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A preliminary study of the effect of music on equine behavior
... These housing conditions compromise their well-being [20], and render the horses highly reactive and thus insecure in relation to humans [21]. Although the effects of EE have been studied in horses previously [20][21][22][23][24][25][26], only one enrichment item was taken into account at a time in these studies, precluding assessment of the impact of combined inanimate and social stimuli. ...
... Each type of the enrichment involved in this experiment could by itself improve well-being. For instance, more lying down among the EE-treated animals may be due to the larger size of their stall, to the straw bedding, or to the appeasing effect of the music [25,32,33]. The lower frequency of aberrant behavioral patterns may be due to the access to pasture with conspecific animals or to the feeding distribution and composition [22,24,34]. ...
The use of environmental enrichment (EE) has grown in popularity over decades, particularly because EE is known to promote cognitive functions and well-being. Nonetheless, little is known about how EE may affect personality and gene expression. To address this question in a domestic animal, 10-month-old horses were maintained in a controlled environment or EE for 12 weeks. The control horses (n = 9) lived in individual stalls on wood shaving bedding. They were turned out to individual paddocks three times a week and were fed three times a day with pellets or hay. EE-treated horses (n = 10) were housed in large individual stalls on straw bedding 7 hours per day and spent the remainder of the time together at pasture. They were fed three times a day with flavored pellets, hay, or fruits and were exposed daily to various objects, odors, and music. The EE modified three dimensions of personality: fearfulness, reactivity to humans, and sensory sensitivity. Some of these changes persisted >3 months after treatment. These changes are suggestive of a more positive perception of the environment and a higher level of curiosity in EE-treated horses, explaining partly why these horses showed better learning performance in a Go/No-Go task. Reduced expression of stress indicators indicated that the EE also improved well-being. Finally, whole-blood transcriptomic analysis showed that in addition to an effect on the cortisol level, the EE induced the expression of genes involved in cell growth and proliferation, while the control treatment activated genes related to apoptosis. Changes in both behavior and gene expression may constitute a psychobiological signature of the effects of enrichment and result in improved well-being. This study illustrates how the environment interacts with genetic information in shaping the individual at both the behavioral and molecular levels.
... Few studies have been performed on the possible effects of acoustic stimulations on horses and all used music, which is a multivariable stimulation (i.e., music is made up of different frequencies, frequency modulations and tempo, which vary considerably from one musical genre to another). In her pioneering study on 9 ponies, Houpt et al. [68] suggested that country music had a calming effect. Hartman and Greening [24], who investigated the behavior of 7 horses during nights before, during and after periods of two hours daily playback of Beethoven Symphonia n • 9, reported an increase in feeding behavior and recumbency during the playback phase. ...
Simple Summary
Racehorses are submitted to stress-inducing practices that include restricted conditions of life and intensive racing training. This may impair their welfare and, as a consequence, their rider’s safety. Horses with compromised welfare may express stereotypic behaviors, aggressiveness or apathy, and may present abnormal hematological data. Agitation and lack of sleep may also lead to difficulties in physical recovery. Acoustic stimulation has been proposed as a sensory enrichment for a variety of domestic species, but there are debates about what type of sound is best. In humans, it has been argued that particular frequencies could have beneficial effects on health. In the present study performed on 12 thoroughbred racehorses in training, we found that the daily playback for three weeks of a stimulus involving an array of these different frequencies was associated with a decrease in stereotypic behaviors and agitation behaviors and an increase in recumbency and hay ingestion. There was also an improvement in red blood cell-related parameters. Most of these effects lasted or still increased after the cessation of the playback phase. Overall, the animals appeared quieter and potentially experienced a better physical recovery.
Abstract
(1) Background: Since antiquity, it is considered that sounds influence human emotional states and health. Acoustic enrichment has also been proposed for domestic animals. However, in both humans and animals, effects vary according to the type of sound. Human studies suggest that frequencies, more than melodies, play a key role. Low and high frequencies, music tuning frequency and even EEG slow waves used for ‘neurofeedback’ produce effects. (2) Methods: We tested the possible impact of such pure frequencies on racehorses’ behavior and physiology. A commercial non-audible acoustic stimulus, composed of an array of the above-mentioned frequencies, was broadcasted twice daily and for three weeks to 12 thoroughbred horses in their home stall. (3) Results: The results show a decrease in stereotypic behaviors and other indicators such as yawning or vacuum chewing, an increase in the time spent in recumbent resting and foraging, and better hematological measures during and after the playback phase for 4 of the 10 physiological parameters measured. (4) Conclusions: These results open new lines of research on possible ways of alleviating the stress related to housing and training conditions in racehorses and of improving physical recovery.
... The trend of using country music to increase the time spent eating was observed, while jazz had the opposite effect. Nevertheless, it is important to note that this research was conducted with small groups and did not yield statistically significant results [82]. Music played to purebred Arab horses before their sport training had a positive impact on their welfare and race performance [83]. ...
