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Heat flow through the sea bottom around Yucatan Peninsula
Abstract
Heat flow studies were conducted in January-February 1987, off the Atlantic Coast the R/V Akademik Nikolai Strakhov. Two areas were surveyed, one transecting the Salt Dome Province and the Campeche Canyon, in the Gulf of Mexico, and the other on the eastern flank of the Yucantan Peninsula. Conductive heat flow through the bottom sediments was determined as the product of vertical temperature gradient and in situ thermal conductivity, measured with a thermal probe using a multithermistor arry and real-time processing capabilities. Forward two-dimensional modeling allows us to estimate heat flow variations at both sites from local disturbances and to obtain average heat flow vlaues of 51 mW/m2 for the transect within the Gulf of Mexico and 38 and 69 mW/m2 for two basins within the Yucatan area. Sea bottom relief has a predominant effect over other environmental factors in the scatter of heat flow determination in the Gulf of Mexico.
Supplementary resource (1)
Data
January 1989
... Geothermal measurements in sediments of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico (Epp et al. 1970;Khutorskoy et al. 1990) yielded surface conductive heat flow values mainly between 20 and 50 mW/m 2 . These values were determined from measured thermal gradients and in situ conductivities of sediments within the first 10 and 2.5 meters, respectively. ...
... These values were determined from measured thermal gradients and in situ conductivities of sediments within the first 10 and 2.5 meters, respectively. Khutorskoy et al. (1990) concluded from their measurements and model calculations that the sea bottom relief had a predominant effect over other factors in the observed scatter of heat flow determinations in the Gulf of Mexico. No measurements were made on the Campeche Bank, a platform shelf with water depths between 100 and 200 m that extends to the west of the Yucatán peninsula. ...
Abstract— Within the frame of the International Continental Deep Drilling Program (ICDP) and as a part of the Chicxulub Scientific Drilling Project (CSDP), high resolution temperature measurements were performed in the borehole Yaxcopoil-1 (Yax-1). The temperature was logged to the depth of 858 m seven times between March 6–19, 2002, starting 10 days after the hole was shut in and mud circulation ceased. Successive logs revealed only small temperature variations in time and space, indicating a fast temperature recovery to almost undisturbed conditions prior to the first log. From these logs, a mean temperature gradient of ∼37 mK/m was determined below the uppermost 250 m. Another temperature log was recorded on May 24, 2003 (15 months after the shut in) to a depth of 895 m. The obtained temperature profile is very similar to the 2002 profile, with an insignificantly higher mean gradient below 250 m that may indicate a long-term return to the pre-drilling temperature. The temperature in the uppermost part of the hole bears signs of considerable influence of a convective contribution to the vertical thermal heat transfer. The depth extent of the convection seems to have deepened from 150 m in March 2002 to 230 m in May 2003. Based on the observed temperature gradient and the rock types encountered in the borehole above 670 m, the conducted heat flow is expected to be in the range 65–80 mW/m2.
... Database Figure 1 presents the locations of sites that comprise the new heat flow database created from the TBT and BHT records from 3,888 drilled deep boreholes. Also, 1107 published offshore sites (inside the exclusive economic zone) are included in Figure 1 to visualize their distribution and covered areas (e.g., Von Herzen 1963, 1964Epp et al., 1970;Erickson et al., 1972;Henyey & Bischoff, 1973;Lawver et al., 1973Lawver et al., , 1975Lee & Henyey, 1975;Williams et al., 1979;Becker, 1981;Lonsdale & Becker, 1985;Prol-Ledesma et al., 1989;Khutorskoy et al., 1990;Becker & Fisher, 1991;Sanchez-Zamora et al., 1991, 2013, 2021Nagihara et al., 1996;Fisher et al., 2001;Blackwell & Richards, 2004;Rosales Rodríguez, 2007;Espinoza-Ojeda et al., 2017a;Neumann et al., 2017;Negrete-Aranda et al., 2022;Peñ a-Domínguez et al., 2022). The new database includes TBT and BHT measurements from 14 geothermal and 3857 petroleum boreholes, 17 of which are offshore; see Figure 2 for an illustration of the T-z (temperaturedepth) logs of geothermal and petroleum boreholes used in this study. ...
