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School effects and subject choice: The uptake of scientific subjects in Ireland
Abstract
Studies of subject take-up within secondary education have tended to focus on student characteristics and have rarely attempted to take account of the broad variety of ways, formal and informal, in which schools can constrain or facilitate particular subject choices. In contrast, this article explores both the school and student factors shaping the take-up of Biology, Physics, and Chemistry at upper secondary level. The analyses draw on detailed information on almost 4,000 students in 100 secondary schools in the Republic of Ireland. Schools are found to differ in the proportion of students taking science subjects, even controlling for the profile of students. School structures at both lower and upper secondary levels are found to play a role in shaping the choices made by students regarding science.
... On the other hand, along with the "Anglosphere" (Freeman et al., 2019, n.p.) countries of Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, Australia is characterised as a decentralized country, with greater autonomy and choice given to individual schools for decisions and allocation of resources, staffing and curriculum (Asia Society, 2006;Freeman et al., 2019;Perry & Lubienski, 2020). In the latter systems, decentralisation in schooling is also seen to shape student decisions about, and participation in, certain subjects (Smyth & Hannan, 2006). In turn, much of the research literature exploring patterns of participation and subject choice in mathematics and the sciences in these countries has focussed on individual characteristics, including gender and SES, as well as students' personal motivations, attitudes and aspirations (Perry & Lubienski, 2020;Smyth & Hannan, 2006). ...
... In the latter systems, decentralisation in schooling is also seen to shape student decisions about, and participation in, certain subjects (Smyth & Hannan, 2006). In turn, much of the research literature exploring patterns of participation and subject choice in mathematics and the sciences in these countries has focussed on individual characteristics, including gender and SES, as well as students' personal motivations, attitudes and aspirations (Perry & Lubienski, 2020;Smyth & Hannan, 2006). Studies at the turn of the century by the Australian Council of Educational Research on Year 12 subject choice (Ainley et al., 1994;Fullarton & Ainley, 2000;Fullarton et al., 2003) for example, have consistently documented the influence of SES on students' participation in mathematics and the physical sciences. ...
... More recent research has confirmed these findings in relation to both SES (Cooper et al., 2020;Gorard & See, 2009) and gender (Jaremus et al., 2019;Watt et al., 2006). Further, subject choices in later years of schooling are found to reflect prior achievement levels, particularly in mathematics and science (Gill & Bell, 2013;Jeffries et al., 2020;Smyth & Hannan, 2006;Tripney et al., 2010). Such factors are shown to interact with student attitudes to affect later subject choices and achievement in both mathematics and science (Jeffries et al., 2020). ...
This research investigates access to senior school science and mathematics subjects offered in the final year of secondary schooling. Using data from the most populous Australian state of New South Wales, we examine whether stratification occurs in access to science and mathematics curricula. We find that the opportunity to study these subjects differs by key school characteristics, including location, socioeconomic composition and school sector. We find that while some science subjects and entry level mathematics are offered in most schools, substantial inequalities exist in access to the most advanced level of mathematics and chemistry. School location, socioeconomic composition, enrolment size and the availability of teachers predict the probability of whether a school offers the least and most advanced science and mathematics subjects. The findings highlight that stratification in curricula offerings occurs systemically and may intensify educational inequalities.
... Nevertheless, paradoxically the largest STEM gaps appear in countries with higher levels of gender equality, as found by Stoet and Geary (2018). In relation to the particular discipline, whereas fields like physics or engineering are mainly occupied by men, women are more numerous in health-related disciplines (Mau, 2003;Jacobs, 2005;Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Su and Rounds, 2015;Delaney and Devereux, 2019;Kang et al., 2019). Although chemistry is generally considered as a a Departamento de Métodos de Investigación y Diagnóstico en Educación I (MIDE I), ...
... E-mail: dardura@edu.uned.es b Departamento de Métodos de Investigación y Diagnóstico en Educación II (MIDE ''neutral'' field (see, for example, Smyth and Hannan, 2006), some recent studies suggest that women tend to choose chemistry more than men at high school and university levels (Avargil et al., 2020), or alternatively, that chemistry is still considered as a masculine subject (Cousins and Mills, 2015). ...
... As already stated in the introduction, secondary school boys seem to be more likely to choose mathematics or physics than girls. In turn, biology and health-related degrees are preferred by girls (Mau, 2003;Jacobs, 2005;Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Su and Rounds, 2015;Delaney and Devereux, 2019;Kang et al., 2019). Of course, high school is a decisive moment in the choice of science, as the subject selection and the environment at secondary education influence future enrolment at university (Legewie and DiPrete, 2014;Jacob et al., 2020). ...
Secondary school students’ early choices related to staying in the science track define their future decisions to choose chemistry at college. This investigation aims at analyzing the role of gender in students’ causal attributions to choose or abandon chemistry when it first becomes optional in the Spanish educational system. Our analyses uncovered a relevant effect of gender in the students’ decision, boys being more likely to choose physics & chemistry when they face, for the first time, the possibility of continuing or opting out the subject. Besides, students’ causal attributions to the subject relationship with mathematics and to friends are affected by gender regardless of the students’ level of motivation. In turn, there is a gender effect in attributions to friends and media only in the case of highly-motivated students. A multinomial logistic regression model revealed that gender is a strong predictor of the students’ decision. The regression model also uncovered a significant interaction effect between gender and attributions to the subject relationship with mathematics, girls becoming less likely to choose physics & chemistry when the latter increase. Our results highlight the need of working on the students’ and families’ stereotypes and propose gender-balanced teaching models to close the gap between girls’ and boys' attitudes, motivation, and anxiety towards mathematics in the context of physics & chemistry teaching and learning.
... 1258), 'self-concept' as one's "current confidence" in the subject (Sheldrake, 2016;p. 1258) and academic subject-specific beliefs of prior ability (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003), 'selfimage' as a student's rating of their academic ability (Smyth & Hannan, 2006), and 'selfconfidence' as the belief that one will do well if one works hard (Stokking, 2000). For the purpose of this review, I will refer to 'self-efficacy' to capture the results that highlighted the influence of students' academic confidence, both present and future. ...
... It is important for policy-makers to also consider how STEM stereotypes affect those from other groups underrepresented within STEM, such as Black students and those from households with lower parental education levels (Smyth & Hannan, 2006). It would be interesting for future research to explore whether these demographics interact with the factors explored in the present study to identify whether sub-groups of students would benefit from more tailored STEM-promotion programmes. ...
... Self-efficacy is a powerful motivator and can be fostered from a young age; elementary school children provided with hands-on STEM experience are more likely to show STEM self-efficacy and interest than controls(Master, Cheryan, Moscatelli & Meltzoff, 2017). Research has highlighted that self-efficacy, both current and future, influences students' STEM subject choice(Nagy et al., 2006;Stokking, 2000;Smyth & Hannan, 2006;Sheldrake, 2016;Sheldrake, Mujtaba & Reiss, 2015;Jeffries et al., 2019). ...
Despite recent government initiatives, there continues to be a shortage of individuals working in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) industries. There is a particular underrepresentation of female STEM workers, with females opting out of STEM fields at each step of the ‘STEM pipeline’, from classroom to boardroom. This thesis identifies and explores the impact of different factors on interest in choosing STEM subjects at post-16 level and how gender identity and stereotypes impact upon computer science enrolment interest. A systematic review of the literature that explores influences on STEM subject choice at post-16 level highlighted thirteen key factors that predict STEM subject choice; these factors could be categorised as either intrinsic or extrinsic to the individual. A fourteenth factor, an individual’s sex, interacted with the majority of these identified factors. This systematic literature review highlights the insufficiency of theories of decision-making in explaining the decision-making that occurs during STEM subject choice, since an individual’s biological sex appears so influential. The empirical study investigates whether gender identity and other well-evidenced influences predict enrolment interest in computer science. It aims to explore whether stereotypical cues in a learning environment affect students’ interest. Year 9 students (n= 168) completed measures assessing gender identity. They were shown either a stereotypical or a non-stereotypical computer science classroom and completed measures assessing their enrolment interest in computer science, belonging, stereotype threat, self-efficacy and utility value. Femininity significantly predicted enrolment interest, and this relationship was mediated by stereotype threat. The stereotypicality of the classroom did not moderate the mediation of stereotype threat on femininity and enrolment interest. This empirical study extends previous research by showing that it is one’s gender identity, rather than simply their sex, that predicts enrolment interest. We highlight the need to consider and challenge stereotypes that continue to exist in relation to subjects such as computer science, in order for all students to feel included.
... Despite this, in many countries, STEM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) are not compulsory during the whole secondary education and, in the last few decades, the number of students taking these courses has significantly decreased. This lowering is observed both at the university level (Oon and Subramaniam, 2010;Ulriksen et al., 2010) and in secondary education (Lyons, 2006a(Lyons, , 2006bSmyth and Hannan, 2006;Solbes et al., 2007;Bøe et al., 2011;Solbes, 2011;Bøe, 2012;Bennett et al., 2013), and concerns the educational community worldwide. This is not a problem to downplay, since the decision is usually taken very early, around the age of 15-16 depending on the country, and defines the students' future trajectories in the STEM track (European Commission, 2004;Tripney et al., 2010;Bennett et al., 2013;BøE and Henriksen, 2013;Mujtaba and Reiss, 2014). ...
... In this vein, studies on the effect of this variable on students' future choices have been previously tackled. For instance, several investigations confirmed the negative effect of perceived difficulty, as it has been claimed to be one of the predictors of students' choices (Stokking, 2000;Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Solbes, 2011;Palmer et al., 2017;Shirazi, 2017). Moreover, Palmer et al. (2017) suggested, in light of similar findings, that changing students' perceived difficulty could be a useful way to reduce science abandonment. ...
... Therefore, if teachers plan their classes considering students' motivation as an aim, besides the evident benefits in learning, it is possible that attributions to perceived difficulty would be minimized in future choices. This could lead to an increase in the students' retention in science as this type of attribution has been claimed to be one of the main predictors of chemistry abandonment (Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Solbes, 2011;Palmer et al., 2017;Shirazi, 2017). ...
The present investigation aims to analyze the effect of motivation on students’ causal attributions to choose or abandon chemistry when it first becomes optional in the secondary education curriculum in Spain. Attributions to the effect of the family and to the teacher and classroom methodology were found to be common predictors of the choice to all the students in the sample. However, our analyses point to a significant effect of the students’ motivation in other types of attributions. In the case of at-risk of abandonment students, specific causal attributions to the effect of friends and to the subject’s relationship with mathematics were found. On the other hand, the effect of media was a significant predictor only in the case of highly-motivated students. Our study provides several suggestions for teachers, schools, and administrations to design counseling strategies to help students make the right choices.
... This problem slightly depends on the particular field of science, with chemistry and physics being among the most affected areas (Osborne et al., 2003;Solbes et al., 2007;Ulriksen et al., 2010;Solbes, 2011). Additionally, it does not appear exclusively in the context of college education (Oon and Subramaniam, 2010), but also in secondary education (Lyons, 2006b;Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Solbes et al., 2007;Solbes, 2011;Bennett et al., 2013). For this reason, there is increasing interest in the variables influencing the choice of science subjects when they are not compulsory any more. ...
... Factors influencing persistence in STEM studies are as a matter of fact really different and include, among others, social and cultural aspects (see, for example, Lyons, 2006b;Gorard and See, 2009;Anderhag et al., 2013;Mujtaba et al., 2018), the role of teachers and their teaching styles (see, for example, Lyons, 2006a;Gorard, 2010;Cerinsek et al., 2013;Mujtaba and Reiss, 2014;Broman and Simon, 2015;Juuti and Lavonen, 2016;Sheldrake et al., 2017;Shirazi, 2017;Meli et al., 2018), students' perceptions of the subjects (see, for example, Stokking, 2000;Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Palmer et al., 2017;Shirazi, 2017), their future intentions of pursuing scientific studies (Stokking, 2000;Bøe et al., 2011;Bøe, 2012;Bennett et al., 2013;Broman and Simon, 2015;Palmer et al., 2017;Ardura and Pérez-Bitrián, 2018) and their gender (see, for example, Jacobs, 2005;Smyth and Hannan, 2006). In addition, prior achievement in the subject can also make a difference (see, for example, Stokking, 2000;Anderhag et al., 2013;Gill and Bell, 2013;Palmer et al., 2017). ...
