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Young Children's Block Play and Mathematical Learning
Abstract
This qualitative study investigated young children's mathematical engagement in play with wooden unit blocks. Two boys, ages 6 and 7, were independently observed completing the task of filling outlined regions with the various sets of blocks. Three major mathematical actions were observed: categorizing geometric shapes, composing a larger shape with smaller shapes, and transforming shapes. Results indicated that young children's block play with designed tasks promoted mathematical actions, which may cement the foundation for advanced mathematics learning.
... Nardini et al. (2006) studied the spatial frames of reference in 3-to 6-year-old children and revealed that three-year-olds favored spatial representations that were not egocentric. Park et al. (2008) in their study of two boys proved that children categorized unit blocks as geometric shapes. In this study, the six-year-old boy used geometric terms in grouping blocks and recognized all triangles as triangles, and used size to differentiate them. ...
... Although more empirical studies on mediation strategies for spatial abilities need to be conducted, the existing literature strongly shows that mediation strategies play a major role in nurturing spatial abilities in young children (Uttal & Cohen, 2012;Sauter et al., 2012;Szechter & Liben, 2004;Ehrlich et al., 2006;Park et al., 2008;Uttal & Wellman, 1989;Casey et al., 2008). ...
... Block building has received limited attention from researchers investigating spatial reasoning strategies (Hanline & Milton, 2001;Park et al., 2008). Casey et al. (2008) contributed to our knowledge in this area by investigating three strategies of block building. ...
... Nardini et al. (2006) studied the spatial frames of reference in 3-to 6-year-old children and revealed that three-year-olds favored spatial representations that were not egocentric. Park et al. (2008) in their study of two boys proved that children categorized unit blocks as geometric shapes. In this study, the six-year-old boy used geometric terms in grouping blocks and recognized all triangles as triangles, and used size to differentiate them. ...
... Although more empirical studies on mediation strategies for spatial abilities need to be conducted, the existing literature strongly shows that mediation strategies play a major role in nurturing spatial abilities in young children (Uttal & Cohen, 2012;Sauter et al., 2012;Szechter & Liben, 2004;Ehrlich et al., 2006;Park et al., 2008;Uttal & Wellman, 1989;Casey et al., 2008). ...
... Block building has received limited attention from researchers investigating spatial reasoning strategies (Hanline & Milton, 2001;Park et al., 2008). Casey et al. (2008) contributed to our knowledge in this area by investigating three strategies of block building. ...
Spatial ability is a form of intelligence where a person demonstrates the capacity to mentally generate, transform, and rotate a visual image and thus understand and recall spatial relationships between real and imagined objects. The aim of this paper is three-fold: (1) to review related empirical studies on spatial abilities for young children from 1999 to 2022; (2) to underscore the significance of spatial abilities and effective strategies that can be used to foster in young children; and (3) to highlight the need for a broader understanding for teaching spatial reasoning abilities to young children. A two-phase literature review was conducted. The first focused on grouping studies according to the common areas they dealt with. The second focused on identifying major themes. Three major themes emerged from the literature: spatial skills innate to young children, children’s perception of space, and their mediation strategies. There are two implications of these themes for early childhood practitioners. The first is for them to recognize the importance of spatial reasoning for fostering quantitative reasoning in young children. The second is to implement age-appropriate strategies to foster spatial abilities and skills in young children. Recommendations for further studies are also provided.
... Το παιχνίδι των μικρών παιδιών με τα οικοδομικά υλικά (στερεά σχήματα) μέσω σχεδιασμένων δραστηριοτήτων προωθεί τις μαθηματικές δράσεις, κάτι το οποίο ενδυναμώνει τα θεμέλια για πιο προηγμένη μάθηση των μαθηματικών (Park, Chae & Foulks-Boyd, 2008). Αυτό φάνηκε στη διερεύνηση της μαθηματικής εμπλοκής σε παιχνίδια με ξύλινα οικοδομικά υλικά. ...
... Το Διαθεματικό Ενιαίο Πλαίσιο Προγραμμάτων Σπουδών για το Νηπιαγωγείο (ΔΕΠΠΣ, 2003), αναφέρει στις βασικές αρχές του πως το παιχνίδι αυθόρμητο-ελεύθερο και οργανωμένο, αναγνωρίζεται ως ένα από τα πιο σημαντικά μαθησιακά πλαίσια μαζί με τις καταστάσεις από την καθημερινή ζωή, τα ευκαιριακά ή επίκαιρα περιστατικά, τις διερευνήσεις καθώς και τις οργανωμένες δραστηριότητες. Αντίστοιχα με το ΔΕΠΠΣ, στο Πρόγραμμα Σπουδών Νηπιαγωγείου (ΠΣΝ, 2011) καταγράφεται ότι το παιχνίδι είναι απαραίτητο να 5 Της Ολλανδίας, της Ουαλίας, της Γερμανίας και της Φινλανδίας (Van Der Aalsvoort, Prakke, Howard, König & Parkkinen, 2015˙ Van Oers, 2010), της Τουρκίας (Sancar-Tokmak, 2015), της Σκανδιναβίας (Grindheim & Ødegaard, 2013), του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου και της Ιρλανδίας , της γερμανόφωνης Ελβετίας , της Νορβηγίας (Flottorp, 2011), των ΗΠΑ (Park, Chae & Foulks-Boyd, 2008), της Αυστραλίας και της Νέας Ζηλανδίας (Booker, 2000) μεταξύ άλλων. 6 Υπήρχε και υπάρχει αντίθεση στις οπτικές που υιοθετούνται για το κατάλληλο είδος δραστηριοτήτων στη μαθηματική εκπαίδευση των μικρών παιδιών. ...