To ensure the optimal living conditions of farm animals, it is essential to understand how their senses work and the way in which they perceive their environment. Most animals have a different hearing range compared to humans; thus, some aversive sounds may go unnoticed by caretakers. The auditory pathways may act through the nervous system on the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and immune systems. Therefore, noise may lead to behavioral activation (arousal), pain, and sleep disorders. Sounds on farms may be produced by machines, humans, or animals themselves. It is worth noting that vocalization may be very informative to the breeder as it is an expression of an emotional state. This information can be highly beneficial in maintaining a high level of livestock welfare. Moreover, understanding learning theory, conditioning, and the potential benefits of certain sounds can guide the deliberate use of techniques in farm management to reduce the aversiveness of certain events.
... The calming effects of music (auditory enrichment) have been investigated in several species, including cats, dogs, and horses (Houpt et al. 2000;Wells 2009;Bowman et al. 2015;Snowdon et al. 2015;Stachurska et al. 2015;Stachurska et al. 2017;Wiśniewska et al. 2019). ...
Objective, non-invasive indicators of the subjective experience of positive emotion are required to support assessment and improvement of animal welfare. Emotion is unique to the individual and indicators of emotion are indirect. The aim of this thesis was to ascertain if body and facial behaviours and physiological parameters reflected the emotional experiences of horses. Following review of the theoretical and experimental literature, three experiments were conducted, and an alternative emotional arousal-valence framework was proposed. Based on the preferences of individual horses, the relative arousal level and emotional valence induced by four stimuli (wither grooming, motionless person, intermittent spray, and being left alone) were ordered. Behavioural and physiological parameters were then measured during exposure to each stimuli. The indicators of contrasting affective experiences in horses were found to be heart rate, heart rate variability, eye temperature, and behaviours involving legs, neck, tail, ears, eyes, eyebrows, mouth, chin, and nares. Several behaviours differed across all three arousal levels or valence levels. Positive emotional valence was indicated by a decreased rate of neck very low, left ear forward, left or right ear back, blink, angled eyebrow, nares flared, nares neutral, and/or an increased rate of chin wobble, small eye aperture, or oral investigation behaviours. Higher arousal was indicated by an increased rate of neck very high, tail swishing, or higher odds of contracted lips, and/or a decreased rate of right ear forward or to the side behaviours. Reduction from 16 to six parameters may be possible. The findings may be used to aid interpretation of horse emotional experience and in the assessment and improvement of horse welfare. The research approach and framework described in this research may be suitable for future research in horses and other species.
... A novel auditory stimulus has been shown to elicit both a behavioural and physiological response [7] and when exposed to a stressful environment, classical music appears to decrease the physiological stress response. However, during isolation, different types of music appear to have little effect on equine behaviours under separation conditions [13]. In addition, the discrimination of stimuli has been utilised in horses to assess the limits of equine sensory perception, including auditory perception, demonstrating an ability to learn to differentiate sounds [14]. ...
Despite numerous studies investigating responses to visual perception, there is limited research into how horses respond to different auditory stimuli. Although ‘noise-damping’ ear covers are frequently used on sport horses to minimise distraction from external auditory stimuli, the effectiveness of ear covers has not been established. This study aimed to (i) investigate the responses of horses to different sounds commonly present in a competition environment, and (ii) compare these responses in the presence and absence of ear covers. A total of 18 horses were presented with 5 sounds commonly heard in competition or stable environments both with and without ear covers, in a randomised order crossover design. Behavioural and heart rate responses were recorded. Responses were compared between sounds and with/without ear covers. Differences in physiological and behavioural responses to different complex auditory stimuli were shown. An overall difference in physiological and behavioural responses with and without ear covers was detected, although the only difference in heart rate between ear covers and no ear covers that individually achieved significance was the feed sound. These findings suggest that horses can discriminate sounds and alter their responses based on the individual stimulus, and these responses are reduced when wearing ear covers with varying effectiveness for different sounds.
... Long, clear sounds emanated from the claves as I learned to Charles Darwin postulated that animal species share a perception of rhythm due to commonalities in their nervous systems (Bregman et al., 2012). Preliminary research investigating musical preferences in stabled horses suggested horses may prefer music with a regular beat (Houpt et al., 2000). However, more rigorous testing methods failed to produce clear evidence for synchronization to a musical beat in domestic horses, despite anecdotal testimony to the contrary (Bregman et al., 2012;Fitzroy et al., 2018). ...
This visual essay with moving image explores a practice between the artist and three horses who are brought together by their shared response to the Afro-Cuban son clave: A rhythmic pattern that is ostensibly neither from the artist’s nor the horses’ cultural backgrounds. The essay investigates autonomy, autopoiesis, and polyrhythm with horses; and it considers the role of the change and stability paradox in potentially leading to more rhythmic attraction the less this is imposed or managed by the artist. The artist speculatively compares her practice with horses to the creative learning pedagogy developing in Wales in contrast to England’s prescriptive teaching.
... In cattle, country music led to increased approach to milking stalls, but no other types of music were tested [32]. Ponies showed no significant behavioral change to a variety of musical genres, but there was a nonsignificant tendency toward increased feeding with country music [33]. One study in piglets found no effects of music [34], whereas two other studies in piglets found that fast tempo music increased activity, play, and tail wagging [35,36]. ...