... Factors influencing persistence in STEM studies are as a matter of fact really different and include, among others, social and cultural aspects (see, for example, Lyons, 2006b;Gorard and See, 2009;Anderhag et al., 2013;Mujtaba et al., 2018), the role of teachers and their teaching styles (see, for example, Lyons, 2006a;Gorard, 2010;Cerinsek et al., 2013;Mujtaba and Reiss, 2014;Broman and Simon, 2015;Juuti and Lavonen, 2016;Sheldrake et al., 2017;Shirazi, 2017;Meli et al., 2018), students' perceptions of the subjects (see, for example, Stokking, 2000;Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Palmer et al., 2017;Shirazi, 2017), their future intentions of pursuing scientific studies (Stokking, 2000;Bøe et al., 2011;Bøe, 2012;Bennett et al., 2013;Broman and Simon, 2015;Palmer et al., 2017;Ardura and Pérez-Bitrián, 2018) and their gender (see, for example, Jacobs, 2005;Smyth and Hannan, 2006). In addition, prior achievement in the subject can also make a difference (see, for example, Stokking, 2000;Anderhag et al., 2013;Gill and Bell, 2013;Palmer et al., 2017). ...
The main goal of the present investigation was to analyze the effect of motivation towards physics & chemistry on achievement in secondary school students. We focused our interest on the comparison between students who chose the subject when becoming optional in the Spanish educational system and those who opted it out. Our analyses uncovered the existence of three different motivational profiles towards achievement in physics & chemistry, depending on the students’ decisions to stay or to leave. Regardless of their choice, self-efficacy played a key role, not only as a direct predictor of academic achievement but also facilitating the indirect effects of other motivational variables on academic performance. However, our models showed that, for students who opt out physics and chemistry, grade motivation and self-determination are more important predictors of performance than for those who choose the subject. Gender effects and educational implications are also addressed.
... A significant decrease in the number of students taking STEM studies has been observed in recent years, in spite of the aforementioned increasing importance of scientific issues (Lyons, 2006a;Bøe et al., 2011). This problem appears both at the tertiary level (Oon and Subramaniam, 2010) and in secondary education (Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Lyons, 2006b;Solbes et al., 2007;Solbes, 2011;Bennett et al., 2013), and does not affect all disciplines to the same extent. In particular, physics and chemistry are among the most affected areas (Osborne et al., 2003;Solbes et al., 2007;Ulriksen et al., 2010;Solbes, 2011). ...
... School factors. Besides factors like the ethos and the management of the school (Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Bennett et al., 2013), the convenience of the subject timetable, the availability of the subjects at the school or the level of information at students' disposal (Palmer et al., 2017), there are important variables, such as the science curriculum on offer, whose relevance in chemistry uptake has been pointed out (Lyons, 2006a;Bennett et al., 2013;Homer and Ryder, 2015). It is claimed that both students' participation in classroom activities and emphasis on laboratory work positively influence students' intentions to participate in science subjects (Cerinsek et al., 2013;Broman and Simon, 2015). ...
... Additionally, connecting chemistry to everyday life can help students opt for chemistry (Stokking, 2000;Broman and Simon, 2015;Palmer et al., 2017;Sheldrake et al., 2017). The role of teachers and their didactic models also have a great effect on students' choice (Stokking, 2000;Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Gorard, 2010;Cerinsek et al., 2013;Broman and Simon, 2015;Juuti and Lavonen, 2016;McDonald, 2016;Palmer et al., 2017;Shirazi, 2017), together with the encouragement and advice they give to their pupils to continue studying the subject (Mujtaba and Reiss, 2014;Mujtaba et al., 2018). In fact, enjoyment and interest, as well as previous school experiences, are claimed to be among the key factors influencing the choice of scientific subjects (Osborne et al., 2003;Palmer et al., 2017). ...
The present study aims to analyse the effect of motivational variables and previous academic achievement on students’ future choice of chemistry once this subject becomes optional in the educational system. To this goal, the translation and adaptation of the Science Motivation Questionnaire II (SMQII) has been undertaken in our investigation to measure the students’ motivation towards physics and chemistry. The sample comprised 1060 secondary school Spanish students divided into two groups: 695 students who chose the subject when it becomes optional for the first time and 365 who decided to leave it. Factor analysis confirmed the original structure of latent variables in our sample, providing validity for this adaptation to a new language and context. A segmentation analysis confirmed that career motivation was the best predictor of students’ retention in physics and chemistry before previous academic achievement and the rest of the motivational variables. Although significant gender differences were found in self-efficacy and self-determination, these seem not to be relevant in students’ choice.
... However despite such encouraging performances by Irish students in mathematics and science on international comparison tests, concern has been expressed about the declining uptake of these subjects both in the later stages of post-primary education and at tertiary level (Smyth and Hannan, 2006). Such concern can be linked to a number of continuing failures within the Irish education system. ...
... Despite the subject's importance, it is not compulsory to study science at lower post-primary level in Ireland. At upper post-primary level, the proportion of young people taking physics and chemistry is low and has shown a decline since the 1990's (Smyth and Hannan, 2006). In 2016, only 17% of Leaving Certificate students took chemistry, and only 14% took physics (State Examinations Commission [SEC], www.examinations.ie). ...
... In 2016, only 17% of Leaving Certificate students took chemistry, and only 14% took physics (State Examinations Commission [SEC], www.examinations.ie). One possible reason for this is that in contrast with many other European countries, not all Irish schools provide opportunities for students to study the sciences at upper post-primary level, with a "significant minority" failing to offer physical sciences at Leaving Certificate (Smyth and Hannan, 2006). While mathematics is studied by the vast majority of post-primary students, there are also many concerns with the domain such as the low numbers opting to study the subject at Higher level (Prendergast and O'Donoghue, 2014). ...
Concerns are growing in many countries, including Ireland, regarding an inadequate number of graduates to meet workforce needs in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. These graduate deficiencies are the result of low student uptake of STEM subjects and courses at post-primary and tertiary level education. Low uptake is partly a consequence of negative student attitudes towards STEM. Many students are losing interest in STEM at an early age due to an inability to see any relevance in their everyday lives. In light of such concerns, a Saturday afternoon club entitled “Trinity Walton Club” (TWC) was established in Trinity College Dublin with the purpose of uniting like-minded students to express, shape, inform and grow their interest in STEM. This club attempted to ‘bring STEM to life’ through thought provoking content, real world problems, contextualised analogies and projects. This paper describes the background to the TWC, reviews the literature around promoting student interest in STEM and examines initial feedback from participants in the pilot year of the club. The findings of this preliminary study indicate that the TWC has the potential to promote interest in STEM. Many of the recommendations from the literature review about promoting interest in STEM were referred to by participants in their responses.
... Furthermore, this paper explores culturalist explanations of students' field-of-study choices, focusing on the role of schools. Despite schools being a more policy-malleable space compared to the family environment, the effects of schools on students' specialization preferences have seldom been explored (Anders et al., 2018;Legewie & DiPrete, 2014b;Smyth & Hannan, 2006). This study advances our understanding of how schools and their cultural environments shape gender segregation across subject areas. ...
... This implies that the social environment can modify the effect of gender on educational choices. Despite this, scant research has been conducted regarding school effects-and the role of specific school factors, such as elective course supply, gender and socioeconomic composition, and gender culture-on subject choices (Anders et al., 2018;Legewie & DiPrete, 2014b;Smyth & Hannan, 2006). ...
Upper secondary education shapes gender segregation in higher education and the labor market. This study shows gendered elective course enrollment patterns in Chilean upper secondary education across seven subjects, examines their consistency across socioeconomic contexts, and identifies school-level moderators. Using national administrative data from 2012-2021 and multilevel models, we find that students make gender-stereotypical choices regardless of their prior achievement. Notably, in higher-socioeconomic-status schools, gender differences in enrollment are larger, suggesting that socioeconomic context amplifies gendered choices. Additionally, the gender culture of schools moderates segregation in field-of-study choices, indicating that the school environment plays an important role in shaping students' educational trajectories. These findings highlight the need for targeted policies to address gender and socioeconomic disparities in education.
... Different schools influence secondary students' choices and decisions. Smyth and Hannan (2006) assert that students' intentions to take advanced classes are determined primarily by ability tracking programs limiting choice for less allowed to students. ...
... In addition to these school influences, science curriculum and teacher influence are extrinsic factors that may affect the school science experience (Smyth & Hannan, 2006). Student learning will not increase unless students are actually in the classroom to learn (Jacobson, 2008;Chang & Romero, 2008). ...
The study investigated how schoolteachers and administrators perceive innovative and engaging teaching practices in Southeastern U.S. high schools. Perceptual data was collected from high school teachers to determine whether they believe their professional development adequately prepares them to use innovative and engaging instructional practices in their science courses. The study gathered perceptions of high school science teachers and school administrators regarding the presence and impact of innovative scientific techniques. This study also collected teachers' perceptions of their professional development in preparing them to use innovative teaching strategies. While the participants’ schools and school levels were purposefully selected, faculty participants were randomly selected for interviews.
... While increasing student interest and motivation to study these subjects is important, we agree with Smyth and Hannan (2006) that it is also crucial to identify systemic barriers that may be preventing students from enrolling in science and maths subjects. It is unrealistic to expect large numbers of secondary students to study physics and advanced mathematics 1 , for example, if these subjects are not widely offered in schools. ...
... Whether these striking between-school inequalities in the US in access to advanced mathematics have diminished in the last twenty-five years is not clear. In Ireland, small schools and schools with lower socioeconomic compositions are less likely to offer chemistry and physics than other schools (Smyth & Hannan, 2006). School location is another structural factor linked to access to science and math subjects. ...
We used descriptive statistics and a logistic regression to examine between-school inequalities in science and math curricular offerings in Year 12 (final year) in all schools in one Australian state (Victoria). Dataset contains variables about school contexts: school enrolment size, school socioeconomic composition, school sector, and school location.
... Subject-specific attitudes can also be related to other aspects of students' schooling beyond achievement. Smyth and Hannan (2006) reported that students who find science interesting and useful are more likely to take science subjects at upper secondary level, while those who find science difficult are less likely to take any of the science subjects at upper secondary level. In particular, Third Year students who found science interesting were significantly more likely to take physics or chemistry at upper secondary, while those who found science useful were significantly more likely to take biology, even when Junior Certificate science grade was accounted for. ...
... Further, while the pattern of students' attitudes becoming less positive between Fourth and Eighth grades is not unique to Ireland, it is nonetheless important to consider these findings in relation to other Irish research which has found that students' attitudes towards science influence uptake of science subjects at upper-secondary level in schools in Ireland (Smyth & Hannan, 2006). If uptake of STEM subjects among students in Ireland is to be encouraged, students' enjoyment of and confidence in learning these subjects, as well as the value they place on them, needs to be emphasised. ...
Secondary analysis of TIMSS 2015 data.
... It is important to note that a likely reciprocal relationship may exist between attitudes and achievement in mathematics (Ma, 1997 (Cerinsek et al., 2013;Taylor, 2015;Wang & Degol, 2013). Parents' level of education and occupation are significant indicators of students' STEM enrolment (Daly & Ainley, 1999;Moakler Jr & Kim, 2014;Smyth & Hannan, 2006). Peers can also influence the decision making process of students' enrolment intentions (Else-Quest, Hyde, & Linn, 2010;Lyons & Quinn, 2010;Palmer, 2015). ...