Conductive heat flow is an important parameter that is used to explain, directly or indirectly, several geological, geophysical and geochemical processes in the Earth´s interior. It is also one of the main input parameters for reliable estimations of resources related with geothermal and petroleum systems. That is because heat flow is used to describe subsurface temperature profiles and heat transfer mechanisms, thereby enabling the establishment of heat storage reserves in the case of geothermal systems and conditions of thermal maturation of organic matter in petroleum genesis. Since 2014, collection of data to estimate new continental conductive heat flow values in México has been an exhaustive scientific task. As a result, data from 4159 sites have been compiled, mostly from deep geothermal and petroleum boreholes. In this context, only 3,888 new geothermal gradient data were compiled and used to estimate new heat flow values. These new values complement the 702 continental heat flow values compiled and published between 1974 and 2021. Traditionally, all efforts to measure geothermal gradient in México have focused on the five high enthalpy geothermal fields under exploitation. Therefore, this continuous updating of the continental heat flow database would be an excellent input for Geothermal Play Fairway Analysis, enabling to define areas at a regional level with thermal anomalies and discovering new prospects, resulting in better knowledge of Mexican geothermal resources. Finally, the obtained data will help interested private and public entities to improve the geothermal exploration techniques in collaboration with academic institutions. Moreover, the scientific community interested in Earth science studies will benefit from this information with application to diverse research that involves the thermal evolution of the crust.
... with different thicknesses (Figure 6a, Mauffret & Leroy, 1997). In the Yucatan basin, the Colombian basin, the Beata ridge and the Venezuelan basin, the average heat-flow is low 40-60 mW/m 2 (Bookman et al., 1972(Bookman et al., , 1973Epp et al., 1970;Erickson et al., 1972;Khutorskoy et al., 1990;Langseth et al., 1971). Oceanic crust in the Cayman Trough is of different age from the CLIP domain and results from post-49 Ma ultra-slow spreading (Hayman et al., 2011;Leroy, Mauffret, Patriat, & Mercier de Lépinay, 2000). ...
Heat‐flow in the Caribbean is poorly known and generally low in the major basins and the Greater Antilles arc, but with some high values in active zones, like in the Cayman trough or in the Lesser Antilles Arc. Here we present new heat‐flow data for offshore Haiti, which is part of the Greater Antilles arc. We obtain new heat‐flow estimates from in situ measurements and Bottom Simulating Reflector (BSR). Both methods suggest a regionally low heat‐flow, respectively 46±7 mWm‐2 and 44±12 mWm‐2, with locally high values exceeding 80 mWm‐2. The high heat‐flow values are generally located near faults, and could be related to fluid circulations. Our study confirms a low heat‐flow pattern at the scale of the Caribbean but points out the existence of local‐scale variability with high heat‐flow along the northern faults of the Caribbean region.
... At the beginning of the XXI century, the heat flow measurements reported in the continental part of Mexico (Smith, 1974;Smith et al., 1979;Reiter & Tovar, 1982;Ziagos et al., 1985;Flores-Márquez et al., 1999) were more scarce than those in the ocean bottom, where more than 700 heat flow measurements were published (Becker & Fisher, 1991;Epp et al., 1970;Fisher et al., 2001;Khutorskoy et al., 1990;Lawver & Williams, 1979;Nagihara et al., 1996;Prol-Ledesma et al., 1989;Vacquier et al., 1967;Von Herzen,1963;Von Herzen & Uyeda,1963). However, since the creation of the Mexican Center for Innovation in Geothermal Energy (CeMIE-Geo), a great effort has been made to compile and produce more heat flow data and construct a reliable heat flow map to assist the evaluation of the geothermal potential of the country (Espinoza-Ojeda et al., 2017 a,b;Neumann et al., 2017;Prol-Ledesma et al., 2013;Prol-Ledesma et al., 2016;Prol-Ledesma, 2018). ...