Playing music or natural sounds to animals in human care is thought to have beneficial effects. An analysis of published papers on the use of human-based music with animals demonstrates a variety of different results even within the same species. These mixed results suggest the value of tailoring music to the sensory systems of the species involved and in selecting musical structures that are likely to produce the desired effects. I provide a conceptual framework based on the combined knowledge of the natural communication system of a species coupled with musical structures known to differentially influence emotional states, e.g., calming an agitated animal versus stimulating a lethargic animal. This new concept of animal-based music, which is based on understanding animal communication, will lead to more consistent and specific effects of music. Knowledge and appropriate use of animal-based music are important in future research and applications if we are to improve the well-being of animals that are dependent upon human care for their survival.
... In another study, light music played on the cello could improve milk protein and milk yield of dairy cows (Patra 2013). Houpt et al. (2000) observed a nonsignificant trend for a more calming behavioural influence of country music over other genres (classical, jazz and rock) in nine ponies, as showed by an increased time of eating. Campo et al. (2005) reported that specific classical music stimulus (75 dB) had a negative influence on fearfulness of hens. ...
Context Music induces physiological responses in animals, and as an enriched environment, it may have a positive effect on behaviour and productivity. Aims This study aimed to determine the effects of different kinds of music on immunity, stress response and performance of piglets. Methods In total, 144 hybrid piglets (Yorkshire × Durac × Minpig) at the age of 7 weeks were divided into three treatment groups: slow-tempo string music (65 beats per min), fast-tempo wind music (200 beats per min), and control (i.e. no music). Exposure to music lasted for 42 days, from 8 to 14 weeks of age. During the experimental period, behavioural activities were observed, and physiological parameters, immune responses and growth performance were measured. Key results Results showed that long-term music exposure increased (P < 0.01) playing and tail-wagging behaviours compared with the control group, but had no effect (P > 0.05) on walking, lying, exploring, fighting or feeding behaviours. No effect (P > 0.05) was found on the levels of growth hormone, salivary cortisol, serum cortisol, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, β-endorphin or dopamine, or on the performance of growing pigs. However, the specific music type slow-tempo string significantly (P < 0.05) increased interleukin-4. Conclusions Long-term exposure to music does not affect stress response or growth performance in piglets. However, it promotes positive mood as indicated by increased playing and tail-wagging activities, and induces positive immunomodulation through increased interleukin-4 levels in piglets. Implications Exposure to music may be used to promote positive mood, and hence enhance welfare, in piglets.
... Classical, jazz or rock music was found to have non-signifi cantly less calming effect in ponies than country music (Houpt et al., 2000). Very few researches have been carried out on equine music preference. ...
Music is an expression of moods and emotions, which has a history of physical and emotional healings. It is thought to have both analgesic and anxiolytic properties. Various effects of music therapy on the physiology and psychology of human have been documented. The effect of music on physiology and behavior have been studied in animals too. Many of these studies claim that even animals are affected by the music. The potential benefits of music in animals might be through auditory enrichment which modifies the behavior of animals. The milking behavior and milk yield of farm animals including cattle and buffalo are affected by music. The objective of this study was to review the influence of music in animal behavior and discuss its usefulness for stress relief. The available literatures indicated that there is a variation among animals for music preference and their behavior is affected depending upon the animal species.
... O reconhecimento dos benefícios da música para o bem-estar humano elevou o valor das pesquisas acerca do uso de estimulação auditiva como meio de enriquecimento ambiental de animais em cativeiro (Wells, 2004). A importância do enriquecimento ambiental por meio de estímulo sonoro vem sendo estudado em diferentes espécies, como pássaros (Reed et al.,1993), bovinos (Uetake et al., 1997) e cavalos (Houpt et al., 2000). Esses estudos relatam mudanças no comportamento e na fisiologia dos animais expostos a gravações musicais, estações de rádios e sons da natureza, sendo que cães de canil também reagem a estímulos sonoros (Wells, 2004 Os animais passaram a mais de 60% do tempo dormindo em ambos os períodos, que sugere a ausência de estresse, mesmo em condições consideradas pelos humanos como desconfortáveis. ...
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of inanimate environmental enrichment on the behavior of shelter dogs housed in metabolism cages. The experiment consisted of two assessment periods of 48 hours each, with observations at intervals of 10 minutes. The enrichment methods tested were the inclusion of a plastic ball attached at the top of the cage and the sound stimulus by means of ambient music in the place where the cages. Beagle dogs were used and eight adults, four males and four females. In the test with the inclusion of the ball, the animals did not differ as to their behavior in leisure time standing, sitting idle, idleness, lying, sleeping and eating. But it was observed that animals kept in a cage with toys sanitized spent more time, which may mean a state of relaxation, comfort and care to normal coat. During music animals spent most of their time sleeping and resting.
... For example, classical music has been suggested to enhance the well-being of chickens (Gvaryahu et al., 1989), carp (Papoutsoglou et al., 2007), Asian elephants (Wells and Irwin, 2008), western lowland gorillas (Wells et al., 2006), and domestic dogs (Wells et al., 2002). Other types of auditory stimulation that have been studied include the effects of country music on cattle (Uetake et al., 1997;Wisniewski et al., 1977) and ponies (Houpt et al., 2000). ...