... Fullarton and Ainley (2000) found that students from independent schools were 1.5 times more likely to enrol in physical sciences. A school's decision to offer subjects such as physics, chemistry and advanced mathematics has a direct influence on participation rates in these subjects (Lamb, 1996;Smyth & Hannan, 2006;Walkington, 1998). The role of teachers in influencing students' enrolment decisions has been reported in many studies (Cerinsek et al., 2013), including activities used (Bennett & Hogarth, 2009), enthusiasm and engagement (Bøe et al., 2011), expectations (Bøe et al., 2011), encouragement (Daly & Ainley, 1999), teacher quality (Roberts, 2013) and teacher support (Walkington, 1998). ...
This study investigates factors that influenced the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) subject enrolment decisions of Year 12 students in Australia. Structural equation modelling (SEM) is used to develop a model using Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (LSAY) data with participating students (N = 7442) from 356 schools. An adapted version of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), a behavioural prediction model, is used as the guiding conceptual framework. Students’ demographic background, attitudes towards science and achievement in science and mathematics at age 15 are used as predictors for subsequent enrolment in STEM subjects in Year 12. Gender, socio-economic status (SES) and immigrant status (native vs. non-native) are shown to be contributing factors. The personal value of science, enjoyment of science, self-concept in science and achievement (mathematics and science) are mediating factors in the model. These findings provide schools, policymakers and educational advisors with a greater understanding of the factors that influence Australian students’ decisions of whether to enrol in a STEM subject at Year 12. Evidence provided allows key stakeholders to take a more targeted approach to enhance STEM participation for students from varying demographic backgrounds.
... Taking a cross-national perspective, research by Iannelli (2004) pointed to the way in which young people's post-school destinations in Scotland, Ireland and the Netherlands were influenced by the individual school they attended. Further research on Ireland showed variation between individual schools in the proportion of students applying to higher education, differences which reflected academic expectations at the school level and the amount of time devoted to career guidance (Smyth and Hannan 2006). In looking at school effects, studies have generally focused on the impact of the secondary school attended but research increasingly points to the long-term effect of primary school experiences on later engagement and outcomes (Sammons et al. 1995;Vanwynsberghe et al. 2017). ...
... The analyses take account of the type of primary and secondary school attended as previous Irish research has shown a strong influence of school social mix and of individual school attended on post-school aspirations and outcomes (Smyth and Hannan 2006;McCoy, Quail, and Smyth 2014). At primary level, school social mix is based on a proxy measure regarding involvement in the DEIS (Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools) programme, a government scheme designed to target additional resources towards schools serving socio-economically disadvantaged populations (for a description, see Smyth, McCoy, and Kingston 2015). ...
Educational expectations and the way in which they shape actual outcomes act as an important vehicle for the intergenerational reproduction of social inequality. This article draws on rich information from the Growing Up in Ireland longitudinal study to explore the factors influencing the educational expectations of 13-year-old young people and their parents. The findings point to high levels of expectations among parents but one-third of young people are found to hold lower expectations than their parents. Both sets of expectations are shaped by parental education, social class and household income, though parental expectations are more strongly structured by social background than those of young people. The article seeks to contribute to the literature on educational expectations in three interrelated ways. Firstly, it focuses on a phase of schooling, the transition to secondary education, which represents a time of significant change in young people’s learning experiences, and transition difficulties are found to dampen their expectations. Secondly, the analyses unpack the extent to which signals from the school influence parental perspectives, with academic achievement, child attitudes to maths, ability group assignment and teacher reprimands emerging as significant drivers of parental views of their children’s potential. Thirdly, the analyses take account of both the primary and secondary school attended and indicate significant between-school differences in young people’s intentions to go on to higher education.
... Though computer technology is entirely viewed as a facilitator for change, many public and private secondary schools do not offer it due to the high costs of purchase, installation and maintenance of the equipment's (Smyth &Hannah, 2006). According to Smyth & Hannan, (2006), availability of computer facilities in schools would ensure students access materials for teaching and learning for computer studies. Teaching and learning cannot be meaningful without educational materials hence students to a larger extent failed to choose computer studies due to inadequate computer infrastructural facilities Erickson (1986) posited that private secondary schools' proprietors equipped schools with adequate computer facilities hence low ratio of students' to computers which influenced students' choice of computer studies. ...
... Only students interested in chemistry choose to take chemistry because they find it interesting and useful. It can be proven from the research results showing that individual student interest in chemistry is one of the biggest intrinsic factors besides study plans or future career plans [19]. ...
The Merdeka Curriculum differs from the 2013 curriculum regarding elective subjects. The Merdeka Curriculum has no more specialization groups such as science, social studies or language. Merdeka Curriculum allows students to choose elective subjects that suit their interests, talents and abilities when entering phase F at the Senior High School level. Schools must open at least seven elective subjects adjusted to the characteristics and human resources owned by the school. Chemistry is one of the elective subjects that students can choose in Phase F of the Merdeka Curriculum. This study aims to determine the factors that make students choose chemistry as their elective subject in Phase F of the Merdeka Curriculum. This research was conducted at SMA Negeri 17 Jakarta in the 2023-2024 academic year. The research subjects were students in chemistry specialization classes: XI-A Chemistry and XI-B Chemistry. This research uses a qualitative method with a case study research type. Sampling in this study used a purposive sampling technique with certain considerations. Sampling in this study used a purposive sampling technique with certain considerations. Data collection techniques were carried out through interviews with nine students in chemistry specialization classes, and the data obtained were analyzed qualitatively with stages, namely data reduction, conclusions, and verification. The results showed that intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence students' tendency to choose chemistry as their chosen subject. Intrinsic factors include interest in chemistry, academic value, and future study or career plans. Intrinsic factors influencing students most are future study or career plans and individual interest in chemistry. In contrast, extrinsic factors include family factors, friend factors, teacher factors, and support from schools. The extrinsic factor that most influences students is the teacher factor.
... Another factor that has been found to influence STEM subject choice is self-efficacy, defined as "people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances" (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Self-efficacy, both current and anticipated, increases students' STEM subject choice (Nagy et al., 2006;Stokking, 2000;Mujtaba & Reiss, 2014;Smyth & Hannan, 2006;Sheldrake, 2016;Sheldrake, Mujtaba & Reiss, 2015;Jeffries, Curtis & Conner, 2019) and can be fostered from a young age; elementary school children provided with hands-on STEM experience are more likely to show STEM self-efficacy and interest than controls (Master, Cheryan, Moscatelli & Meltzoff, 2017). ...
There is an underrepresentation of women working in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) industries. Initiatives to encourage greater diversity in STEM have been less successful in computer science. This research investigates whether identification with gender stereotypes (defined as the extent to which one identifies with stereotypical masculine or feminine traits) and other factors predict enrolment interest in computer science and whether stereotypical cues impact on these relationships. British secondary school students were shown either a stereotypical or a non-stereotypical computer science classroom and completed measures assessing their identification with gender stereotypes, enrolment interest, belonging, stereotype threat, self-efficacy and utility value. Femininity significantly predicted lower enrolment interest and this relationship appeared to be mediated by stereotype threat. This study extends previous research by showing that young peoples’ identification with gender stereotypes predicts enrolment interest to some degree. We highlight the need to challenge persistent stereotypes regarding who best ‘fits’ computer science.
... Misconceptions, though indiscriminately present in all disciplines, remain very common in science, as scientific concepts are related to our daily life events and experiences (Nguyen & Rosengren, 2004), are often abstract mental representations of the world and its natural phenomena (Yates and Marek, 2014), and can be complex, and elusive (Rouvray, 1992). Analysis of the literature revealed that all the five main types of misconceptions, namely preconceived notions, non-scientific beliefs, conceptual misunderstandings, vernacular, and factual misconceptions affect the correct understanding of scientific concepts impacting on students' academic performance and exam grades (Chen, Sonnert, Sadler, Sasselov & Fredericks, 2020), which according to Smyth and Hannan (2006) explains students' disinterest towards the science subjects and their consequent drop-out during the subject choice exercise. Though the causes of students' disinterest towards science are multifold including loaded syllabi, unadapted curriculum, and use of inappropriate teaching and learning strategies, this paper focuses on the identification and clearing of misconceptions which researchers considered as one of the major factors of students' disinterest toward science. ...
... Previous studies in the field of education revealed that teaching secondary-level subjects in a structured, detailed, and interactive manner can enhance the students' interest in pursuing related fields. Students pursue particular courses in their higher studies based on their level of interest in that subject, as well as their anticipated success in the fields [6,7]. The availability of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects in secondary schools increases students' interest in STEM-based careers because of their early exposure to the basic knowledge, limitations or gaps, future implications, and career opportunities associated with the subjects [8]. ...
Education is key to advancing a society that can achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). One SDG is shifting energy consumption from fossil fuels to renewable energy (RE) sources to reduce environmental damage and prevent global warming. Awareness must be instilled among citizens at an early age (as early as secondary school) to motivate students to pursue higher education and careers in RE concepts and technologies. To analyze the current trends of existing education in RE concepts and education for sustainable development (ESD) in secondary schools, this study employed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses method to systematically review 25 articles that were selected from the Web of Science and Scopus databases. The articles highlighted the availability of RE-targeted ESD in secondary schools and their impacts on students and society. However, they revealed a significant lack of curricula on RE concepts and ESD in secondary schools, reflecting the low knowledge, interest in, and awareness of RE and its concepts among students. The articles revealed positive impacts of introducing certain RE-targeted ESD courses/activities on students. Thus, we propose adopting new methods that include collaborative multidisciplinary and informal and non-formal and other factors as a means toward arousing secondary students’ interest in RE education to achieve the SDGs.
... Studenter som har valgt bort full fordypning i biologi kan ha prioritert R2 fordi de konkret planla å søke opptak til studier i biovitenskap ved UiO, eller for å holde mulighetene åpne for å søke flere av de mange studieprogrammene med R2-krav (Bøe, 2012). Ved noen skoler kan det også vaere umulig å kombinere biologi 2 og R2 på grunn av kollisjon på timeplanen (Ramberg, 2006;Smyth & Hannan, 2006). I alle tilfeller betyr resultatet at begynnerstudenter i biovitenskap er dårligere rustet for biologien i studieprogrammet etter at R2-kravet ble innført. ...
Programmering og modellering har i de senere år blitt innført i høyere utdanning og ble innført i skolen med fagfornyelsen fra høsten 2020. Det har skapt behov for mer kunnskap om motivasjon og læring i emner som integrerer programmering som et nytt element i ellers veletablerte fagdisipliner. Denne studien undersøkte motivasjon for beregningsorientering (programmering og modellering) ved studieprogrammet biovitenskap ved Universitetet i Oslo. Spørreundersøkelser basert på Eccles’ forventning-verdi-modell ble gjennomført ved semesterstart og -slutt i to påfølgende år, før og etter innføring av krav om matematikk R2 (R2-kravet). Motivasjonsvariabler ble validert ved faktoranalyse og undersøkelse av indre konsistens. Resultatene viste at studentene hadde lavere mestringsforventning og interesse for et emne som integrerer programmering i biologi enn for studieprogrammet generelt. Nytteverdien var den sterkeste motiverende faktoren for emnet. Studenter med matematikk R2 hadde større mestringsforventning til emnet enn de som ikke hadde denne fordypningen, og opplevde mindre utfordring med matematikk og programmering i emnet. Samtidig opplevde disse studentene større utfordring med biologien i emnet, og det viste seg at studenter med full fordypning i matematikk R2 i mindre grad enn studenter uten R2 hadde full fordypning i biologi fra videregående opplæring. Resultatene drøftes i lys av motivasjonsteori med tanke på implikasjoner for undervisning, inntakskrav og videre forskning.
... The school GC is also very influential in relation to subject uptake as they are primarily responsible for providing career guidance to students and advising them on subjects they feel are suitable for students based on their career aspirations or interests. For that reason, the school GC can be very influential in directing students to study CS or indeed encouraging students not to opt for the subject (Smyth & Hannan, 2006). Given the critical role both of these "gatekeepers" play in the offering of the subject and its promotion within the school, this research therefore aimed to explore school principals' and school GCs' attitudes towards CS as a school subject and determine who they believe is suited to studying the subject. ...