... 6 Υπήρχε και υπάρχει αντίθεση στις οπτικές που υιοθετούνται για το κατάλληλο είδος δραστηριοτήτων στη μαθηματική εκπαίδευση των μικρών παιδιών. Σε κάποια εκπαιδευτικά περιβάλλοντα, οι μαθηματικές γνώσεις αποτελούν το επίκεντρο, ακόμα και από το νηπιαγωγείο (Flottorp, 2011) και άρα οι μαθησιακές δραστηριότητες πραγματοποιούνται μέσω τυπικής διδασκαλίας (Park, Chae & Foulks-Boyd, 2008). Σε άλλα εκπαιδευτικά περιβάλλοντα, οι ιδιαιτερότητες της παιδικής ηλικίας αποτελούν το επίκεντρο και άρα οι δραστηριότητες περικλείουν χαρακτηριστικά παιχνιδιού και ελεύθερης διερεύνησης. ...
... The researchers speculated that during block-building experiences, children need to count the number of blocks and visualize where blocks go in the structure before placing them. Thus, block building may provide children with direct mathematical experiences, such as counting, sorting, measuring, and classifying (e.g., Park, Chae, & Boyd, 2008;Wolfgang et al., 2001;Yelland, 2001). ...
... Structural complexity-but not block-building behaviors-related to children's mathematics performance at age 3. Although the mechanisms to explain this link are not established, prior work suggests that block-building may require mathematical reasoning, such as counting, sorting, measuring, and classifying (e.g., Park et al., 2008;Wolfgang et al., 2001;Schmitt et al., 2018;Yelland, 2001). Verdine and colleagues (2014) also suggest that building block structures with LEGOs may require an understanding of discrete units and thus, invoke measurement concepts such as counting the pips or studs. ...
Block-building skills at age 3 are related to spatial skills at age 5 (citation removed) and spatial skills in grade school are linked to later success in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Though studies have focused on block-building behaviors and design complexity, few have examined these variables in relation to future spatial and mathematical skills or have considered how children go about copying the model in detail. This study coded 3-year-olds’ (N = 102) block-building behaviors and structural complexity on 3-D trials of the Test of Spatial Assembly (TOSA). It explored whether individual differences in children’s building behaviors and the complexity of their designs related to accuracy in copying the model block structures or their spatial and mathematical skills at ages 4 and 5. Our findings reveal that block-building behaviors were associated with concurrent and later spatial skills while structural complexity was associated with concurrent and later spatial skills as well as concurrent mathematics skills. Future work might teach children to engage in the apparently successful block-building strategies examined in this research to evaluate a potential causal mechanism.
... They should explore supplementary methods to facilitate their children's learning in these subjects. For example, providing rich resources related to math and English reading, such as English storybooks (Wang, 2011) and math-related educational toys like blocks (Park et al., 2008). Additionally, parents can leverage electronic resources available on the internet, such as videos and courses, to assist their children in acquiring math and English knowledge, promoting their academic motivation and engagement. ...
This study investigated the chain mediating roles of children's academic motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and academic engagement in the relationships between parenting styles (positive and negative) and their academic achievements in Chinese, mathematics, and English. The participants were 433 elementary school children from grades 3 to 5. After controlling for child's sex, age, nonverbal intelligence, and family socioeconomic status, the results found that: (1) positive parenting styles exhibited a beneficial effect on academic achievement in Chinese, but not in mathematics and English. Negative parenting styles did not yield a significant effect on academic achievement in any of the subjects examined; (2) positive parenting styles could affect children's Chinese achievement through their academic engagement and thorough the chain mediating roles of intrinsic academic motivation and academic engagement. However, these mediating and chain mediating effects were not observed in the case of mathematics and English. This study emphasizes the significance of positive parenting styles specifically in relation to the Chinese subject, as opposed to mathematics and English. These findings hold important theoretical and practical implications for promoting children's academic achievement.
... [Author] & [Author], 2022; Borriello & Liben, 2018;Fisher et al., 2013;Park et al., 2008;Wolfgang et al., 2001), there is still a lack of studies exploring the connection between young children's self-concept and their skill development. Thus, we examined whether children's self-concept was associated with their skill development, i.e., knowledge about stability, spatial language and math knowledge. ...