... Cattle, for example, have been shown to enter a milking parlour more readily when exposed to country music than 'rock 'n roll' (Wisniewski, 1977) or no auditory stimulation (Uetake et al., 1997). More recently, Houpt et al. (2000) witnessed a non-significant trend for a more calming behavioural influence of country music, over other genres (classical, jazz, rock) in nine ponies, as evidenced by an increased amount of time spent eating. Although not necessarily evidence of an enrichment effect, Ladd et al. (1992) reported higher incidences of head shaking and lower occurrences of preening in laying hens exposed to country music or classical/jazz, compared to a control of no auditory stimulation. ...
In the wild, animals are exposed to an ever-changing array of sensory stimuli. The captive environment, by contrast, is generally much more impoverished in terms of the sensory cues it offers the animals housed within. In a bid to remedy this, and promote better welfare, researchers have started to explore the merits of sensory stimulation (i.e. stimulation designed to trigger one or more of an animal's senses) as a potential method of environmental enrichment for captive animals. This paper reviews the research in this area, focusing specifically on auditory, olfactory and visual methods of sensory stimulation. Studies exploring the efficacy of each type of stimulation as an enrichment tool are described, where appropriate, making a distinction between those that occur in the animal's natural habitat, and those that do not. Overall, it is concluded that sensory stimulation harbours enrichment potential for some animals housed in institutional settings, although the specific merits gained from these enrichments are likely to depend upon a wide variety of factors including, for example, species, sex, age and housing conditions. Programmes of sensory enrichment that target the dominant sense for the species under scrutiny, using harmless, non-stressful stimuli, are likely to result in the greatest benefits for animal welfare. Stimuli specific to a species’ natural habitat should not always be considered meaningful, or advantageous, to an animal's welfare; in some cases stimuli that do not occur naturally in the wild (e.g. classical music) may offer more in the way of welfare advantages. Shortcomings in the research, and factors to consider when implementing enrichment of this nature, are discussed throughout.
... In a study of nine ponies, country music tended to have a more calming effect than did classical, jazz or rock music 69 . The trend was not statistically significant, and additional research with larger numbers of animals may provide more information about equine music preference and the potential for enhancing equine welfare using music. ...
Physiological and psychological effects of listening to music have been documented in humans. The changes in physiology, cognition and brain chemistry and morphology induced by music have been studied in animal models, providing evidence that music may affect animals similarly to humans. Information about the potential benefits of music to animals suggests that providing music may be used as a means of improving the welfare of laboratory animals, such as through environmental enrichment, stress relief and behavioral modification. The authors review the current research on music's effect on animals' physiology and behavior and discuss its potential for improving animal welfare. They conclude that the benefits of providing music to laboratory animals depend on the species and the type of music.
Conventional strawberry cultivation requires intense soil use and
management practices, in addition to spraying with pesticides, which can reduce soil
quality. The objective was to study the effect of conventional and organic management
on strawberry cultivation in southern Minas Gerais on the edaphic invertebrate
community. Two properties were selected, one of organic cultivation divided into areas
such as: organic strawberry (MO); fallow pasture (PPO) and forest fragment (MTO)
and another of conventional cultivation: conventional strawberry (MC); fallow pasture
(PPC) and forest fragment (MTC). Invertebrates were collected through the use of ten
pitfall traps installed in each area, and spaced every fifteen meters from each other.
At each fauna collection point soil samples were taken at a depth of 0-20 cm, for the
characterization of chemical and physical attributes. Invertebrates were identified and
accounted. The density of individuals per trap was determined, in addition to wealth,
Shannon and Dominance index. The density results of individuals from each trap, in
each area, were subjected to analysis of variance and the averages compared by
the Tukey test at 5%, still being carried out the Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
w. There was a significant difference between the areas studied, with OM providing
greater diversity and density of the edaphic fauna. Regardless of the cultivation system,
there is an increase in Shannon’s diversity and reduction in the Dominance index from
the most intensive to the least intensive management systems (Strawberry cultivation>
Pasture in fallow> Forest fragment). The PCA result showed that the MC did not it
was associated with groups, reflecting the intensive management of this system, while
the forest and MO areas were associated with a greater richness of edaphic groups,
presenting a behavior like that found in forest fragments.