Background and Context: School principals and school guidance counsellors can be very influential in deciding what subjects are offered on the curriculum, how they are promoted and who they are targeted to. For that reason, exploring their views of Computer Science (CS) as a subject can help unearth potential barriers that may hinder the wider uptake of the subject in schools.
Objective: This study aimed to explore school principals and school guidance counsellors’ views of CS as a subject at upper second level education in Ireland as part of the launch of a new subject.
Method: Using one-to-one semi-structured interviews, the study sought the views of a sample pf 10 school principals and 10 school guidance counsellors from secondary schools in Ireland that had recently introduced the subject of CS on the curriculum.
Findings: The study found contradictory views expressed, where the participants emphasised the value of the subject for all students, while at the same time presenting it as more suitable for certain types of students - highlight the tensions between the espoused values and the actual reality of practice.
Implications: The study highlights the need for future work to target these important gatekeepers in order to reconceptualise their understanding of the subject and the rationale for its inclusion on the curriculum. It also highlights the need for more creative techniques to conceptualise how the subject is perceived in order to change the prevailing perceptions.
... While this section has sketched the sociocultural standing of the STEM subjects in the Irish context, it has not focussed on issues pertaining to the general design of school systems or the structuring of curricular provision. These issues which encompass factors such as the schools' autonomy to offer certain subjects over others, timetabling, and the insertion of prerequisites for certain levels of study can all impact on transdisciplinary thinking and subject uptake (Smyth and Hannan, 2006). ...
Integrative science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education is heralded as a promising model for effective learning of 21st century STEM literacies and has been suggested as an approach that increases student motivation and engagement. In recent years Ireland has introduced policy with a renewed emphasis on integrated STEM education across all levels of schooling and paying particular attention to the early years and primary settings. The available international literature cites many concerns with potential barriers and failures to achieve authentic integration of the various STEM disciplines in educational contexts. An important determinant of the success of integrated STEM curricula are the backgrounds and attitudes of the individual teachers, as well as supports/experiences in designing and implementing an integrated curricular approach. In the Irish context, this is often in conflict with prescribed overloaded curricula and a subject focussed education system. Therefore, research is required into primary school teachers’ perspectives on achieving a truly integrated model of STEM education, particularly in the Irish context. This study employed a qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews with a sample of practicing teachers (N = 6) to gather perspectives on the potential and challenge of integrating STEM in their respective experiences. These teachers were enrolled in a practice orientated module on STEM education as part of their postgraduate studies. The data gathered was analysed to ascertain these teachers’ perspectives on the supports needed to overcome the challenges of integrating STEM subjects within their professional settings. Essentially, the findings of this study will discuss whether such an integrated STEM model is an authentic or utopian ideology.
... Disse studentene kan ha prioritert R2 fordi de konkret planla å søke opptak til studier i biovitenskap ved UiO, eller for å holde mulighetene åpne for å søke flere av de mange studieprogrammene med R2-krav [22]. Ved noen skoler kan det også vaere umulig å kombinere biologi 2 og R2 på grunn av kollisjon på timeplanen [23,30]. I alle tilfeller betyr resultatet at begynnerstudenter i biovitenskap er dårligere rustet for biologien i studieprogrammet etter at R2-kravet ble innført. ...
Programmering og modellering har i de senere år blitt innført i høyere utdanning og be innført i skolen med fagfornyelsen fra høsten 2020. Det har skapt behov for mer kunnskap om motivasjon og læring i emner som integrerer programmering som et nytt element i ellers veletablerte fagdisipliner. Denne studien undersøkte motivasjon for beregningsorientering (programmering og modellering) ved studieprogrammet biovitenskap ved Universitetet i Oslo. Spørreundersøkelser basert på Eccles’ forventning-verdi-modell ble gjennomført ved semesterstart og -slutt i to påfølgende år, før og etter innføring av krav om matematikk R2 (R2-kravet). Motivasjonsvariabler ble validert ved faktoranalyse og undersøkelse av indre konsistens. Resultatene viste at studentene hadde lavere mestringsforventning og interesse for et emne som integrerer programmering i biologi enn for studieprogrammet generelt. Nytteverdien var den sterkeste motiverende faktoren for emnet. Studenter med matematikk R2 hadde større mestringsforventning til emnet enn de som ikke hadde denne fordypningen, og opplevde mindre utfordring med matematikk og programmering i emnet. Samtidig opplevde disse studentene større utfordring med biologien i emnet, og det viste seg at studenter med full fordypning i matematikk R2 i mindre grad enn studenter uten R2 hadde full fordypning i biologi fra videregående opplæring. Resultatene drøftes i lys av motivasjonsteori med tanke på implikasjoner for undervisning, inntakskrav og videre forskning.
... Ainley & Ainley, 2015;Stokking, 2000), enjoyment (e.g. Lyons, 2006;Smyth & Hannan, 2006) and selfperceptions, including self-concept (e.g. Dickh€ auser et al., 2005) are important predictors of course enrolment. ...
Recently, students' interest in science has been conceptualized as a network model: the science interest network model (SINM) in which affective, behavioural and cognitive components interact together; building on science interest being a dynamic relational construct. In the current study, we combine the Australian Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2006 and Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth 2008 data (N ¼ 4758) to investigate relationships between the network characteristics of Year 10 students with their decision to enrol in a science course in Year 12. Specifically, we identified indicators central to the SINM and tested whether they predicted chemistry, physics and biology course enrolment. Students' intentions to pursue a science-related study or career (future intentions in science) and their enjoyment of science (science enjoyment) were the most central indicators for all three science courses. Centrality was strongly related to course enrolment (r ¼.36-.74), lending support to the validity of network
... Students who attend a socially advantaged school are more likely to study difficult and selective academic subjects, even after controlling for their individual socioeconomic status and the academic composition of the school . In Ireland, secondary schools that serve students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are less likely to offer chemistry and physics than other schools (Smyth & Hannan, 2006). ...
This study examines the factors that shape secondary schools’ offerings of academic curricula. While academic curricula provide many benefits to individuals and the larger society, inequalities in opportunities to study these subjects may exist between schools, even in comprehensive secondary education systems. We examine the Australian case as a vehicle for developing a theoretical framework about the causes of stratified and unequal access to academic curricula in comprehensive secondary education systems. We interviewed 17 school leaders from a range of secondary schools about their curricular offerings. All school leaders reported that curricular offerings are based on student choice and that subjects with sufficient demand are financially sustainable. But regardless of student choices, some schools offered academic curricula to maintain their reputation and competitive advantage in the education marketplace. School leaders of low socioeconomic public schools reported the most resource constraints in offering academic curricula, and all school leaders acknowledged systemic constraints related to the large number of curricula that could be offered. The findings highlight how marketisation dynamics combine with curriculum policies to shape schools’ curricular offerings in ways that provide unequal access for different types of students.
... Research based on these arguments pays more attention to individual characteristics than to school effects (Penner & Willer, 2019). Nevertheless, a wide range of school characteristics has been shown to influence girls' and boys' STEMM enrolments both at secondary and post-secondary levels (Legewie & DiPrete, 2014;Smyth & Hannan, 2006;van Hek et al., 2018). ...
Single-sex schooling is believed to benefit students’ academic achievement and girls’ engagement in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine (STEMM). The latter is assumed because single-sex environments are meant to neutralise gender stereotypes. Little is known, however, about longer term effects of such schooling. Therefore, we consider whether graduating from a single-sex school increases the uptake of university majors in physical or life sciences. Using data from the 2003 cohort of the Longitudinal Survey of Australian Youth and multinomial logistic regressions, we find that girls who graduated from single-sex schools did not major in physical sciences at university at rates higher than their peers from coeducational schools. Likewise, there are no differences in the take up of life science majors, irrespective of gender or type of school. By contrast, fewer boys who graduated from single-sex schools went on to study physical sciences at university. We discuss the implications of these findings.
... Identifying such features of the education system might help policy makers to target specific education policies to reduce gendered patterns of field of study choice. There is some evidence from other studies that it is experience of, rather than mere exposure to, science subjects that makes a difference to later choice of subjects; thus, more engaging science teaching and the promotion of STEM-related activities tend to enhance the proportion of young people taking the subject (Smyth and Hannan, 2006;Wang and Degol, 2017). In addition, schools with more extensive curricular and extracurricular provision of STEM subjects and activities may be successful in reducing the gender gap in STEM achievement (Chachashvili-Bolotin et al., 2016;Legewie and DiPrete, 2014b). ...
This article examines the extent to which science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subject choice in upper secondary education explains gender differences in STEM enrollment in higher education. We adopt a cross-country approach using Germany, Ireland, and Scotland as three case studies. These countries differ in terms of both the degree of subject choice offered in upper secondary education and the relevance for higher education admission of having studied specific school subjects. Using datasets of young people from all three countries, our results indicate a stronger mediation of school subjects for Scotland than in Germany and Ireland and a remarkable gender gap in STEM enrollment in all three countries. We conclude that females studying science subjects within upper secondary education appears to be a necessary but not a sufficient condition to ensure gender equality in progression to STEM fields.
... In Scotland, existing research evidence on curriculum choices mainly refers to the period under the 'old' Scottish school curriculum (e.g. Iannelli, 2013;Iannelli et al., 2016;Iannelli & Duta, 2018;Smyth & Hannan, 2006). Within CfE, curriculum design varies according to local authority. ...
This paper explores school level determinants of curriculum narrowing in the senior phase of secondary education, under the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence (CfE). It presents findings from an analysis of longitudinal administrative education data (2011–2017), and Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) data on subject enrolments for Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework National 5 level qualifications, undertaken by 14–15‐year‐old students in year 4 of secondary education (S4) in Scotland. The data are aggregated at the level of schools and linked with Scottish School Census data that provide information about school characteristics (in terms of their size, number of qualified teachers, socio‐economic composition, etc.) and school area characteristics. We used descriptive methods of statistical data analysis and multilevel regression modelling, in order to explore the variations between schools in: (a) number of subject choices; and (b) configuration of subject enrolment and to identify factors responsible for these variations. Our findings show that the senior phase curriculum is becoming narrower. There is trend since 2013, the year when new qualifications under CfE were introduced, for fewer subjects to be taken in school year S4 for level 5 National Qualifications. Yet, the size of this reduction has not been uniform, but has varied between schools of different characteristics, between areas with different level of deprivation and between local authorities across Scotland. The findings show that the SES composition of school intake has a strong association with the number and configuration of subject entries. A larger reduction in the number of subject entries for National 5 level qualifications took place in schools in more deprived areas, as well as in schools with a larger number of students from disadvantaged socio‐economic backgrounds, schools where the proportion of pupils with additional learning support needs was higher, and schools with poorer staff–student ratios. We also found that the number of subject entries was smaller in schools where the overall number of subjects offered for National 5 level qualifications was smaller. Furthermore, we found that schools in areas of higher deprivation and schools with larger numbers of pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds had smaller proportions of young people enrolled in Sciences and Modern Languages, and a larger proportion of pupils enrolled in Vocational subjects.
... Because gender differences do occur in terms of self-concept, different mechanisms behind males' and females' academic choices for and against STEM subjects could be derived from these self-concept differences. These different perceptions of one's own abilities in a scientific field could lead to males choosing math-and science-related courses more often (Smyth and Hannan, 2006). Differences in self-concept are a key predictor in explaining gender differences in educational choices (Nagy et al., 2006;Watt, 2006). ...