... First, block play facilitated students to learn numeracy which includes counting, comparison, and operations (Schmitt et al., 2018). Second, researchers investigated how young children learn mathematical thinking to categorize geometric shapes, sequencing, compose a larger shape with smaller shapes and transform shapes when playing with wooden blocks (Park et al., 2008;Sarama & Clements, 2009). Third, block play could support children's CT to solve problems (Newman et al., 2021) and mathematical language development to express quantitative and spatial words (Schmitt et al., 2018). ...
Programmable robotics is recently used in early childhood education (ECE) to introduce programming and computational thinking (CT) skills. However, there is a further need for research to contrast the efficacy of children's participation in robot programming and traditionally beneficial ECE activities. The present study thus investigated the effects of a robot programming intervention versus a block play program on kindergarteners' CT, sequencing ability, and self‐regulation. The experiment (robot programming) versus comparison (block play) condition was randomly assigned to four kindergarten classes, which included 101 kindergarteners (M = 64.78 months, SD = 7.64). Statistical analyses revealed that the robot programming group (N = 54) had experienced greater gains over time in sequencing ability relative to those in the block play group (N = 47; F = 5.09, p < 0.05). Children in the robot programming group with lower level of self‐regulation at baseline showed larger improvements in sequencing ability over time relative to the block play group (F = 2.37, p = 0.01). Also, children in the robot programming group with older age showed larger improvements in CT over time relative to the block play group (F = 2.40, p < 0.01). The study demonstrates the positive benefits of robot programming to early childhood development in terms of CT and sequencing ability, compared to a traditional curriculum activity in ECE—block play.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic Screen‐free robot programming can enhance preschool children's computational thinking (CT).
Block play can enhance preschool children's mathematics and executive functioning.
Both robot programming and block play are engaging for preschool children.
What this paper adds An unplugged CT assessment is used to measure and compare the effects of both robot programming and block play interventions among preschool children.
Robot programming outperforms block play in promoting children's school readiness skills such as sequencing ability.
Children with lower self‐regulation skills benefited more from the robot programming intervention.
Implications for practice and/or policy Robot programming and CT education should be expanded in diverse early childhood settings to boost the positive effects.
Technology‐enhanced curricula should be integrated into early childhood education.
Teachers should receive training on robot programming in addition to more traditional skills such as scaffolding children's block play.
... [14] use ICT (Information and Communication of Technology). Likewise, the wood block media can also be used for learning geometry at the early childhood level as done by Park et al. [15]. However, there has not been any learning using constructivist or block play media for slow learners at the early childhood level. ...
... The more children know about wooden unit blocks containing a variety of shapes (Hsieh and Mccollum, 2018), the more they can manipulate different shapes, and the more complex their patterns of block building become . Our quantitative results are consistent with Park et al. (2008) qualitative analysis that found three major actions (i.e., categorizing geometric shapes, composing a larger shape with smaller shapes, and transforming shapes) in free play with wooden unit blocks. The lack of a significant association between 3-D shape naming and block-building complexity was probably due to these young children's poor understanding of the names of 3-D shapes, with a mean of 1.44, suggesting a floor effect. ...
Block building is a popular play activity among young children and is also used by psychologists to assess their intelligence. However, little research has attempted to systematically explore the cognitive bases of block-building ability. The current study (N = 66 Chinese preschoolers, 32 boys and 34 girls; mean age = 4.7 years, SD = 0.29, range = 3.4 to 5.2 years) investigated the relationships between six measures of spatial skills (shape naming, shape recognition, shape composition, solid figure naming, cube transformation, and mental rotation, with the former four representing form perception and the latter two representing visualization) and block-building complexity. Correlation results showed that three of the four measures of form perception (shape naming, shape recognition, and shape composition) were significantly and positively correlated with block-building complexity, whereas the two measures of visualization were not. Results from regression models indicated that shape recognition and shape composition, as well as shape-recognition-by-gender interaction, were unique predictors of children’s block-building complexity. These findings provide preliminary evidence for the basic spatial skills underlying children’s block-building complexity and have implications for classroom instructions aimed at improving preschoolers’ block-building complexity.
... L. M., 2015;Provenzo & Brett, 1984;Wilson, 2018) increasing numerical competence (Bojorque. G. et al, 2018;S.A., Korucu, Napoli, Bryant, & J.Purpura, 2018) increasing mathematics competence like counting, recognizing shapes, and mathematic language (Park, Chae, & Boyd, 2008;Pirrone, Tienken, & Di Nuovo, 2018;Simoncini et al., 2020). Besides that, There is a close connection between playing with blocks for preschool children and the ability of reading and mathematics (Hanline. ...