Vision, hearing, olfaction, taste, and touch comprise the sensory modalities of most vertebrates. With these senses, the animal receives information about its environment. How this information is organized, interpreted, and experienced is known as perception. The study of the sensory abilities of animals and their implications for behavior is central not only to ethology but also to animal welfare. Sensory ability, perception, and behavior are closely linked. Horses and humans share the five most common sensory modalities, however, their ranges and capacities differ, so that horses are unlikely to perceive their surroundings in a similar manner to humans. Understanding equine perceptual abilities and their differences is important when horses and human interact, as these abilities are pivotal for the response of the horse to any changes in its surroundings. This review aims to provide an overview of the current knowledge on the sensory abilities of horses. The information is discussed within an evolutionary context and also includes a practical perspective, outlining potential ways to mitigate risks of injuries and enhance positive horse-human interactions. The equine sensory apparatus includes panoramic visual capacities with acuities similar to those of red-green color-blind humans as well as aural abilities that, in some respects exceed human hearing and a highly developed sense of smell, all of which influence how horses react in various situations. Equine sensitivity to touch has been studied surprisingly sparingly despite tactile stimulation being the major interface of horse training. We discuss the potential use of sensory enrichment/positive sensory stimulation to improve the welfare of horses in various situations e.g. using odors, touch or sound to enrich the environment or to appease horses. In addition, equine perception is affected by factors such as breed, individuality, age, and in some cases even color, emphasizing that different horses may need different types of management. Understanding the sensory abilities of horses is central to the emerging discipline of equitation science, which comprises the gamut of horse-human interactions. Therefore, sensory abilities continue to warrant scientific focus, with more research to enable us to understand different horses and their various needs.
The aim of the study was to determine the first reaction of the heart rate (HR) in horses to piping music of different genres into the stable for a short time. The study included 26 saddle horses, mares, stallions and geldings, split into three age groups: 1-5, 6-11 and over 11 years. Three kinds of music were played within three 25-minute tests conducted on three successive days, one test a day. The tests differed in the sequence of music genres: rock, country and relaxing music. The analysis considered the mean HR at rest and during the first two and three minutes of the whole sequence of the three music genres, as well as during particular genres: minimum and maximum HR, difference between maximum HR and HR at rest, as well as the time in which HR decreased from the maximum level to the level before music was played. The data were verified by T-Tukey’s test and by ANOVA (GLM) with regard to sex, age group and music test factors. The results show that music played at 80 dB caused a short HR elevation. The level of emotional excitability measured by HR was different for the three music genres. The relaxation music had the mildest effect, the country music acted more strongly, and the influence of the rock music was the strongest. This finding is based on the mean HR for the first two minutes of a music test, extreme HR, difference between maximum HR and HR at rest, as well as the time in which HR decreased from the maximum level to the level before music was played. Differences in reactions of the horses to music were related to their sex and, to a smaller degree, their age.
Introduction: This study was designed to investigate the effects of music in Wistar rats after sub-chronic treatment of simvastatin. Methods: The rats were orally administered with either simvastatin or saline (controls). After 4 weeks of drug treatment, the rats were selected for behavioral studies. The rats were exposed to music 24 hours before behavioral tests (Mozart's piano sonata, KV361, Largo). Results: The experiments suggest that exposure to chronic treatment with simvastatin (1 or 10 mg/kg/day) reduced anxiety levels in rats when associated with Mozart music in an elevated plus-maze. Discussion: These results indicate that music can serve as an effective adjuvant in rats treated with simvastatin, and that this species could potentially be used in other preclinical models utilizing musical interventions.
According to the “vocal learning and rhythmic synchronization hypothesis” (Patel, 2006), only species capable of complex vocal learning, such as humans and parrots, have the capacity to synchronize their movements to a musical beat. While empirical research to date on a few species (e.g., parrots and monkeys) has supported this hypothesis, many species remain to be examined. Domestic horses are particularly important to study, as they are vocal non-learners who are occasionally reported to move in synchrony with a musical beat, based on informal observations. If these reports are substantiated by scientific experiments, this would refute the vocal learning hypothesis and provide a new species for the comparative study of musical rhythm. Here we present a new method for testing whether horses can synchronize their trotting to a musical beat, including an illustration of data analysis based on data collected from one horse.
The aim of the study was to determine the effect of music featured in the barn, on the emotional state of racehorses. Seventy 3 yr-old Purebred Arabian horses in their first race season were divided into experimental group of 40 horses and control group of 30 horses, and placed in separate barns. The experimental group was subject to specifically composed music featured in the barn for five hours in the afternoon during the whole study. The emotional state in the horses was assessed at rest, saddling and warm-up walk under rider. Measurements were taken six times, every 30-35 days, starting from the beginning of featuring the music. The horse’s emotional state was assessed by cardiac activity variables. The music effect on the emotional state was also considered with regard to the horse’s performance estimated by race records. The cardiac activity variables were compared with repeated measures design, whereas race records were analyzed with ANOVA GLM. The music positively affected the emotional state in race horses. The influence was noticeable already after first month of featuring the music and increased in the second and third months. Despite the fact that later, the variables began to return to initial levels, a positive effect of the music on prizes won by the horses in the experimental group compared to the control group, was found (p<0.05). The results suggest that the music may be featured in the barn, preferably for two to three months as a means of improving the welfare of race horses.