One of the most powerful determinants of course selection in upper secondary level is undoubtedly students’ self-concept. Students with a high self-concept in a domain are more likely to select a course in that domain. However, according to the dimensional comparison theory, the formation of self-concept includes comparison processes with self-concepts in other domains. Regarding gender, females are less likely to choose physics and are more likely to have lower STEM self-concepts as well as lower aspirations toward STEM careers than males. In Germany, students in Grade 10 choose specific academic tracks to attend during upper secondary school. The academic track choice goes in hand with choosing advanced courses. This choice entails the decision about whether to pursue STEM subjects. We adopted the person-centered approach of latent profile analysis (LPA) to investigate the patterns of students’ self-concepts across the five domains, math, biology, reading, English, and physics. Furthermore, we investigated how those patterns influence educational choices regarding science subjects in upper secondary school in Germany. Based on a sample of 1,658 students, we tested whether the distinct profiles of self-concept in different domains in Grade 8 predicted gendered science course selection in Grade 10 as well as career aspirations in science. LPAs yielded four distinct profiles of self-concept that differed in level and shape: high math, high verbal, low overall, and high overall. These profiles were equivalent across gender. Gender differences were manifested in the relative distribution across the four profiles: females were more present in the low overall and high verbal-related self-concept profiles and males in the overall high and high math-related self-concept profiles. The profiles differed regarding abilities, choice of science course in upper secondary level, and science career aspirations.
... This point is supported by Bennett et al.'s (2013) claim that composition of student intake, the ethos of the school, school management, the science curriculum on offer and the career advice offered to students are all ways that different schools influence post-16 choices and decisions. In an examination of school management by Smyth and Hannan (2006), they assert that students' choices are already determined to a large extent by streaming policies that restrict choice for less able students. Together these studies provide a framework of school influences to conceptualise the school factors affecting choice of science and to a lesser extent, experience of school science. ...
This paper presents the findings of a two-phase mixed methods research study that explores the link between experiences of school science of post-16 students and their decisions to take up science for their higher studies. In the first phase, students aged 16–17 (n = 569) reflected on the past five years of their school science experience in a quasi-longitudinal approach to determine a typology of experiences. The second phase entailed data collection through interviews of a sample of these students (n = 55) to help triangulate and extend findings from the first phase. Students taking up science post-16 reported significantly more positive experiences of school science than students who had decided not to take science further. Of school-related factors influencing experiences of school science curriculum content was the most important followed by being interested and motivated in the subject. There is evidence that interest and motivation in science depend on teacher practice and the perception of science as a difficult subject.
... Finally, a fourth perspective (e.g. Warton & Cooney, 1997;Smyth & Hannan, 2006) emphasises the roles of school systems and individual schools in defining subjects and steering students towards subjects which suit the interests and presumptions Information and Choice of A-Level Subjects 649 of teachers, schools and the governing social class. This perspective suggests that 'normal school practice' in the guidance on subject choice will necessarily act to constrain students' choices in a way that causes a loss of welfare. ...
We estimated the effects of an intervention which provided information about graduate wages to 5593 students in England, using a blinded cluster randomised controlled trial in 50 schools (registration: AEARCTR-0000468). Our primary outcome was students' choice of A-level subjects at age 16. We also recorded the students' expectations of future wages and the A-level subjects they intended to take before and after the intervention, and linked their data into national administrative school examination records. We found that an hour-long lesson on information about graduate wages affected students' beliefs about and choice of subject. They were more likely to take mathematics and less likely to take biology and computing. We found strong evidence that mediating factors such as their beliefs about average graduate salaries and their own likely salary in each subject were affected by the intervention. This suggests that providing accessible and credible information on labour market consequences of school choices may influence students' decisions. In the light of concerns about the quality of careers guidance for school students and expectations that educational choices should be well-informed, the study has clear implications for policy and practice.
... Though computer technology is entirely viewed as a facilitator for change, many public and private secondary schools do not offer it due to the high costs of purchase, installation and maintenance of the equipment's (Smyth &Hannah, 2006). According to Smyth & Hannan, (2006), availability of computer facilities in schools would ensure students access materials for teaching and learning for computer studies. Teaching and learning cannot be meaningful without educational materials hence students to a larger extent failed to choose computer studies due to inadequate computer infrastructural facilities Erickson (1986) posited that private secondary schools' proprietors equipped schools with adequate computer facilities hence low ratio of students' to computers which influenced students' choice of computer studies. ...
The main purpose of this study was to investigate factors that influenced students' choice of computer studies in both public and private secondary schools in Machakos Sub-County, Kenya. The objective of the study was to establish how, availability of computer facilities influenced students' choice of computer studies as a learning subject in public and private secondary schools in Machakos Sub-County, Kenya. The study reviewed related literature that provided findings from previous researches on factors influencing students' choice of computer studies in public and private secondary schools based on the availability of computer facilities. The study used descriptive survey research design. The study embraced census sampling technique to select the sample size of the computer studies students, computer studies teachers and the head teachers of secondary schools. Data was collected through questionnaires as the main research instruments. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and processed by use of SPSS programme. The results of data analysis and interpretation were presented in frequency distribution tables and percentages. The results indicated that, availability of computer facilities in both public and private secondary schools highly influenced students' choice of computer studies. However, private secondary schools were found to be better equipped with computer equipment /facilities compared to public secondary schools. Therefore, the study recommended that schools especially public secondary schools should be equipped with adequate computer facilities in order to enable more students choose computer studies and ensure quality of the skills impacted. This implied that availability of computer facilities would ensure that the students were adequately exposed to computer projects/practical, for easy interaction and adaption to the work environment. In view of this paper computer studies should be made a compulsory subject in the Kenyan education system.
... As van Zanten (2005: 673) suggests, the organization of educational knowledge in schools expresses "the intertwining of the intellectual and social hierarchies of disciplines". For example, as Smyth and Hannan's (2006) study shows, "students in predominantly working-class schools tend to have less access to advanced science and mathematics courses" (305). McGaw (1997) has made a similar observation in Australia. ...
... In 2012, the then Irish Minister of Education Ruairi Quinn proposed a new curriculum and assessment framework which was met with unequivocal opposition from the teacher unions and became subject to widespread national media coverage (Erduran & Dagher, 2014). In senior cycle post-primary education (16 -18 year olds) the number of young people choosing to take the physical science subjects has been in decline since the 1990s (Smyth & Hannan, 2006). ...
Science and mathematics education in Ireland is facing an increasing number of challenges due to economic and social change. Some of these challenges mirror international trends while others are unique to the Irish education system. In order to meet the demands that are being placed on science and mathematics education in Ireland at post-primary level, the time might be right for implementation and of support university-based interventions. This paper describes an inquiry-based learning intervention for post-primary students that seeks to support engagement with science, technology, engineering and mathematics. This intervention is an example of how institutions of higher education can support post-primary students by giving them the confidence needed to face the challenges of a 21st century society.
... According to the third perspective (i.e., the social-cognitive perspective), fourth perspective (i.e., the contextual developmental perspective), and fifth perspective (i.e., the sociological perspective), one is most successful and satisfied in a track (or study program) when the choice for that track (or study program) was made under supportive personal and environmental conditions (see bottom part in Figure 1). The following personal and environmental conditions have been detected by research to be important predictors of educational/vocational choice: self-perceptions (i.e., self-concept, self-efficacy beliefs, and self-confidence), career adaptability (i.e., general problem solving skills, strategies to deal with choices in general), personality (i.e., indecision, extraversion, conscientiousness), gender, subject provision at school, subject allocation at school, performance feedback by peers and teachers, availability of role models, gender socialization and stereotyping, support during the decision-making process (e.g., availability and quality of information regarding choice alternatives, refusal or approval of certain choice alternatives by peers and parents), timing of course selection, school composition, family SES, job availability, and lack of socio-structural barriers (e.g., Boone & Van Houtte, 2013;Korpershoek, Kuyper, Van der Werf, & Bosker, 2010Lyn, Care, & Ainley, 2011;Lyons, 2006;Nagy, Garrett, Trautwein, Cortina, Baumert, & Eccles, 2008;Pinxten, De Fraine, Van Den Noortgate, Van Damme, & Anumendem, 2012;Sheu, Lent, Brown, Miller, Hennessy, & Duffy, 2010;Smyth, & Hannan, 2006;Van Langen, Rekers-Mombarg, & Dekkers, 2006. ...
This study was set up within the context of the current reform of Flemish secondary education, a reform of a system with four tracks with an academic, technical, artistic, resp. vocational orientation and over 300 study programs, to a system with five interest domains and a reduced amount of study programs, to be chosen from Grade 9 onwards. According to matching theory, decision-making theory, social-cognitivism, contextual developmental theory, and sociology, many factors predict students' educational/vocational choice, the most influential being their abilities and interests. According to vocational developmental research, choosing an education/vocation starts in early childhood, with choice alternatives conflicting with the self-concept progressively eliminated with time, due to improvements in self-reflection skills. The aim of this study was to offer students of Grade 4, 5, and 6 of two Flemish primary schools a series of talent-oriented workshops, in order to help them develop a more accurate self-concept and thus to smoothen their transition to secondary school. Results show that, after the 16-week period of the study, (a) Grade 5 and 6 students (as compared to Grade 4 students) became pretty accurate in their self-perceptions, as shown by high student-teacher consistency in student ability ratings and a high percentage of correctly student-detected new abilities, (b) students and teachers disagreed most regarding students' linguistic abilities, creativity, bodily-kinaesthetic abilities, and philosophical skills, and (c) students rated themselves increasingly higher in terms of well-being. This seems to suggest that a talent-oriented approach might enhance students' ability awareness and well-being in school.
... Similarly, in Australia, Ainley and Daly (2002) found that, all things being equal, there were no significant differences between singlesex and coeducational schools in the take-up of physical sciences or biology. In the Irish context too, the take-up of science subjects is found to reflect school-level characteristics rather than the gender mix of the school (Smyth and Hannan 2006). ...
... Similarly, in Australia, Ainley and Daly (2002) found that, all things being equal, there were no significant differences between singlesex and coeducational schools in the take-up of physical sciences or biology. In the Irish context too, the take-up of science subjects is found to reflect school-level characteristics rather than the gender mix of the school (Smyth and Hannan 2006). ...
There has been considerable research and policy debate internationally about whether single-sex schooling yields academic and social advantages for girls and/or boys. This article outlines some of the findings from research on single-sex education conducted in English-speaking countries. In particular, it looks at research on the impact of single-sex schooling on academic achievement, subject take-up, personal and social development, and adult outcomes. In doing so, it attempts to provide a critical perspective on some of the key issues involved in comparing the two settings.
... Turning to studies from outside the UK, Smyth and Hannan (2006) look at how school factors (such as subject provision (including time-tabling), the timing of subject choice, and ability grouping) influence the take-up of Biology, Physics and Chemistry at the upper secondary level in the Republic of Ireland. Unfortunately, the authors only look at the effect on immediate subject choice (i.e. ...
... In their study of high schools in California, Mehan and Grime (1999) found that the four high schools in the poorest communities offered a total of 17 'Advanced Placement' courses compared to a total of 57 such courses at the four high schools in the wealthiest communities. In Ireland, Smyth and Hannan (2006) found that 30 students in low-SES schools have less access to physics and chemistry than do students in other schools. There is some evidence from Australia that lower SES schools provide limited access to academic curriculum. ...
This study examines how access to academic curriculum differs between secondary schools in Australia, a country whose education system is marked by high levels of choice, privatisation and competition. Equitable access to academic curriculum is important for both individual students and their families as well as the larger society. Previous research has shown that students from lower socio-economic backgrounds are less likely to study academic curriculum than their more advantaged peers. Less is known, however, about the extent to which this pattern is related to differential provision of curriculum between schools. We found that low socio-economic schools offer students less access to the core academic curriculum subjects that are important for university entry. We also found that the breadth and depth of courses offered is related to school sector (private or public) and socio-economic context. Previous research has shown that choice and competition are inequitable because they frequently increase school social segregation and ‘cream-skimming’. Our findings show another inequitable consequence, namely that choice and competition limit access to high-status academic curriculum in working-class communities.