Teachers in ECE (Early Childhood Education) should have the knowledge and skills in guiding children when playing blocks, but this is not shared by most PAUD teachers in Indonesia. Therefore, this study develops a block play model that refers to the PKPK model from Hirsch and Dodge with the adjustment of conditions in Indonesia. This research is a research and development (R&D) that seeks to develop, refine (re-construct), test, and validate Masnipal-models that are easy for teachers to use and effectively develop children's creativity. This study begins with testing the PKPK model to a group of subjects to obtain data about the ability of teachers to understand and apply the model. After revisions and improvements, the model of reconstruction results was further tested. Research subjects were PAUD teachers in Cianjur (n = 42) and Bandung (n = 78). Data collection uses observation and peer assessment techniques and data analysis uses descriptive analysis techniques. The novelty of this study is the resulting Masnipal-model that facilitates PAUD teachers in Indonesia in guiding children to develop creativity through block play.
... Second, block-building that also brings challenges to children's graphic cognition may also be conducive to their spatial ability (Szechter and Liben, 2004), especially the graphic representation. For example, a qualitative study has found that block-building activity is beneficial to children's understanding of geometric shapes (Park et al., 2008); thus it might facilitate children's representation ability in two-dimensional aspect. Therefore, it would contribute to the development of graphic representation, as well. ...
This study investigated the effects of the teaching block-building intervention on overall spatial representation and its three sub-forms, namely linguistic, graphic and model representations, in kindergartners. Eighty-four children (39 girls and 45 boys), aged 5–6 years old, were randomly selected and equally divided into two groups, i.e., experimental group and control group. The experimental group received the intervention of teaching block-building for 14 weeks (45 min each time, once a week), while children in the control group freely played with blocks for the equivalent time. Children’s spatial representation performances were measured in both pre- and post-tests by the Experimental Tasks of Spatial Representation for Children. The results showed that: (1) teaching block-building could promote not only the overall spatial representation but also all three sub-forms of spatial representations; (2) there was no gender differences regarding the effect of teaching block-building on neither the overall nor three sub-forms of spatial representations; (3) after the intervention, the diversity of children’s choices regarding the use of sub-forms spatial representations was also promoted in the experimental group. In summary, these results contributed to a comprehensive and systematic understanding of the effects of teaching block-building on spatial representation among children in kindergartens.
... A debate exists in the literature regarding the effectiveness of specific programs based on using leisure activities (including building blocks) to enhance later academic performance in fields such as mathematics (i.e., numerical knowledge, accuracy and calculation speed); the data are often discordant due to the complexity of interacting variables (Bergen, 2009;Ginsburg, Lee & Boyd, 2008;Hanline et al., 2001;NCTM, 2000;Park, Chae & Boyd, 2008;Wolfgang et al., 2003). In particular, the role of mental imagery within this relationship needs to be investigated, and reasoning ability should also be considered. ...
Block-building games require skills such as classification, measurement, organization, and enumeration, which are relevant for Mathematics, in association with the ability to visualize through mental imagery. The aim of this research was to test the relationships among competence in building-block, mental imagery, and mathematical abilities while controlling for gender and for the child’s general intellectual ability. The sample consisted of 160 fourth and fifth grade students, 77 males and 83 females, age range 9-11 years. An evaluation grid for assessing performance in building-block play, standardized tasks aimed at measuring mental imagery, and the AC-MT test of arithmetic, were used as instruments. Grades in mathematics were also recorded, and non-verbal reasoning was assessed by Raven’s Progressive Matrices test. The results demonstrated that ability in both building blocks and imaginative tasks significantly predicts arithmetic performance. General intellectual ability is a significant covariate in these relations, while gender differences appear to be irrelevant at this age. © 2015, Giunti O.S. Organizzazioni Speciali. All rights reserved.
... Research has suggested that playing with blocks is related to various positive cognitive outcomes such as mathematical learning and spatial abilities (Caldera et al. 1999;Park, Chae and Boyd 2008). In a qualitative study of two 6-and 7-yearold boys' block play, Park and colleagues (2008) observed children categorizing geometric shapes, transforming shapes, and making larger shapes from smaller shapes. ...
Researchers used observations of 66 preschool children's engagement with large lightweight blocks and more traditional play materials to describe preschoolers' “engineering play,” a new construct focused on early design- and construction-related thinking and behavior (Bairaktarova et al. 2011). The study explored engineering play and gender differences across three play contexts: traditional playground, dramatic play area, and the large blocks. Results showed no gender differences, but distinct context differences in the frequency of engineering play, with large blocks apparently offering more opportunities. More research is needed to explore the role of large, loose parts in early STEM-related play behavior.
... Consequently, theorists and researchers have proposed and studied many different types of play including free or unstructured play (J. Duncan & Lockwood, 2008;Piaget, 1962;Pramling Samuelsson & Johansson, 2009;Vygotsky, 1962Vygotsky, , 1978, pretend or imaginative play (Pramling Samuelsson & Johansson, 2009;Singer & Singer, 2005), play-based learning (Fisher, 2008), block play (Hanline, Milton, & Phelps, 2010;Park, Chae, & Foulks Boyd, 2008), and so forth. Research suggests that play has been shown to improve "school readiness in two broad domains: cognitive skills (literacy, math, problem solving, imagination, and creativity) and social and emotional skills" (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009, p. 19). ...