Heat flow maps are a powerful tool for regional exploration of geothermal resources. Mexico is one of the main producers of geothermal energy and the search for undiscovered resources at a regional level should be based on heat flow values. Here, we present a heat flow map at 1:3,500,000 scale, produced with heat flow data compiled from open data bases and previously unpublished data. The compiled heat flow data includes bottom hole temperature, temperature logs, transient temperature measurements and measured temperature logs. The new data were calculated from temperature gradient information and estimating a mean conductivity value characteristic for the type of rock present in the stratigraphic column or assigning the mean conductivity value for the crust. Geothermal gradient and the thermal resistivity (inverse thermal conductivity) were plotted and heat flow was calculated using the Bullard method. The map covers the whole continental territory of Mexico and shows that most of the country has values higher than the world average. The highest heat flow values are concentrated in two provinces: the Gulf of California extensional province and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Los mapas de flujo de calor son una poderosa herramienta en la exploración regional de recursos geotérmicos. México es uno de los principales productores de energía geotérmica y la búsqueda a nivel regional para descubrir nuevos recursos debería estar basada en los datos de flujo de calor. Aquí presentamos el mapa de flujo de calor a escala 1:3,500,000, que fue generado a partir de datos de flujo de calor compilados en bases de datos públicas, a los cuales se añadieron nuevos datos calculados por los autores. Los datos compilados para el cálculo del mapa de flujo de calor incluyen: temperatura de fondo de pozo (BHT), registros de temperatura en pozos (compilados y medidos en este trabajo), mediciones transientes de temperatura. Los datos que no han sido reportados pre-viamente fueron calculados a partir de la determinación del gradiente de temperatura y la estimación de la conductividad térmica promedio para los tipos de roca reportados en la columna estratigráfica, o bien, en ausencia de la información acerca del tipo de roca, se asignó el valor promedio de la conductividad para la corteza. El gradiente geotérmico y la resistividad térmica (el inverso de la conductividad térmica) se graficaron para determinar el flujo de calor con el método de Bullard. El mapa cubre todo el territorio continental mexicano y muestra que en la mayor parte los valores de flujo de calor están por encima del flujo de calor promedio a nivel mundial. Los valores más altos de flujo de calor se concentran en la provincia extensional del Golfo de California y en la Faja Volcánica Trans-Mexicana.
... At the beginning of the XXI century, the heat flow measurements reported in the continental part of Mexico (Smith, 1974;Smith et al., 1979;Reiter & Tovar, 1982;Ziagos et al., 1985;Flores-Márquez et al., 1999) were more scarce than those in the ocean bottom, where more than 700 heat flow measurements were published (Becker & Fisher, 1991;Epp et al., 1970;Fisher et al., 2001;Khutorskoy et al., 1990;Lawver & Williams, 1979;Nagihara et al., 1996;Prol-Ledesma et al., 1989;Vacquier et al., 1967;Von Herzen,1963;Von Herzen & Uyeda,1963). However, since the creation of the Mexican Center for Innovation in Geothermal Energy (CeMIE-Geo), a great effort has been made to compile and produce more heat flow data and construct a reliable heat flow map to assist the evaluation of the geothermal potential of the country (Espinoza-Ojeda et al., 2017 a,b;Neumann et al., 2017;Prol-Ledesma et al., 2013;Prol-Ledesma et al., 2016;Prol-Ledesma, 2018). ...