... Therefore, perhaps when the Transition Year science class is taught in an enjoyable fashion it does encourage uptake of science subjects for Leaving Certificate. The findings of this study echoes other studies (Milner et al. 1987, Smyth and Hannan 2002, Cleaves 2005, Lyons 2006, Smyth and Hannan 2006, Reardon et al. 2010, indicating that pupils are driven by the examination culture, and choose subjects that they feel that they will do well in and will aid them in their future. That is not to say that interest and enjoyment does not play a part in the pupils' decisions, but it is not the principal factor. ...
... The most general pattern which emerges from the research on gender-related selection is the overrepresentation of women in social fields and men in technical fields (Gerber & Schaefer 2004;Smyth & Hannan 2006). Janet Chafetz, a representative of the critical school, explains that gender-related stratification is a function of sociallyaccepted definitions of masculine and feminine roles. ...
This paper aims to answer two questions concerning inequalities in tertiary education. First question concerns the effect of social origin on choice of field of study and the second question concerns the effect of gender. Existing research has demonstrated a significant relation between social background and the field of study. Individuals with more educated parents are more likely to study at prestigious faculties, such as law or medicine. Women are more willing than men to choose humanities and social studies whereas men more often choose technical studies. Will these patterns continue in the face of the rapid increase in number of students which began in Poland in the 1990s? A survey conducted in three state higher-education establishments in Bialystok in 2008 shows that students' choices continue to be affected both by social background and gender. We also found a significant relationship between the field of study and general risk-proneness. These results are explained in terms of three different theories: cultural capital, critical theory, and rational choice.
A Global Approach to the Gender Gap in Mathematical, Computing, and Natural Sciences: How to Measure It, How to Reduce It?
This book reports on a three-year project (2017–2019) funded by the International Science Council and involving eleven scientific partner organizations. The main goal of the project was to investigate the gender gap in STEM disciplines from different angles, globally and across disciplines. We have performed (i) a global survey of scientists with more than 32,000 responses; (ii) an investigation of the effect of gender in millions of scientific publications; and (iii) the compilation of best-practice initiatives that address the gender gap in Mathematical, Computing, and Natural Sciences at various levels.
We conclude that the gender gap is very real in science and mathematics. We present methodologies, insights, and tools that have been developed throughout the project, as well as a set of recommendations for different audiences: instructors and parents; educational institutions; scientific unions and other organizations responsible for science policy.
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Context and Implications Document for: Do schools matter? An exploration of the determinants of lower secondary school subject choices under the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence
Marina Shapira Mark Priestley
First published: 08 August 2019
https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3179
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This guide accompanies the following article: Shapira, M. & Priestley, M. (2019). Do schools matter? An exploration of the determinants of lower secondary school subject choices under the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence. Review of Education,
Author's Introduction
The formal implementation of Scotland's Curriculum for Excellence in 2010 was accompanied by the introduction of new qualifications at levels 4 and 5 of the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF). These are typically taken at the end of compulsory education in the fourth year (S4) of secondary school. The introduction of the new qualifications has been controversial, and has come to dominate curriculum development in the secondary phase. Particular issues include:
The compression of the 160 hours course into a single year (formerly two), which has contributed to curriculum narrowing in schools; the number of subjects undertaken by students at this first stage of external qualifications has typically fallen from 8 to 6, and in some cases 5.
This has been accompanied by lively debate about curriculum provision, most notably whether qualifications from SCQF levels 4–7 should be treated as a ladder of qualifications (with level 4/5 being seen as prerequisites for student at Higher [level 6] and Advanced Higher [level 7]), or whether the senior phase from years S4–S6 should be treated as a flexible single phase for compiling a portfolio of qualifications from multiple levels.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the former inflexible ladder of qualifications is the predominant approach in many schools. This raises significant questions about whether curriculum narrowing thus negatively impacts upon students’ future choices and transitions.
This issue of curriculum narrowing has been played out prominently and controversially in Scotland via the mass media and a parliamentary inquiry. The debate has been fuelled to a large extent by the publication of some fairly superficial and coarse‐grained research, mainly via simple descriptive analysis of publicly available data aggregated at the level of local authorities. Our paper offers a more nuanced and fine‐grained analysis of enrolment patterns, aggregated at the level of the school. We analysed longitudinal administrative education data (2011–2017), and Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) data on subject enrolments for Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework National 5 level qualifications, undertaken by 14–15‐year‐old students in year 4 of secondary education (S4) in Scotland, linked with Scottish School Census data that provides information about school characteristics (in terms of their size, number of qualified teachers, socio‐economic composition, etc.) and school area characteristics. We used descriptive methods of statistical data analysis and multilevel regression modelling, in order to explore the variations between schools in: (a) number of subject choices; and (b) configuration of subject enrolment and to identify factors responsible for these variations. Our findings suggest that while the curriculum has narrowed, the phenomenon is much more complex than the picture presented in the public debates, and the size of this reduction has not been uniform, but has varied between schools of different characteristics. A significant finding is that the phenomenon of curriculum narrowing is socially stratified; schools in relatively disadvantaged areas, or those with high numbers of students from disadvantaged backgrounds, have seen a greater degree of curriculum narrowing than schools in areas of relative advantage.
This guide accompanies the following article: Shapira, M. & Priestley, M. (2019). Do schools matter? An exploration of the determinants of lower secondary school subject choices under the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence. Review of Education, https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3180.
Everyone has to make choices at different stages in their life. Some of the most crucial relate to their education, in particular what combination of subjects they decide to take for higher-level study. For most young people such choices take place between the ages of 14 and 18. In England they are likely to be asked to make selections at 14, when they decide which GCSE courses they are to pursue, at 16 when they select their post-16 studies and then at 18 in deciding on higher or further education programmes or their chosen area of employment. As important as these choices are for individuals, such decisions also have wider economic implications for the country. This is particularly the case with STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) subjects. Major government funded inquiries (e.g. Roberts, 2002; Smith, 2004) identified a mismatch between skills acquired during formal education and those required in the workplace. This phenomenon is not unique to the UK, with many OECD countries facing similar difficulties in terms of student participation in STEM (OECD Global Science Forum, 2006). In common with other countries the UK government is committed to fostering STEM related innovation in the UK. The Science and Innovation Investment Framework 2004-2014 (HM Treasury, 2004; 2006) set out priorities for addressing skills shortages. Improving education in the STEM subjects was identified as a key element, leading to the STEM Programme that was launched in October 2006. This provides a strategic framework through which support for STEM subjects in schools and colleges is made more effective and more accessible (DfES, 2006). A key premise underpinning many of the proposals is the view that young people begin to make choices about careers early in their education. Helping young people to make the most appropriate subject choices is therefore crucial, both to ensure that the country has the skills its needs for the economy and to enable young people to make the best choices to meet their own future needs and aspirations.
The UK Government has set a goal that the ‘vast majority’ of students in England will be studying mathematics to 18 by the end of the decade. The policy levers for achieving this goal include new Core Maths qualifications, designed for over 200,000 students who have achieved good grades at the age of 16 but then opt out of advanced or A-level mathematics. This paper reports findings from a cluster-sampled survey of over ten thousand 17-year-olds in England in 2015. Participants’ views on post-16 mathematics are presented and discussed. The main finding is that they are strongly opposed to the idea of compulsory mathematical study, but are less antithetical to being encouraged to study mathematics beyond 16. We consider how attitudes vary by gender, prior attainment, study patterns and future aspirations. The paper considers the implications of these findings in the current policy landscape.
Purpose/objective:
This research investigates the participation and completion rates of Irish female undergraduate dental students from 2003 to 2014.
Methods:
The Higher Education Authority database was accessed and dental students enrolment and completion figures were extracted, compiled and analysed according to gender distribution.
Result:
From 2003 to 2014, there has been a steady increase in the number of female students enrolled in and completing Ireland's undergraduate dentistry programmes.
Conclusions:
The findings reveal that a distinct process of feminisation has occurred in Ireland since the early 2000s. The feminisation of dentistry in Ireland will impact on workforce projections for the Irish dental service. However, more research needs to be undertaken to explore why female students are motivated to pursue a career in dentistry. Due regard also needs to be given to ensuring these women progress in their dental career. Dental education can play an important role here.
There is now a lack of quantitative capacity among practitioners and teachers in sociology in Ireland. Yet interest in the value of quantitative methods among governments, funding organisations and society in general are on the increase. Social science research councils and funders in other countries, notably the UK, have realised there is a problem and are now attempting to remedy this through increased funding for the recruitment of quantitatively trained academics for example, Q-Step. The paper examines a number of developments notably Big Data, increases in transdisciplinary research and developments in mixed methods research which, it is argued, underline the need for more and better quantitative methods teaching in sociology. The paper calls for sociology departments to re-think their curricula and actively promote the teaching of a range of methods at the undergraduate level.
In the past three decades gender issues have received a wide coverage in the education literature and it seems that controversy surrounding the academic provision regarding the positive or negative effects of single-gender vs. coed classes has increased much more than ever. Because of sampling differences, data analysis differences and contextual differences, studies of single-sex versus coeducational classrooms has not yielded a clear set of conclusions. Having taught English for several years the researcher have clearly noticed that there is a significant difference between males, females and coed classrooms in terms of technical and vocational students' end-of-semester marks. Therefore, the present study endeavors to shed light, as much as it can, on the effect of single-sex/coed class composition on the English learning of Iranian technical and vocational students. Technical and Vocational Students (TVS) are traditionally considered to be 'less academically inclined' among all other Iranian university students. Three homogenous classes of TVS, cautiously selected, took part in the study and they all received treatment in the form of teaching by the researcher for some 14 sessions. Then an achievement test was administered to the all three groups. The statistical analysis of the results shows that single-sex classes appear to be most advantageous for females whereas males performed better in coed classes. Males' class showed the weakest performance.
The percentage of enrollment in physics (PEP) at the secondary level in the United States has been approximately 20% for the past few decades. In an attempt to isolate variables related to physics enrollment. Bryant (1977) conducted a path analysis model of secondary physics enrollment in New York State. This present study is a replication and extension of the study conducted by Bryant. Current data were used to verify the Bryant model and construct models with data available since Bryant's work. Data gathered by the New York State Education Department for the 1990–1991 school year were used. The source of this data included surveys completed by teachers and administrators on student characteristics and school facilities. A data analysis similar to Bryant's was conducted to determine whether the relationships between a set of predictor variables and physics enrollment had changed in the past 20 years. The findings indicate that there has been no change in the set of variables related to physics enrollment. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
A growing shortage of technical and science graduates means that the question of determinants of differences in performance and choices in that field based, among other things, on social background characteristics (gender, socioeconomic status, ethnic origin, family composition) remains a topical one. In this study, a rational choice model is proposed in which background-specific comparative advantages in different subjects are in focus. Secondary analyses of a large-scale cohort study (VOCL) show that in addition to the most important explanatory variable, namely gender, the gap between mathematical and language skills makes a relevant contribution in predicting the choice of science subjects in secondary education. This gap can, in turn, be predicted on the basis of gender and family composition.
It is well documented that stratification in education precedes social stratification. Many authors hypothesise that the stratification patterns in education may be related to background characteristics of students in a more complex way than researched so far in this field. Therefore, in this article the interactive effects of social class, ethnicity and gender on various indicators for school success are analysed and discussed. A large-scale longitudinal database offered the possibility to establish the complex relations between the three student background variables and school careers, measured by educational attainment 6 years after entering secondary education and by technical or science related choices. Results show that school success is not always predicted by expected additive or multiplicative effects of the different background variables. For example the situation of girls from ethnic minorities is better than expected, while that of indigenous boys from low socio-economic backgrounds is worse when compared to similar boys from ethnic minorities. Inequalities arising from different choice patterns regarding technical and science subjects can only partly be deduced from differences present at the age of 12, whereas in terms of general educational attainment secondary schools even reduce arrears of ethnic minority female students as these can be observed at the age of 12.