... A debate exists in the literature regarding the effectiveness of specific programs based on using leisure activities (including building blocks) to enhance later academic performance in fields such as mathematics (i.e., numerical knowledge, accuracy and calculation speed); the data are often discordant due to the complexity of interacting variables (Bergen, 2009;Ginsburg, Lee & Boyd, 2008;Hanline et al., 2001;NCTM, 2000;Park, Chae & Boyd, 2008;Wolfgang et al., 2003). In particular, the role of mental imagery within this relationship needs to be investigated, and reasoning ability should also be considered. ...
Block-building games require skills such as classification, measurement, organization, and enumeration, which are relevant for Mathematics, in association with the ability to visualize through mental imagery. The aim of this research was to test the relationships among competence in building-block, mental imagery, and mathematical abilities while controlling for gender and for the child’s general intellectual ability. The sample consisted of 160 fourth and fifth grade students, 77 males and 83 females, age range 9-11 years. An evaluation grid for assessing performance in building-block play, standardized tasks aimed at measuring mental imagery, and the AC-MT test of arithmetic, were used as instruments. Grades in mathematics
were also recorded, and non-verbal reasoning was assessed by Raven’s Progressive Matrices test. The results demonstrated that ability in both building blocks and imaginative tasks significantly predicts arithmetic performance. General intellectual ability is a significant covariate in these relations, while gender differences appear to be irrelevant at this age.
... Many studies highlighting mathematics learning are explorative, in the sense that researchers and teachers study children's understanding, mathematical behaviour and strategies when encountering building blocks or puzzles (van Nes & van Eerde, 2010). Accordingly, there is no doubt about the learning opportunities that lay within, for Early Child Development and Care example, block play (Park, Chae, & Boyd, 2008), stimulating mathematical actions such as categorising, comparison and transformation. A physical environment with rich opportunities to explore and manipulate is further emphasised as a prerequisite for high pedagogical quality (Sheridan, 2009). ...
This article is a discussion drawing on a learning study with a teacher working with one- and two-year-olds. The focal interest is a scrutiny of the use of manipulative objects, emanating from observations of a teacher's and children's use of, and responses to the use of, different objects. The concept of size and the notions ‘large’ and ‘small’ are offered as authentic examples and analysed in terms of the variation theory of learning. Main findings are that mathematics learning in early childhood will benefit from a greater attention to how teachers can make use of specific objects for certain pedagogical purposes. Analysis reveals the necessity to pay attention to how the aspects of the learning object can be discerned by the children, given that fewer features offer more learning opportunities. The teacher's role as a guide is, though, considered essential in supporting the children's discerning act through both verbal and visual means.
Play is an integrative process, and the skills acquired in it-overcoming impulses, behavior control, exploration and discovery, problem-solving, reasoning, drawing conclusions, and attention to processes and outcomes are foundational cognitive structures that drive learning and motivation. Loose parts play is a prominent form of play that many scholars and educators explicitly endorse for cognitive development (e.g., divergent thinking, problem-solving). It is unique among play types because children can combine different play types and natural or manufactured materials in one occurrence. While educators and policymakers promote the benefits of loose parts play, no previous research has explored the direct relationship between preschool-age children's indoor loose parts play experiences and cognitive development. We address this gap by bringing together the relevant literature and synthesizing the empirical studies on common play types with loose parts, namely object and exploratory, symbolic and pretend, and constructive play. We also focus on studies that examine children's experiences through loose parts, highlighting the impact of different play types on learning through the reinforcement of cognitive skills, such as executive function , cognitive self-regulation, reasoning, and problem-solving. By examining the existing literature and synthesizing empirical evidence, we aim to deepen our understanding of the relationship between children's play with loose parts and its impact on cognitive development. Ultimately, pointing out the gaps in the literature that would add to the body of knowledge surrounding the benefits of play for cognitive development and inform educators, policymakers, and researchers about the significance of incorporating loose parts play into early childhood education.
Mounting longitudinal evidence demonstrates that young children's numeracy knowledge before kindergarten determines their mathematics achievement path in primary grades and high school graduation. Mathematics education and children's play do not have to be binary and compete for time in early learning and childcare learning environments. Indeed, researchers demonstrate that play and planned mathematical activities enrich one another and ultimately contribute to children's learning outcomes. Guided play, in which educators combine planned learning experiences with the child-directed nature of play, focuses on learning outcomes through adult scaffolding. This chapter synthesizes research on how play experiences can be an organic but powerful process for scaffolding and elevating young children's mathematical understanding in light of current evidence from early numeracy research. In the conclusion of this chapter, evidence-based recommendations are introduced for facilitating children's developing numerical competencies and activating existing knowledge through guided play.