Heat flow maps are a powerful tool for regional exploration of geothermal resources. Mexico is one of the main producers ofgeothermal energy and the search for undiscovered resources at a regional level should be based on heat flow values. Here, we present a heat flow map at 1:4,000,000 scale, produced with heat flow data compiled from open data bases and previously unpub-lished data. The compiled heat flow data includes bottom hole temperature, temperature logs, transient temperature measurements and measured temperature logs. The new data were calculated from temperature gradient information and estimating a mean con-ductivity value characteristic for the type of rock present in the stratigraphic column or assigning the mean conductivity value for the crust. Geothermal gradient and the thermal resistivity (inverse thermal conductivity) were plotted and heat flow was calculatedusing the Bullard method. The map covers the whole continental territory of Mexico and shows that most of the country has valueshigher than the world average. The highest heat flow values are concentrated in two provinces: the Gulf of California extensionalprovince and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.
... Heat flow values along the trans-Barents geotraverse were measured on the shelf or relatively shallow abyssal plains. The experience of such measurements [19,22,23] suggests that the exogenic distortions of heat flow may take place in up to 1-1.2 km of seawater or even deeper if bottom currents are present. The effect of exogenic factors can be detected indirectly from the extremely high dispersion of the observed heat flow values, from zero to 594 mW/m 2 . ...
The geologic and economic significance of West Arctic seas is due to giant oil and gas resources in offshore sedimentary basins and is likely to increase with the development of the already known HC fields and the discovery of new. The lack of investment into costly offshore seismic surveys raises the practicability of the relatively cheap methods of indirect petroleum potential estimation based on available geologic and geophysical data. One such method is the thermal tomography of the crust based on three-dimensional geothermal modeling. Three-dimensional (volumetric) temperature and heat flow distribution modeling enables researchers to examine geothermal maps for various depth slices and thereby determine the depth to the oil window, that is, to predict possible depths and locations of the existing oil fields. Offshore geothermal surveys on the shelf of the Eur-asian basin of the Arctic Ocean began in the 1970s with measurements made by PTG-3M immersible probes in the Barents Sea [7]. These measurements were made on the shelf in seawater at depths of up to 300 m with a one-channel probe immersed in sediments to a depth of two meters at the most. As expected, the data obtained demonstrated a strong influence of exogenic thermal fields upon the interior heat flow intensity, in particular, seasonal seafloor temperature variations depending on insulation and rapid bottom currents bringing water masses with contrasting (relative to local background) temperatures. This factor was particularly obvious in the southern sector of the sea within the scope of the warm Nordkapp stream. As a result, conditional background heat flow values could not be obtained from probe measurements, because the latter varied over a fairly wide range, from 0 to more than 500 mW/m 2 , and † Deceased.
The main objective of this study is to report an update of the surface heat flow database of México. To our knowledge, this work is the first data compilation that integrates existing published and unpublished measurements to create a new heat flow map using a variety of data sources from 108 sites (transient borehole temperatures and temperature-depth profiles). Heat flow measurements in México are still relatively sparse. Updates of heat flow and geological data is required for a better understanding of the thermal regime of México, an accurate characterization of heat flow provinces, and to create a consistent geothermal map.
Geothermal features along the Trans-Barents geotraverse are analyzed. The lithosphere paleotemperatures are calculated in terms of the nonsteady-state modeling of the thermal regime from the Late Paleozoic to the recent time. The estimates obtained for deep-seated heat flow agree with few deep-hole measurements made on the sea bottom and islands. The possible depths of hydrocarbon occurrence in the sedimentary cover are estimated. The present deep-seated heat flow is shown to be stationary, and the factors, which cause the observed sharp heat-flow anomalies of an exogenic nature are analyzed.