This project aimed to develop a more comprehensive conceptual framework of school-to-work transitions in different national contexts and apply this framework to the empirical analysis of transition processes across European countries. It drew on these two data sources: European Community Labor Force Survey and integrated databases on national school leavers' surveys in France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Scotland, and Sweden. Three broad types of national systems were identified: countries with extensive vocational training systems at upper secondary level, linked to occupational labor markets (Germany, the Netherlands); countries with more general education systems with weaker institutionalized linkages to the labor market (Ireland); and Southern European (SE) countries with less vocational specialization and lower overall attainment than the other groups. In "vocational" systems, young people tended to make a smoother transition into the labor market, while those in SE countries found it more difficult to achieve a stable employment position. Educational level was highly predictive of transition outcomes, which varied by gender, social class, and national origin. Early educational failure had serious negative consequences for young people across all systems. Sixty-three references are listed. A separate annex contains these 17 working papers: "Education and Unemployment" (Brauns, et al.); "Position of Young People and New Entrants in European Labor Markets" (Couppie, Mansuy); "New Entrants and Experienced Workers on European Labor Markets" (Couppie, Mansuy);"European Perspectives on Labor Market Entry" (Gangl); "Education and Labor Market Entry Across Europe over the Last Decade" (Gangl); "Changing Labor Markets and Early Career Outcomes" (Gangl); "Transition from School to Work in Southern Europe" (Iannelli); "Educational Attainment of Young People in the European Union (EU)" (Mueller, Wolbers); "Integration of Young People into the Labor Market Within the EU" (van der Velden, Wolbers); "Learning and Working" (Wolbers); "Transition Process" (Grelet, et al.); "Route to Skills" (Hartkamp, Rutjes); "Apprenticeship in Ireland, the Netherlands, and Scotland" (Hartkamp, Rutjes); "School Effects on Youth Transitions in Ireland, Scotland, and the Netherlands" (Iannelli, Soro-Bonmati); "Young Immigrants on the Labor Market in France and Sweden" (Mansuy, Schroeder); "Relative Labor Market Disadvantage Among the Least Qualified in Ireland, the Netherlands, and Scotland, 1979-97" (McCoy); and "Gender Differentiation in Education and Early Labor Market Transitions" (Smyth). (YLB)
It is argued that multi-level models based on shrinkage estimators represent a considerable improvement over single-level models estimated by ordinary-least squares. In substantive terms, the ML models allow relationships to vary in time and space according to context. Shrinkage estimators make very efficient use of the information contained in the hierarchical data sets that are estimated by ML models. A number of ML models for house-price variation are specified in terms of fixed and random, allowed-to-vary, effects. Empirical illustrations of some of the these ML models are given for house-price variation in Southampton. -Author
Over 2300 pupils aged 13‐14 years in seven mixed and six single‐sex English comprehensive schools were tested on their attitudes to science in general, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and school, and were asked to rank in order all their school subjects in terms of liking and of perceived importance. The results of all but the Perception of Subject Importance questionnaire reveal several significant differences between the groups from the mixed and from the single‐sex schools.
In this study of course offerings in mathematics and science and placement procedures in six high schools, three high schools that were identified as "excellent" through regression analyses were matched with "average" schools, with one pair each in upper-, middle-, and working-class districts. The study found differences in course patterns available to students and the procedures used to assign students to classes. Excellent schools and districts that were higher in social class offered more college-preparatory and advanced courses. Also, the process by which students in these schools and districts were placed in classes was more systematic; it included broader assessments of students' abilities and involved faculty and guidance counselors more actively. It is note-worthy that although the social class of the community was related to the structure of schools, the structure of counseling activities and the courses offered differed among schools in the same social-class communities.
This study investigated the influence of attending public, Catholic, or independent secondary schools on students' course taking in mathematics, using data on 3,374 high school graduates of 184 urban and suburban high schools from the High School Effectiveness Supplement to the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988. With hierarchical linear modeling methods and accounting for factors associated with selection into schools in different sectors, the authors found that the private school students took more advanced mathematics courses than did the public school students. However, after controlling for additional differences in selectivity between the two types of private schools, they found that Catholic schools influence their students' course-taking behaviors especially strongly and that the social distribution of course taking is especially equitable in Catholic schools.
Against a background of disappointing percentages of students choosing exact and technical studies and the academic choice research tradition, a study into the choice of physics in secondary education has been carried out. It focuses on the predictive value of certain characteristics of the curriculum, the differences between schools and the stability of the choice variable. Two cohorts of students in a representative sample of schools filled in written questionnaires, four times in two years. The data were analysed in several ways that complemented each other, including multilevel analysis. The main predictor of the choice of physics in secondary education is perceived future relevance and no significant differences between schools exist. The choice variable is not stable. Many students feel uncertain about their choice of study and profession. Academic choice processes should be more connected with career choice processes. Certain characteristics of the physics curriculum can be expected to further the possibilities for students to experience physics and physics-like contents and problems as being personally meaningful and interesting.
Participation in advanced levels of mathematics in secondary school is ofinterest to those involved in educational policy and practice as well as those involved in research. This paper uses multilevel analyses (including a trichotomous outcome variable) of longitudinal data from a nationally representative sample of Australian schools to investigate the influence of a number of factors on participation in mathematics (advanced, general, or none) in the final year of secondary school. The results suggest that the major influences on mathematics participation are gender and prior mathematics achievement. Both influences are substantial and independent of each other. Building a strong foundation in mathematics is likely to be an effective way of enhancing participation in advanced mathematics in the final year of school. However, although that may result in higher overall levels of participation in advanced mathematics, it is unlikely to alter the balance between boys and girls. Nor is the wider use of single sex schooling.
The masculinity of science can be studied as a topic in the cultural reproduction of gender. In this paper four distinct, but not necessarily contradictory, accounts of the way in which science comes to be seen as a masculine subject are examined. It is argued that schools could play a transformative, rather than a reproductive, role in the formation of gender identities.
This study was undertaken to ascertain the interplay between scientific experiences and participation in school science among girls in the first year of senior‐level classes in four secondary schools (two all‐girls and two mixed) in Nigeria. The outcomes indicate that: ft) girls in science tend to participate in activities which relate to living aspects of science and those which are academic, but only occasionally in tinkering activities; (ii) experience in academic and physical activities in science promotes participation in school science among them; and (iii) these girls tend to be more active than their peers in non‐science. Finally, the paper highlights the implication of these outcomes for a school programme that is designed to stimulate interest in science among girls.
The past 15 years have seen a persistent underrepresentation of girls in school science and technology subjects. The article is in three parts. The first part surveys the persistence of girls' opting out of science and technology in their school option choices and reviews from a wide range of literature the influences which affect girls' choices. These influences are: early socialisation, primary teachers as change agents, option choice processes, guidance and careers advice, teachers and teaching, and work experience. The second part presents a meta-analysis of initiatives to encourage girls and women into science, engineering and technology (SET) courses and careers, drawing upon a survey undertaken as part of a Scottish initiative to encourage women students and staff to enter courses in SET in higher education and to progress in careers there. The analysis is then used to illuminate various school initiatives and to estimate the likelihood of their success in addressing the underlying influences on girls' choices away from science and technology.
SUMMARY In the light of an increasing interest in the accountability of public institutions, this paper sets out the statistical issues involved in making quantitative comparisons between institutions in the areas of health and education. We deal in detail with the need to take account of model-based uncertainty in making comparisons. We discuss the need to establish appropriate measures of institutional 'outcomes' and base-line measures and the need to exercise care and sensitivity when interpreting apparent differences. The paper emphasizes that statistical methods exist which can contribute to an understanding of the extent and possible reasons for differences between institutions. It also urges caution by discussing the limitations of such methods.
The research reported in this paper looks at the relationship between perception of school subjects as masculine or feminine and other attitudes towards sex roles and sex traits, motivation and subject choices at A‐level of boys and girls in coeducational comprehensive schools in England and Wales. The pupils’ perceptions of subjects confirmed earlier findings, in that the sciences were seen as masculine and arts and languages as feminine, although a majority of pupils believed that both sexes were equally good at most subjects. A sex‐stereotyped view of subjects was associated with sex‐stereotyped attitudes towards occupations and roles. It was hypothesized that pupils whose attitudes were stereotyped and who saw themselves conforming to traditional notions of masculinity and femininity would be more likely to choose sex‐appropriate subjects. This hypothesis was confirmed in the case of boys but not for girls. Boys showed much more bias in their subject choices and those choosing exclusively masculine subjects were much more likely to support traditional sex roles and to conform to traditional notions of masculinity. No such pattern was found for girls. Girls doing feminine subjects were more likely to have non‐stereotyped views than those doing masculine subjects and were equally unlikely to conform to traditional notions of femininity.
This study investigated how the organization of the mathematics curriculum in U.S. high schools affects how much students learn in that subject. The study used data on the background and academic proficiency of 3,056 high school seniors in 123 public high schools from the 1990 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in mathematics. These data were linked with information from students’ high school transcripts and with information from their high schools about courses offered during that period. To accommodate the nested structure of the data and research questions, we used Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) methods, including a subroutine (HLM2PV) that simplifies the proper use of multiple plausible values estimates for NAEP proficiency scores. Results provide support for our hypothesis about curriculum constraint: Students learn more in schools that offer them a narrow curriculum composed mostly of academic courses. Difficulties in conducting school effects studies using NAEP proficiency score outcomes, particularly the procedures for estimating plausible values, are discussed.
Using multilevel analysis on a sample of Israeli academic-track twelfth graders in 1989, the article examines between-school variation in gender and ethnic inequality in course taking of two scientific subjects, physics and biology. The main findings are that (1) the sciences are taken less often by students of the underprivileged Jewish ethnic group, and this inequality is more acute in schools that use math as a filter, and (2) physics is taken more often by males, and biology by females. The gender typing of the sciences is particularly prominent in math-oriented schools. The social implications of the findings are discussed.
Over the past decade most, if not all, university departments of mathematics, science and engineering have talked about a decline in the mathematical capabilities of their entry cohorts. Anecdotal evidence from the universities and the press has blamed this drop on a lowering of standards at A level. However, it may be due to the lowering of admission requirements to allow for the expansion in university places. This article attempts to quantify the present situation by looking at the characteristics of the student population at both the interface between the General Certificate of Secondary Education and A level, and A level and higher education over time. As well as analysing official published data and hitherto unpublished data from the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service, it builds on some initial work carried out at the Mechanics in Action Project at the Universities of Manchester and Leeds over the past 6 years as part of the evaluation of the effects of the Project's mathematics curriculum development work post‐16. An explanation for the universities’ perception of declining standards is found in (a) the changing A level cohort, (b) the universities’ policy on recruitment, and (c) able students choosing not to study mathematical subjects.
Does enrolment in comprehensive schools affect girls' and boys' choices of educational field at the upper secondary school level? For example, do girls in some comprehensive schools choose the engineering programme (gender-atypical for girls) to a significantly higher degree than girls do in other schools? These questions were studied in the context of a 25 per cent random sample of Swedish comprehensive schools in 1991 and 1992. Multilevel analyses were carried out on pupils who chose one of the academic programmes. Three hierarchical levels are included in the models: pupils, classrooms and schools. The results show that pupils' choices of study field vary significantly between schools and classrooms when pupil-level characteristics have been controlled for. The results also show that both boys' and girls' choices correlate with those of classmates of the same sex, but not with those of the opposite sex. However, the contextual variables in this study that characterize schools and classrooms (such as the percentage of boys/girls in classrooms, etc.) do not account for the school and classroom variances, although some school/classroom characteristics are significant. The results give especially strong support for the so-called 'frog pond effect': for example, if classmates do well in mathematics and natural sciences subjects, the likelihood that they will enter the humanities/social sciences increases (controlling for the pupils' own marks in these subjects). When classmates do poorly in these subjects, their chances of choosing engineering increase.