Block building—a prevalent play activity—allows children to practice and develop spatial skills, including learning about the intrinsic properties and extrinsic spatial relations of blocks. Performance on block building taps individual differences in spatial skill and relates to later science and math skills. However, studies of block building typically ignore moment-to-moment block-building behaviors, and rarely target children from diverse backgrounds. We observed the real-time block-building behaviors of 120 5-year-olds from African American, Dominican, Mexican, and Chinese backgrounds as they attempted to replicate 3D block structures built by a researcher. For each structure, we coded time spent building, attention to the target structure, alignment of structure with the target, intrinsic and extrinsic errors, and final success. Alignment and checking related to low errors and high success, with Chinese children showing the most alignment, checking, and success. Shifting attention from “performance” to “process” sheds light on real-time learning during spatial tasks.
This paper examines the relationship between early geometric skills, behavioral self-regulation skills, teacher-mother reported self-regulation skills, child age and family income in 5-6 year-old children. The participants (N = 202; 104 girls, 98 boys) average age was 71 months (sd = 4.82; Data on race/ethnicity were not asked to participants). This review found evidence that positive correlation among geometric skills, behavioral self-regulation skills, teacher-reported self-regulation skills and child age. And binary logistic regression analysis indicated that the predictors of children’s likelihood of being in the above average-level early geometric skills group were their behavioral self-regulation skills (3.3% to the odds), teacher-reported self-regulation skills (3.4% to the odds) and child age (8.8% to the odds).
Parents and early childhood educators share a unique role in scaffolding the acquisition of foundational mathematical concepts in young children. Targeting early skill development is critical as differences in children’s early mathematical competence emerge as young as four years old, and these differences persist into formal schooling (e.g., Duncan et al. in Dev Psychol, 43(6):1428–1446, 2007). Skills in geometry and spatial sense represent one of the mathematical strands recommended by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) in the United States that can be acquired by young children prior to formal schooling. This chapter introduces important differences in spatial talk and activities elicited during play by parents and early childhood educators both in the context of traditional 3-dimensional play (e.g., blocks and puzzles) environments and virtual 2-dimensional digital formats (e.g., iPads® and computers). Substantial literature reveals the important array of creative and educational experiences afforded through play and particularly manipulatives. This chapter reviews previous research and extends findings to digital contexts involving our youngest learners and discusses ways to capitalize on the affordances offered by both digital applications and traditional manipulatives to harness children’s spatial learning. We also examine the benefits and concerns about educational software programs (e.g., what makes educational software programs more or less effective) in general and in the context of mathematics education.
Math is increasingly recognized as a critical part of what young children are exposed to and learn in early childhood programs. Geometry is one of three focal areas emphasized for early childhood, and opportunities for geometry learning are present in many manipulatives present in early childhood classrooms. Yet geometry remains an understudied part of the preschool curriculum, particularly as experienced by the young children with disabilities who are included in a growing number of early childhood programs. This qualitative study describes the knowledge and pedagogical thinking of 12 early childhood teachers as they planned for and taught a complex geometric puzzle to a child identified as having a disability. For all teachers, thinking reflected consideration of the interface between expectations, pedagogy, and child. However, not all teachers had a grasp of geometric features inherent in the puzzle, or of an equally broad range of pedagogical strategies for teaching them, indicating that continued consideration of teaching standards and teacher education for early math is needed.
Researchers propose that experiencing and manipulating physical principles through objects allows young children to formulate scientific intuitions that may serve as precursors to learning in STEM subjects. This may be especially true when children discover these physical principles through object affordances during play. The present study investigated preschoolers’ spontaneous explorations of physical phenomena during their object play experiences. It consisted of biweekly naturalistic observations of 20 children’s free play, carried out over 8 weeks in two northeastern United States preschools. Results demonstrated that children encountered a variety of physical concepts, including magnetism, forces, energy, tension, friction, and simple machines, as they engaged in spatial-mathematical activities, planned and executed play sequences, problem solved, and explored with objects available in their classrooms. The findings offer insights into the physical phenomena available to children through object play and how these opportunities can be used to support children in reasoning about the physical world.
Es werden ausgewählte Ergebnisse aus Studien vorgestellt, in denen individuelle Bau- und Konstruktionsaktivitäten von Vor- und Grundschulkindern analysiert werden. Im Mittelpunkt stehen Bauaktivitäten mit Einheitswürfeln und Aufgaben zu Würfelbauwerken, die aus Einheitswürfeln zusammengefügt werden. Ein Bezug wird zudem zu den Spielgaben Friedrich Fröbels hergestellt, die neben Einheitswürfeln auch Dreiecksprismen oder Quader enthalten. Einblicke in eine Kooperation von Kindertagesstätte und Grundschule zeigen exemplarisch auf, wie die eingesetzten und entwickelten Aufgabenformate in die Praxis zurückwirken. Hier zeigt sich, wie das gemeinsame Interesse der Kinder in beiden Institutionen am Bauen und Konstruieren mit Einheitswürfeln und anderen Bausteinen Anlässe für eine inhaltliche Zusammenarbeit darstellen kann.
