation, 12. Se vigny, K. E. (1987 ). Th ir teen years after preschool: Is th ere a d ifference?(E RIC Docum en t Reprod uction Service No. ED 299287).
Sex -rel ated differ ences in ma t h-em a tics : An ove rview Ex -pla in in g sex-re la te d differences in mathem atics: Th eoretical modes
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Leder, G. (1985). Sex -rel ated differ ences in ma t h-em a tics : An ove rview. In E. Fen nem a (Ed. l, Ex -pla in in g sex-re la te d differences in mathem atics: Th eoretical modes. Educational Studies in Math -ematics, 16, 303-320.
Gend er differences in mathem atics: A syn thesis
- G Leder
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Leder, G., & Fenn em a, E. (1990 ). Gend er differences in mathem atics: A syn thesis. In F. Fennema & G. Led er (Eds.), Mathem a tics and gende r (pp. 188-199). New York: Teachers Colleg e Press.
The Montessori meth od
- M Montessori
Montessori, M. (19 12). The Montessori meth od. New York : Sch ocken Books.
Are Head Start effects s ustained? A longi-tudin al follow-up compa rison of disadvan taged chil-dren atte ndi ng Head Sta rt, no pr eschool , a nd ot her prescho ol pr ogr ams
- V Lee
- J Brooks-Gunn
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- F Liaw
Lee, V., Brooks-Gunn, J., Sch n ur, E., & Liaw, F. (1990 ). Are Head Start effects s ustained? A longi-tudin al follow-up compa rison of disadvan taged chil-dren atte ndi ng Head Sta rt, no pr eschool, a nd ot her prescho ol pr ogr ams. Child Develop ment, 61, 495-507.
An a pplicatio n of Piaget's th eory to the conceptual iza tion of a preschool pro gram
- C Kamii
Kamii, C. (1972 ). An a pplicatio n of Piaget's th eory to the conceptual iza tion of a preschool pro gram. In M. C. Day & R K Pa rker (Eds.), Th e preschool in action: Exploring the early child hood program (pp. 363-420 ). Boston: Allyn an d Bacon.
Facilita ting play: A m edium for promoting cognitive, socio-em otional and acad em ic developm ent in young chi l-dren
- S Smilansky
- L Sh Efatya
Smilansky, S., & Sh efatya, L. (1990). Facilita ting play: A m edium for promoting cognitive, socio-em otional and acad em ic developm ent in young chi l-dren. Gai thersburg, MD : Psycho soci al & Educational Publications.
Th e cogn itively orien ted curriculum: A framework for preschool teacher s. Urbana, IL: Unive rs ity of Illinois Press School for young child ren : Developm entallyappropriateprac-tices
- D P Weikart
- L Rogers
- C Adcock
- D Mcclelland
Weikart, D. P., Rogers, L., Adcock, C., & McClelland, D. (1971). Th e cogn itively orien ted curriculum: A framework for preschool teacher s. Urbana, IL: Unive rs ity of Illinois Press. Wolfgan g, C. H., & Wolfgang, M.E. (1999 ). School for young child ren : Developm entallyappropriateprac-tices. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Th e com plete block book. Sy ra-cuse , NY: Syra cuse Univ ersity P ress Block constr uction: Chi ldre n's developmental landma rk s in representation ofspace
- E Provenzo
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- Stannard
- S And Jones Reifel
Provenzo, E. (1983). Th e com plete block book. Sy ra-cuse, NY: Syra cuse Univ ersity P ress. WOLFGANG, STANNARD, AND JONES Reifel, S. (1996a). Block constr uction: Chi ldre n's developmental landma rk s in representation ofspace. Young Child ren, 48, 61-67.