The formation temperature below the sea or lake floor is frequently
measured with a sensor probe that is inserted into the unconsolidated
sediment, and the thermal conductivity of sediment is measured in situ
with an independent heating experiment. Friction during the insertion
raises the temperature of a probe. This paper presents the method and
the test results of using the cooling history of friction-heated probes
for the determination of equilibrium formation temperature and thermal
conductivity. The inverse modelling (IM) for the desired parameters is
formulated together with the finite-element simulation of the cooling
history. The starting parameter values for IM are generated with a
genetic algorithm (GA) that searches for them in the likely parameter
ranges. The IM is constrained in an objective function by a commonly
used asymptotic relation between the declining temperature and the
inverse time. In addition to satisfying the root-mean-square misfit, the
results are assessed by the equality between the model conductivity and
the conductivity obtained through the asymptotic relation and by how
well the models can predict the cooling behaviour at time beyond the
record period for IM. The results of testing synthetic data with random
noise up to +/-0.005 K and twenty 8-11 min long data sets from four
sites in Lake Baikal indicate that the desired parameters can be
determined from the first 2.5 min of the cooling records. By comparison
with independent measurements or through repeated GA-IM, equilibrium
temperatures can be consistently determined to within 0.002 K and
thermal properties typically to +/-5 per cent. The method has also been
successfully applied to seven sets of 5 min long data sets at one marine
heat flow station.
There comes a time in the affairs of every organization when we have to sit down and take stock of where we are and where we want to go. When the International Heat Flow Committee (as it was first called), IHFC, was formed in 1963 at the San Francisco International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics with Francis Birch as its first Chairman, the principal purpose was to stimulate work in the basic aspects of geothermics, particularly the measurement of terrestrial heat-flow density (HFD) in what were then the 'geothermally underdeveloped' areas of the world. In this, the IHFC was remarkably successful. By the beginning of the second decade of our existence, interest in the economic aspects of geothermics was increasing at a rapid pace and the IHFC served as a conduit for all aspects of geothermics and, moreover, became the group responsi ble for collecting data on all types of HFD measurements. In all the tasks that are undertaken, the IHFC relies on the enthusiasm of its members and colleagues who devote much of their time to the important but unglamorous and personally unrewarding tasks that were asked of them, and we arc fortunate that our parent institutions are usually quite tolerant of the time spent by their employees on IHFC work.
The results of 30 seismic refraction profiles are presented in five seismic sections in the Caribbean Sea. Particular attention was given to areas of complex structure such as Tobago Island, Aves Swell, Netherlands West Indies, Los Roques and Bonaire Trenches, Curacao Ridge, Beata Ridge, Nicaragua Rise, and Cayman Trough. Previous surveys have established that the Colombia and Venezuela Basins crustal structures consist of a 6.1 km/sec layer over a 7.2 km/sec layer, which is underlain by a mantle of normal velocity, 8.1 km/sec. This survey demonstrated that the Nicaragua Rise and Beata Ridge have a 5.4 km/sec layer overlying a 6.7 km/sec layer. Only the upper crustal layer was recorded beneath the Aves Swell and it has a velocity of 6.0 km/sec, similar to that of the basi s. The Curacao Ridge overlies a sediment-filled trough that contains up to 14.5 km of low- and high-velocity sediments and rock. The Netherlands West Indies are underlain by material having a velocity of about 5.5 km/sec. Large accumulations of sediments surround the islands. An average nonturbidite basin sedimentary sequence includes velocities of 1.9, 2.7, and 3.9 km/sec. The reflection profiler shows two acoustically transparent beds in the Venezuela and Colombia Basins (1.9 and 2.7 km/sec layers), separated by a strong reflector representing approximately the Mesozoic-Cenozoic boundary. The surface of the layer underlying the transparent beds is a smooth coherent reflector suggestive of a sedimentary horizon. It is postulated that the Caribbean is a relict of Mesozoic Pacific crust that was emplaced between North and South America during separation from Europe and Africa. The interaction of the Caribbean plate with the circum-Caribbean lands resulted in the formation of geosynclines. The Caribbean plate subsequently has decoupled from the parent Pacific spreading system and is protected from being assimilated into the mantle by the presence of crustal sinks on both the east and west margins.