Konkreten Bauaktivitäten mit geometrischen Objekten wird eine bedeutsame Rolle bei der Fundierung und Entwicklung geometrischer Vorstellungen im Vor- und Grundschulalter zugeschrieben. Das Projekt (Y)CUBES: (Young) Children Using Blocks to Express Spatial Strategies widmet sich daran anknüpfend der übergeordneten Frage, wie individuelle Vorgehensweisen bei der Erstellung konkreter Bauwerke mit den räumlichen Vorstellungen von Vor- und Grundschulkindern zusammenhängen. Im vorliegenden Beitrag werden theoretische Bezugspunkte des Projekts vorgestellt, Einblicke in verschiedene Teilstudien gegeben und erste Ergebnisse daraus referiert. Diese umfassen ein empirisch begründetes Modell, das zur Charakterisierung kindlicher Bauaktivitäten in der (Re-)Konstruktion von (Würfel-)Bauwerken herangezogen werden kann und unter anderem dazu dient, einen engen Zusammenhang zwischen den beobachteten Bauaktivitäten, Strategien des mentalen visuellen Operierens und elementaren arithmetischen Konzepten auszuweisen. Abschließend werden erste praxisrelevante Implikationen angesprochen, die sich im Hinblick auf die Entwicklung externer und interner Repräsentationen von Vor- und Grundschulkindern aus der Arbeit im Projekt ergeben.
In this research, our objective was to identify development enhancing features of play between parent-child (ages 26 to 39 months) dyads that may be more supportive for mathematical learning. While the adult in this research is a parent, the results can be applied to other early year settings where the adult may be an early childhood educator or caregiver. Emerging from a qualitative analysis of 23 30-minute naturalistic play sessions, three development enhancing features were identified: (1) reinforcing learning, (2) checking for understanding, or (3) advancing learning. Combinations (one or more) of these development enhancing features formed the basis of the conceptualization of “purposeful play.” Purposeful play is defined and potential implications for mathematical learning and parent-child play are discussed.
Through its unique integration of curriculum and learning principles, Early Childhood Curriculum: A Constructivist Perspective, 2nd Edition fosters authentic, developmentally appropriate practice for both preschool and early elementary classrooms. The constructivist format of this book encourages active involvement on the part of readers by asking them to observe, question, reflect, research, and analyze, thus allowing readers to create their own knowledge through their responses and actions.
There has been very little research into children’s technological practice in early childhood settings. This article describes four typical examples of the technological activity that occurs on a daily basis in New Zealand early childhood settings. It is suggested that children come to compulsory schooling with well-developed technological knowledge and competence in instigating and carrying out technological tasks that is not recognized and taken advantage of by the majority of primary early years programme developers and teachers. A number of ways by which early years school technology programmes could benefit by recognizing the extent of children’s emergent technological literacy and amending programme delivery and teaching strategies are detailed.
The present study is an investigation of the interplay between social and developmental processes in children's numerical understandings in working- and middle-class home settings. Methods included interviews with 78 middle- and working-class 2½- and 4½-year-olds to assess their numerical understandings, interviews with the mothers about their children's everyday number activities, and observational studies of the mother-and-child pairs in interaction during prototypical number activities. Our results provide evidence that the children in the study were regularly engaged with social activities involving number, though the nature of children's numerical understandings and their numerical environments differed in the following ways. (1) Younger children differed from older children in their numerical understandings across a variety of tasks that varied in their goal structure complexity: recitation of counting words, production of cardinal values for single arrays, numerical comparisons and reproductions, and arithmetic transformations. 4-year-olds from middle-class homes displayed greater competence on tasks with more complex numerical goals than did their working-class peers. (2) At home, variation in the complexity of children's everyday number activities paralleled our findings of age and social class differences in children's numerical understandings. (3) During mother-child teaching interactions, mothers adjusted the goal structure of a given activity to reflect their children's abilities to structure numerical goals, and children adjusted their goals to their mothers' efforts to organize the activity. In a minority of contexts, working-class mothers simplified the goal structure of the activity to a greater extent than did middle-class mothers. Overall, there were few differences between the middle- and working-class dyads in the complexity of numerical goals elaborated during interactions for children of equivalent age and ability. These results support a model in which children's numerical environments are understood to be negotiated in their everyday activities-a negotiation that leads children's achievements to be linked at once to their own understandings and to the sociocultural context of their development.
The questions this paper attempts to answer are related to the attitudes of student teachers of the Department of Early Childhood Education at the University of Patras (Greece) towards mathematics, as well as their views on the instruction of mathematics in Early Childhood Education. The research sample included 52 students in the fourth semester of studies, who were invited to answer a questionnaire with respect to mathematics and its instruction. The findings reveal the negative attitude our research subjects adopt towards mathematics. Their epistemological views on mathematics and its instruction do not constitute a single and solid conceptual system. These findings underline the need to improve the mathematical education offered to student teachers of Early Childhood Education.