Many studies have attempted to use music to influence the behavior of nonhuman animals; however, these studies have often led to conflicting outcomes. We have developed a theoretical framework that hypothesizes that in order for music to be effective with other species, it must be in the frequency range and with similar tempos to those used in natural communication by each species. We have used this framework to compose music that is species-appropriate for a few animal species. In this paper we created species-appropriate music for domestic cats and tested this music in comparison with music with similar affective content composed for humans. We presented two examples of cat music in counter-balanced order with two examples of human music and evaluated the behavior and response latencies of cats to each piece. Cats showed a significant preference for and interest in species-appropriate music compared with human music (Median (IQR) 1.5 (0.5-2.0) acts for cat music, 0.25 (0.0-0.5) acts for human music, P <0.002) and responded with significantly shorter latencies (Median (IQR) 110.0 (54-138.75) s for cat music, 171.75 (151-180) s for human music (P< 0.001). Younger and older cats were more responsive to cat music than middle-aged acts (cubic trend, r2 = 0.477, P < 0.001). The results suggest novel and more appropriate ways for using music as auditory enrichment for nonhuman animals.
Domestic dogs can be housed in a variety of confined conditions, including kennels, shelters and laboratories. Concern over the well-being of dogs housed in human care has prompted much research in recent years into the enrichment of environments for kennelled dogs. This paper highlights the findings and recommendations arising from this work. Two types of general enrichment method are discussed, namely animate (i.e. enrichment through the provision of social contacts with conspecifics and humans) and inanimate (i.e. enrichment through the provision of toys, cage furniture, auditory and olfactory stimulation). The benefits and, where relevant, possible disadvantages, to these various types of enrichment method are highlighted throughout.
This study explored the influence of five types of auditory stimulation (human conversation, classical music, heavy metal music, pop music, and a control) on the behaviour of 50 dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each type of auditory stimulation for 4 h, with an intervening period of one day between conditions. The dogs' position in their kennels (front, back), their activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and their vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over 4 h at 10 min intervals during each condition of auditory stimulation. The dogs' activity and vocalisation were significantly related to auditory stimulation. Dogs spent more time resting and less time standing when classical music was played than when any of the other stimuli were played. Exposure to heavy metal music encouraged dogs to spend significantly more of their time barking than did other types of auditory stimulation. Classical music resulted in dogs spending significantly more of their time quiet than did other types of auditory stimulation. It is suggested that the welfare of sheltered dogs may be enhanced through exposure to appropriate forms of auditory stimulation. Classical music appears particularly beneficial, resulting in activities suggestive of relaxation and behaviours that are considered desirable by potential buyers. This form of music may also appeal to visitors, resulting in enhanced perceptions of the rescue shelter's environment and an increased desire to adopt a dog from such a source.
This study explored the effect of auditory stimulation on the behavior and welfare of four zoo-housed, female Asian elephants (
Elephas maximus). All animals were exposed, in an ABA design, to two conditions of auditory stimulation: a 'control' (no auditory stimulation), and an 'experimental' condition, during which the animals were presented with a commercially-available CD of classical music. Each condition lasted for five days, with an interim period of two days between each condition (Study 1). The elephants' behavior was recorded every minute for four hours a day for the full five days of each condition using instantaneous scan-sampling. The procedure was repeated four months later (Study 2), for a shorter period of time (one day per condition, again using an ABA design) to assess whether the results are generalizable. Analysis of both studies revealed that the elephants spent significantly less of their time stereotyping during the experimental conditions than the control. None of the other behaviors recorded were influenced significantly by auditory stimulation. Overall, the findings from this study suggest that auditory stimulation, in the form of classical music, may be a useful method of reducing stereotypic behavior in zoo-housed Asian elephants, although more long-term work with a larger number of animals is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The past 50 years have seen numerous claims that music exposure enhances human cognitive performance. Critical evaluation of studies across a variety of contexts, however, reveals important methodological weaknesses. The current article argues that an interdisciplinary approach is required to advance this research. A case is made for the use of appropriate animal models to avoid many confounds associated with human music research. Although such research has validity limitations for humans, reductionist methodology enables a more controlled exploration of music's elementary effects. This article also explores candidate mechanisms for this putative effect. A review of neurobiological evidence from human and comparative animal studies confirms that musical stimuli modify autonomic and neurochemical arousal indices, and may also modify synaptic plasticity. It is proposed that understanding how music affects animals provides a valuable conjunct to human research and may be vital in uncovering how music might be used to enhance cognitive performance.
Is music just noise, and thus potentially harmful to laboratory animals, or can it have a beneficial effect? Research addressing this question has generated mixed results, perhaps because of the different types and styles of music used across various studies. The purpose of this study was to test the effects of 2 different types (vocal versus instrumental) and 2 genres (classical vocal versus 'easy-listening' vocal) of music on social behavior in 31 female and 26 male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Results indicated that instrumental music was more effective at increasing affiliative behavior in both male and female chimpanzees, whereas vocal music was more effective at decreasing agonistic behavior. A comparison of 2 genre of vocal music indicated that easy-listening (slower tempo) vocal music was more effective at decreasing agonistic behavior in male chimpanzees than classical (faster tempo) vocal music. Agonistic behavior in females remained low (<0.5%) throughout the study and was unaffected by music. These results indicate that, like humans, captive chimpanzees react differently to various types and genres of music. The reactions varied depending on both the sex of the subject and the type of social behavior examined. Management programs should consider both type and genre when implementing a musical enrichment program for nonhuman primates.