We review some of the work of the past ten years that applied the multilevel logit model. We attempt to provide a brief description of the hypothesis tested, the hierarchical data structure analyzed, and the multilevel data source for each piece of work we have reviewed. We have also reviewed the technical literature and worked out two examples on multilevel models for binary outcomes. The review and examples serve two purposes: First, they are designed to assist in all aspects of working with multilevel models for binary outcomes, including model conceptualization, model description for a research report, understanding of the structure of required multilevel data, estimation of the model via a generally available statistical package, and interpretation of the results. Second, our examples contribute to the evaluation of the approximation procedures for binary multilevel models that have been implemented for general public use.
This study examined how high schools made decisions about which courses to offer and which courses were appropriate for various students. During year 1, researchers visited three senior high schools in a major West Coast urban center to observe, study school documents, and talk with educators and students about curriculum offerings and student assignment practices. During year 2, researchers analyzed transcripts from students in the 1988 senior classes to track the effects. According to field study findings, all three schools made assumptions about the abilities, aspirations, and educational "needs" of incoming students that guided decisions about course offerings and were the basis for student placement policies. Assumptions were also related, in large part, to students' race and family socioeconomic status. Background characteristics influenced decisions about individual student placement. Transcript analyses showed low-income and disadvantaged minority students took more vocational courses, particularly more occupationally oriented courses. Heavy vocational education participation was largely reserved for the least academically able students. Achievement was highly related to academic course participation, but students' race/ethnicity was often important to participation. Findings showed a lack of attention paid to vocational education and a strong need for integrated academic and vocational curricula. (Appendixes include additional student characteristics, vocational course categories, supplementary tables, methods and results from logistic analyses, and 36 references.) (YLB)
Drawing on British publications, three general issues related to girls and science education are discussed: demands of state and industry, equality of opportunity, and the nature of science and the scientific enterprise. (JN)
The paper uses data from three studies of Northern Ireland pupils covering the period 1980 1991 to consider the determinants of examination entry and attainment in Mathematics. The main themes with which the analysis is concerned are gender inequalities, and differentials in the performance of single-sex and co-educational schools. The central focus of the analyses is the degree to which these differentials are significant once the individual, family and school background have been taken into account. Public examination entry and attainment in Mathematics taken at or near the end of compulsory schooling are the outcome measures. The first stage of the analysis is based on a two-level logistic regression of examination entry controlling for family and individual background and, given the selective nature of the Northern Ireland education system, grammar school attendance. In the second stage of the analysis, similar controls are used to examine Mathematics attainment. Overall, school differences relating to gender composition are small once family, individual and other aspects of school background are controlled. Religion effects are also smalland girls seem to close the performance gap with boys. However, family socio-economic background, prior ability and grammar school attendance consistently influence both Mathematics entry and attainment.
The paper analyses the impact of individual/family background and school characteristics on science uptake at GCSE in Northern Ireland using survey data by means of a series of multilevel logistic models. Selecting two outcome variables ('science’ in its widest sense and a more restricted definition of ‘hard’ science), it shows that attendance at grammar school and parental labour‐market status are significant determinants of science uptake, and attendance at grammar school, parental labour‐market status, gender and religious background of ‘hard’ science uptake. The paper concludes by looking at the policy implications of inequality in the curriculum and suggests that the introduction of GCSE has not eradicated gender and religious inequalities in ‘hard’ science uptake. However, despite evidence that subject type of GCSE pass is no longer important for the employment chances of young people because of the restructuring of the youth labour market, considerations of equity, social justice and access to training and further education, mean that inequalities in science uptake might still be usefully addressed.
This study investigated the use of a hands-on laboratory program as a means of improving student attitude toward science and increasing student achievement levels in science knowledge. Using a posttest-only control group design, curriculum referenced objective examinations were used to measure student achievement in science knowledge, and a posttest Q-sort survey was used to measure student attitude toward science. A one-way analysis of variance compared the groups' differences in achievement and attitude toward science. Analysis of covariance was used to determine the effect of the laboratory treatment on the dependent achievement variable with attitude toward science as the covariable. The findings showed that students who had regular laboratory instruction (a) scored significantly higher (p < .01) on the objective examination of achievement in science knowledge than those who had no laboratory experiences; (b) exhibited a moderate, positive correlation (r = .406) between their attitude toward science and their achievement; and (c) scored significantly higher (p < .01) on achievement in science knowledge after these scores were adjusted on the attitude toward science covariable. There were no significant differences in achievement or attitude toward science for the limited English proficiency groups. It was concluded that laboratory instruction influenced, in a positive direction, the students' attitude toward science, and influenced their achievement in science knowledge. It was recommended that science instruction include a regular laboratory experience as a demonstrated viable and effective instructional method for science teachers. This model of science instruction has been shown to be effective with students of diverse backgrounds who live within large urban centers. J Res Sci Teach 34: 343–357, 1997.
A variance analysis of the relation between the amount of time students spent experiencing hands-on science and science achievement was performed. Data collected by the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 on a nationally representative sample of eighth-grade students were analyzed. Student achievement in science was measured by a cognitive test battery developed by the Educational Testing Service. Information regarding the frequency of hands-on experience was collected through a self-administered teacher questionnaire, which included a series of questions specific to the science curriculum. From the analysis it was concluded that significant differences existed across the hands-on frequency variable with respect to science achievement. Specifically, students who engaged in hands-on activities every day or once a week scored significantly higher on a standardized test of science achievement than students who engaged in hands-on activities once a month, less than once a month, or never. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Despite recent efforts to increase the participation of women in advanced educational training and high-status professional fields, women and men are still concentrated in different occupations and educational programs, and women are still underrepresented in many high-status occupational fields-particularly those associated with physical science, engineering, and applied mathematics. Many factors, ranging from outright discrimination to the processes associated with gender role socialization, contribute to these gendered patterns of educational and occupational choices. This paper summarizes a set of social and psychological factors that Eccles and her colleagues have been studying for the past 15 years in an effort to understand the occupational and educational choices of women and men. The paper summarizes the key features of the theoretical model they developed and provides an overview of the empirical support now available for key aspects of this model. The implications of this model for understanding the link between gender roles and gendered educational and occupational decisions are discussed.
The number of students taking part in the Transition Year programme has grown significantly since the mid-1990s. However, little is known about the nature of the programme and its impact on the students who take it. This study provides a comprehensive examination of the operation of the Transition Year programme using information gathered from school principals, teachers and students themselves.
Key findings:
•The experience of Transition Year varies from school to school. Schools differ in the kinds of subjects students can study, the nature of their work experience placement, the kind of assessment used (for example, project-work or formal exams) and the extent to which all (or most) teachers in the school are involved in the programme.
•School principals and teachers see the Transition Year programme as broadly successful, especially in developing personal and social skills among students. However, principals in designated disadvantaged schools, smaller schools and those in the vocational sector are somewhat less likely to see the programme as effective.
•Many students feel that Transition Year exposes them to different experiences, providing a 'break' after studying for the Junior Certificate and making them more mature. However, other students consider the year to be a 'doss' and 'boring'. Students who are not very positive about school life in general tend to have more negative views about Transition Year, especially if they attend schools where the programme is compulsory.
•Taking Transition Year has an impact on students’ academic outcomes, even taking account of initial differences between participants and non-participants. On average, students who take part in Transition Year achieve higher Leaving Certificate exam grades and are more likely to go on to higher education than non-participants.
•However, not all students do better academically as a result of taking Transition Year. This is the case for two groups of students: male students who work part-time and continue to work up to their Leaving Certificate year; and students in more disadvantaged schools where the programme is compulsory.
•A successful Transition Year programme has a number of features: a whole-school commitment to the programme; time for co-ordination activities and for co-operation among teachers; varied programme content, covering a range of different subject areas; a structured exposure to the world of work; the use of more innovative teaching methods and forms of assessment and accreditation; and on-going evaluation and redesign of the programme within the school.
•The main constraints to the successful operation of Transition Year are lack of time and insufficient financial resources (for funding activities and outings).
Incl. app., bibliographical notes and references, frequently asked questions: pp. 105-138, index
Sex segregation with regard to choice of type of education, or educational programme, is persistently high in Sweden, while
men and women nowadays reach similar levels of education. In order to explain this phenomenon, a rational choice model is
proposed in which sex-specific comparative advantages in different fields of study are in focus. Such relative advantages
in sex-typical areas of study are hypothesized to influence educational choices through their effects on the expected probabilities
of success in different study programmes. The theoretical model explains sex differences very well when judged against aggregate
data, but empirical analyses on micro-level data are less supportive of the underlying hypothesis. While indicators of both
absolute and relative school achievements are powerful predictors of educational choice, boys and girls with similar ‘ability
profiles’ largely follow sex-typical choice patterns. Comparative advantages may ‘account for’ 10 to 30 per cent of the sex
effect on educational choice at the upper secondary level of education in Sweden. The paper concludes with a short discussion
of alternative explanations
The proportion of students taking science subjects for the Leaving Certificate has declined in recent years. This has led to policy concern about a potential shortage of scientific skills within the workforce. However, little is known about the factors which influence subject choice within second-level education and beyond. Who Chooses Science? draws on a national survey of over 4,000 students along with detailed case-studies of science teaching within eight schools. It highlights best practice in science education and identifies the factors which affect the take-up of Chemistry, Physics, Biology and higher Maths at senior cycle. It also indicates the student and school characteristics which influence the choice of course on entry to higher education. The book indicates the way in which schools can facilitate or constrain the choices made by students and discusses the implications for educational policy.
The science enrolment model: An expectancy/value model of enrolment behaviour in elective science courses
- G Barnes
- D Mcinerney
- H W Marsh
Barnes, G., McInerney, D., & Marsh, H. W. (1999, September). The science enrolment model: An
expectancy/value model of enrolment behaviour in elective science courses. Paper presented at the
European Conference on Educational Research, Lahti.
Before it's too late: A report of the National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21 st Century
- S Mccoy
McCoy, S. (2000). Do schools count?: Key school structural and process influences on early school leaving.
Unpublished doctoral thesis, The Queen's University, Belfast, Northern Ireland.
National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching. (2000). Before it's too late: A report of
the National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21 st Century. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Coeducation and gender equality
- D F Hannan
- E Smyth
- J Mccullagh
- R O'leary
- D Mcmahon
Hannan, D. F., Smyth, E., McCullagh, J., O'Leary, R., & McMahon, D. (1996). Coeducation and
gender equality. Dublin, Republic of Ireland: Oak Tree Press/Economic and Social Research
Institute.
Science and Mathematics in full-time education after 16
- Y Cheng
- J Payne
- S Witherspoon
Cheng, Y., Payne, J., & Witherspoon, S. (1995). Science and Mathematics in full-time education after
16. Sheffield, UK: Employment Department.
Do schools differ? Academic and personal development among pupils in the second-level sector
- E Smyth
Smyth, E. (1999). Do schools differ? Academic and personal development among pupils in the second-level
sector. Dublin, Republic of Ireland: Oak Tree Press/Economic and Social Research Institute.
Annual statistical reports
Department of Education and Science. (1980 – 2004). Annual statistical reports. Government of
Ireland.
Education for girls in Catholic and Independent schools in the western suburbs of Melbourne and Gippsland. Victoria: Non-government Schools Participation and Equity Project
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- J Martin
Ditchburn, G., & Martin, J. (1986). Education for girls in Catholic and Independent schools in the
western suburbs of Melbourne and Gippsland. Victoria: Non-government Schools Participation
and Equity Project.
Sex differences in mathematics participation Advances in motivation and achievement: Women in science
- J S Eccles
Eccles, J. S. (1984). Sex differences in mathematics participation. In M. Steinkamp & M. Maehr
(Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Women in science (pp. 93 – 138). Greenwich,
CT: JAI Press.
Schooling and sex roles
- D F Hannan
- R Breen
- B Murray
- D Watson
- N Hardiman
- K Higgins
Hannan, D. F., Breen, R., Murray, B., Watson, D., Hardiman, N., & O'Higgins, K. (1983).
Schooling and sex roles. Dublin, Republic of Ireland: The Economic and Social Research
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