Examined the performance of 42 middle- and 42 low-income kindergarten children on arithmetic calculations presented in a nonverbal format as well as in 3 different verbal formats. On the nonverbal task, the child was shown an initial set of disks, which was then hidden with a cover. The set was transformed by adding or removing disks. After the transformation, the child's task was to construct an array of disks that contained the same number of disks as in the final hidden set. A significant interaction between income level and task format was obtained. Although middle-income children performed better than low-income children on each of the verbal calculation tasks, the 2 income groups did not differ in performance on the nonverbal calculation task. The findings suggest that the nonverbal task format is less sensitive to socioeconomic variation than are the verbal task formats. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this critical analysis was to investigate the young children’s sense of numerical magnitudes and the important attributes of classrooms where children in kindergarten and first grade are exposed to mathematics. This study aimed to offer guidelines that will assist teachers as they teach mathematics to children between the ages of five and seven.
This study examined the relation between the amount of mathematical input in the speech of preschool or day-care teachers and the growth of children's conventional mathematical knowledge over the school year. Three main findings emerged. First, there were marked individual differences in children's conventional mathematical knowledge by 4 years of age that were associated with socioeconomic status. Second, there were dramatic differences in the amount of math-related talk teachers provided. Third, and most important, the amount of teachers' math-related talk was significantly related to the growth of preschoolers' conventional mathematical knowledge over the school year but was unrelated to their math knowledge at the start of the school year.
This book takes a critical look at the evidence concerning nonverbal quantification in infants and young children. For the first time since research on this topic exploded in the 1980s, the entire literature covering birth to school age is considered together. Instead of finding support for the claim that number concepts are inborn, the authors conclude that quantification originates in an approximate sense of overall amount. From this perspective, several new questions arise. How does the concept of discrete number diverge from this amount-based beginning? How well do different models of nonverbal numerical representation fit the data when the entire period from birth to school age is included? If infants represent quantities in terms of amount, are these representations absolute or relative? In addition to addressing these questions, the authors consider how early quantitative concepts fit into the broader context of cognitive development. They also discuss how conventional mathematics builds on preschool quantification and how quantitative development relates to categorization, language, and spatial reasoning. The resulting overview highlights not only the impressive quantitative accomplishments of early childhood, but also the intricate conceptual relations that must be worked out to produce them.
In 1982, an intact group of 37 preschoolers (age 4) attending a play-oriented preschool were tested using the Lunzer Five Point Play Scale (1955) to obtain a block performance measure. To statistically control for social economic status (SES), IQ and gender, the McCarty Scales of Children's Abilities (1972) were given, the gender determined, and an SES score obtained (Hollingshead & Redlick, 1958). In 1998, after these same participants had completed high school, their records were obtained. Outcome measures for the 3rd, 5th, and 7th grades included standardized tests and report card grades in mathematics. High school achievement was determined by using 1) number of courses, 2) number of honors courses, 3) advanced math courses taken, and 4) grades. While controlling for IQ and gender, the block performance measure was correlated and regressed against these outcome variables. No significance was found at the 3rd- and 5th-grade levels by evaluating report card grades and standardized math scores. At 7th-grade, there was a significant correlation between blocks and standardized math scores, but not report card grades. At the high school level, there was a positive correlation with all high school outcome variables. There was no correlation between block performance and standardized math tests or grades at the elementary school levels. However, at the beginning of middle school, 7th grade, and in the high school grades, a positive correlation between preschool block performance and math achievement was demonstrated.
This study examines the abstractness of children's mental representation of counting, and their understanding that the last number word used in a count tells how many items there are (the cardinal word principle). In the first experiment, twenty-four 2- and 3-year-olds counted objects, actions, and sounds. Children counted objects best, but most showed some ability to generalize their counting to actions and sounds, suggesting that at a very young age, children begin to develop an abstract, generalizable mental representation of the counting routine. However, when asked "how many" following counting, only older children (mean age 3.6) gave the last number word used in the count a majority of the time, suggesting that the younger children did not understand the cardinal word principle. In the second experiment (the "give-a-number" task), the same children were asked to give a puppet one, two, three, five, and six items from a pile. The older children counted the items, showing a clear understanding of the cardinal word principle. The younger children succeeded only at giving one and sometimes two items, and never used counting to solve the task. A comparison of individual children's performance across the "how-many" and "give-a-number" tasks shows strong within-child consistency, indicating that children learn the cardinal word principle at roughly 3 1/2 years of age. In the third experiment, 18 2- and 3-year-olds were asked several times for one, two, three, five, and six items, to determine the largest numerosity at which each child could succeed consistently. Results indicate that children learn the meanings of smaller number words before larger ones within their counting range, up to the number three or four. They then learn the cardinal word principle at roughly 3 1/2 years of age, and perform a general induction over this knowledge to acquire the meanings of all the number words within their counting range.