The objectives of this study were to evaluate and compare endocrine profiles in fertile, sub-fertile, and infertile stallions and to assess differential endocrine responses to hCG administration. Fourteen stallions were allotted to one of three groups on the basis of their 3-wk semen evaluation and conception rates. Fertile stallions were characterized as having normal seminal parameters and a ≥ 75% conception rate. Subfertile stallions were characterized as having low motility, abnormal morphology, and a ≤ 10% conception rate. Infertile stallions were characterized as having low motility, abnormal morphology, low sperm concentrations, and a 0% conception rate. Seven fertile, four subfertile, and three infertile stallions were treated once with sterile saline and then with 10,000 IU of hCG 14 days later. Blood samples were collected periodically before and after treatment and analyzed for LH, FSH, inhibin, estrogen conjugates -(EC), estradiol-17β (E2), and testosterone (T) by RIA. Mean basal plasma concentrations of LH, FSH, inhibin, and E2 were similar between the fertile and subfertile groups, but LH and FSH values were higher (p < 0.05) and inhibin and E2 values were lower (p < 0.05) in the infertile group. Plasma T concentrations were similar between all three groups. The infertile group had a poor T response (p < 0.05) to hCG compared to the fertile and subfertile groups. An hCG by group interaction was not observed among the other hormones. In conclusion, routine measurement of baseline concentrations of LH, FSH, E2, and inhibin along with an hCG stimulation test could provide valuable information for identification of area(s) of endocrine dysfunction and indicate the type of endocrine therapy possible in stallions with poor fertility. While low basal plasma concentrations of gonadotropins may reflect a dysfunctional hypothalamic-pituitary condition that may respond to GnRH therapy, a poor steroid response to hCG could reflect a dysfunctional testicular condition that may respond to steroid replacement therapy.
Combined effects of music, environmental enrichment, and filial imprinting were tested on meat strain chicks (broilers) from
1 to 7 days old (Study I) or from one to 8 wk old (Study II). In six experiments conducted in two separate studies, chicks
were exposed to a blue plastic box (30 × 30 × 38 cm) containing speakers from which red gloves were hung at the chicks’ eye
level. Classical music was provided intermittently (1 h on/1 h off) from speakers located in the boxes. Approach response,
feeding behavior, fear behavior, body weight, feed:gain ratio, and mortality were evaluated.
Approach response tests (Study I) demonstrated that attachment to the imprinting enrichment and music (IEM) object was greater
among treated chicks, whereas fear response tests indicated that IEM-treated chicks were also less fearful. Evaluation of
feeding behavior (Study II) indicated that IEM chickens fed significantly more often than controls, particularly when the
music was activated.
Feed:gain ratios of the IEM-treated chicks in Study I were significantly improved (1.48 vs. 1.58) compared with those of controls for three of the four experiments. The exception occurred in Experiment 3, when chicks
were exposed to heat stress, and nonsignificant differences for feed:gain ratios were observed. Body weight and mortality
differences were not observed. Results of Study II, however, demonstrated significant influences of imprinting, enrichment,
and music on body weight at 8 wk of age (2.63 vs. 2.57 kg), whereas differences in feed conversion and mortality were not significant.
Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature. These methods differ considerably in their suitability for providing unbiased data of various kinds. Below is a summary of the major recommended uses of each technique: In this paper, I have tried to point out the major strengths and weaknesses of each sampling method. Some methods are intrinsically biased with respect to many variables, others to fewer. In choosing a sampling method the main question is whether the procedure results in a biased sample of the variables under study. A method can produce a biased sample directly, as a result of intrinsic bias with respect to a study variable, or secondarily due to some degree of dependence (correlation) between the study variable and a directly-biased variable. In order to choose a sampling technique, the observer needs to consider carefully the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions at hand. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under the circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible, in particular those that direcly affect the variables under study. Finally, it will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. For example, we have found it possible to take Instantaneous Samples of the identities and distances of nearest neighbors of a focal individual at five or ten minute intervals during Focal-Animal (behavior) Samples on that individual. Often during Focal-Animal Sampling one can also record All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, for the whole social group, for categories of conspicuous behavior, such as predation, intergroup contact, drinking, and so on. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence, the observational conditions, etc. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can greatly aid in the efficient use of research time.
The main objective of this experiment was to assess the effect of music on the voluntary approach of cows to an automatic milking system (AMS). A group of 19 mid- and late-lactating Holstein cows with 2 months prior experience of twice-daily milking in the AMS was used in this study. The cows were housed in a free stall barn with slatted floors and fed a complete mixed ration using an indoor feed bunk. They were also offered 1.5 kg per cow of grain pellets in the AMS during milking. Music was played during the milking period for 69 days prior to observation with amplifiers located within the milking compartments, approximately 1.2 m above the head of the milking cows and also on the long side of the barn. The sounds were activated at the start of each milking period and terminated after the last milking cow left the AMS. Behavioural observations were carried out during the afternoon milking for 20 days randomly fluctuating between days with music and days without music. The number of cows in the holding area was instantaneously recorded at 5 min before and 5 min after the onset of the milking period. On days with music, the number of cows in the holding area increased from 22.3 ± 15.1% to 45.0 ± 18.0% (P < 0.01). On control days without music, this difference was less pronounced, increasing from 27.1 ± 13.7% to 35.1 ± 15.4% (P = 0.150). Changes in the composition of behavioural states from 5 min before to 5 min after the onset of the milking period were significant on days with music (P < 0.001) but not on control days (P = 0.412). The results show a stimulatory effect of music, influencing behavioural readiness of cows to access the milking compartments of the AMS.
Thirty-six mares, blocked by age and temperament score, were assigned to one of three treatment groups: pasture (P); confinement stalls (C), allowing social contact; isolation stalls (ISS), allowing no contact with conspecifics. After 48 h on treatment, the mares were observed in situ for 1 h. Medium temperament and highly reactive ISS mares spent more time eating grain (P<0.01) and exhibited more grain-eating bouts (P<0.03) than P and C mares. Calm P mares had longer forage-eating bouts than C and ISS mares (P<0.02). During a 15 min open-field test in a 23 m × 23 m pen after 72 h on treatment, ISS mares traveled farther (P<0.005) than C and P mares, spent more total time trotting (P<0.01) than C and P mares, and exhibited a greater number of trotting bouts (P<0.01) than both C and P mares. Isolated mares spent less total time standing during the open-field test than C (P<0.05) and P (P<0.01) mares, but exhibited a greater number of standing bouts than C (P<0.05) and P (P<0.01) mares. Isolated mares also exhibited a greater number of total activity bouts (P<0.01) during the open-field test than both C and P mares; P mares also exhibited fewer activity bouts than C mares (P<0.1). Results indicate that mares kept in confined and isolated environments showed greater motivation for movement and performance of a greater number of activities than those maintained on pasture with conspecifics.
Thirty-six pastured mares, blocked by age and temperament, were assigned to one of three housing treatment groups: pasture (P); confinement stalls (C), allowing social contact; and isolation stalls (ISS), allowing no contact with conspecif- ics. Forty-eight hours post-placement on treatment, the mares were injected intmdermally with a solution of.1 mg phytohe- magglutinin-P (PHA) in .1 ml saline in one side of the neck. After 65 h on treatment, each mare was fitted with a jugular cannula from which a blood sample was drawn and analyzed for plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones and cortisol, complete blood cell counts, and differential leukocyte counts. Blood hemoglobin was elevated for ISS mares, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin content (MCHC) was depressed for ISS mares. Interactions (P<.001) indicated that older and younger, but not middle aged, as well as calm ISS mares had depressed mean corpuscular hemoglobin content. No differences were found (P>.10) in leukocyte counts, but trends were evident. The dermal response to PHA had a treatment by age interaction (P<.02) with older mares on treatment C and ISS having a higher response than P mares. After 1 h, a second blood sample was drawn and 1.02 IU ACTH/kg.75 was administered via the jugular cannula. Plasma cortisol concentrations from blood samples drawn 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120,150, 180, and 210 min post ACTH administration were then integrated to determine adrenal function (AF). No differences in AF were found (P<.52). No differences were seen for concentrations of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), although for C and ISS mares the concentrations of these hormones were higher than the normal values reported in the literature. Concentrations of 3, 3, 5'triiodothyronine (rT3) were higher in ISS mares than in C and P mares. Physiological data suggest that C and ISS mares exhibited evidence of a mild stress reaction with increasing c0nfmement and isolation.
To study the effect of music on state anxiety levels in patients undergoing flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy (FFB).
Randomized clinical trial using pretests, posttests, and two groups.
Pulmonary special-procedures unit of a tertiary-care referral center.
Sixty adult patients: 30 patients received music during bronchoscopy and 30 control subjects received no music.
The study population had baseline state anxiety levels similar to those previously reported in surgical patients (42.6 +/- 13 vs 42.7 +/- 14; p value, not significant [NS]) and higher than those reported in normal working adults (42.6 +/- 13 vs 34.4 +/- 10; p < 0.001). Experimental and control groups were similar in patient and procedure-related characteristics and baseline pre-FFB state and trait anxiety scores. Although trait anxiety scores decreased significantly after the procedure (pooled post-FFB scores of 32.6 +/- 10 vs pre-FFB scores of 35.5 +/- 11; p < 0.001), no reductions were noted in state anxiety (pooled post-FFB scores of 42.8 +/- 13 vs pre-FFB scores of 42.6 +/- 13; p value, NS). More importantly, playing music through headphones during FFB did not result in a statistically or clinically significant reduction in either state or trait anxiety when compared to control subjects.
Relaxation music administered through headphones to patients during flexible bronchoscopy does not decrease procedure-related state anxiety.
- Cennamoar Albrightjl
- E W Wisniewski
AlbrightJL, CennamoAR,Wisniewski
EW: Animal behavior considerations. Proceedings of the National Conference on
Milking Center Design. Cornell University,
Ithaca, NY, Northeast Regional Agricultural
Engineering Service, 1992, pp 114-123.
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Continuedfrom page 732
stallions. J Reprod 1995;Mono 1:547-564.
Animal behavior considerations
- Albright