The Veracruz Tongue is a region of continental slope and rise sediments bounded bathymetrically by the Mexican Ridges fold belt to the west and the Campeche Knolls salt province to the east. Study of two multichannel seismic lines and single-fold sparker data enables five post-early Miocene seismic stratigraphic sequences to be distinguished in the tongue. Sedimentary processes responsible for deposition of each sequence are inferred on the basis of external geometry, internal reflection configuration, and, where possible, core data. The five sequences are each interpreted to consist of turbidites grading laterally into hemipelagites. These primary deposits may be modified later by downslope creep or sliding and slumping. Because bathymetry is a major control on location of turbidity-current flows, slides, and slumps, the depositional history of the Veracruz Tongue provides indirect evidence of tectonic evolution of the Mexican Ridges fold belt and the Campeche Knolls salt province. Salt domes first formed a barrier to turbidity-current flow from the east at the close of the middle Miocene. The Mexican Ridges fold belt evolved gradually until it formed a complete barrier to turbidity-current flow from the west at the close of the Pliocene. As a result of shift in direction of turbidity-current flow through time, potentially "sand-prone" Miocene turbidites are overlain by hemipelagic clays and clayey oozes--a situation favorable to hydrocarbon entrapment.
Based on extensive seismic profiling it is postulated that the Caribbean is a relict of Mesozoic Pacific crust that was emplaced between North and South America during separation from Europe and Africa. The interaction of the Caribbean plate with the circumCaribbean lands resulted in the formation of geosynclines. The Caribbean plate subsequently has decoupled from the parent Pacific spreading system and is protected from being assimilated into the mantle by the presence of crustal sinks on both the east and west margins.
The eastern margins of the Gulf of Mexico are areas of carbonate buildup. They are represented by the south Florida and Yucatan platforms which are similar in respect to topography, sediment type, seismic velocities, depth to equivalent age horizons, and bordering buried reefs. The existence of the Lower Cretaceous reefs is of particular importance as they have been the major factor in controlling the sedimentary history during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. The areal extent of the Lower Cretaceous reef is best known on the Florida Platform but its existence on the edge of the Yucatan Platform suggests the possibility of a Lower Cretaceous reef complex that nearly encircles the Gulf. In this case these buried offshore reefs would be part of a system including the Golden Lane (Faja de Oro) of eastern Mexico and the well known oil producing Lower Cretaceous reef trends of Texas and Louisiana. Reef material recovered from topographic highs in the Straits of Florida suggests that the bordering reefs of the west Florida Platform continue to northern Cuba.
Presents a method of estimating subsurface temperatures and true regional heat flow in the presence of perturbing topography, variable surface temperature, and subsurface thermal conductivity contrasts. The method involves solution of the steady-state 3-D heat conduction equation by finite-difference numerical techniques. The method is used to reduce data obtained at 15 heat flow sites in the Bolivian and Peruvian Andes. Illustrates with 3 examples-a 2-D model from the Bolivar Mine, Bolivia; 2) a 3-D model using variable conductivity from the Cerro Verde Mine, Peru; and 3) a 3-D model at the Colquiri Mine, Bolivia where temperature measurements were few and the distance between the individual boreholes was fairly large.-from Authors
The transient heating of a needle probe is used to measure the thermal conductivity of deep-sea sediments in 10 minutes or less. An accuracy of 3 to 4 per cent compares favorably with steady-state methods, and measurements by both methods on the same sediments show good agreement. Thermal diffusivity of deep-sea sediments is shown to be proportional to thermal conductivity, in agreement with theoretical expectations.
The Veracruz Tongue is a region of continental slope and rise sediments bounded bathymetrically by the Mexican Ridges fold belt to the west and the Campeche Knolls salt province to the east. Study of two multichannel seismic lines and single-fold sparker data enables five post-early Miocene seismic stratigraphic sequences to be distinguished in the tongue. Sedimentary processes responsible for deposition of each sequence are inferred on the basis of external geometry, internal reflection configuration, and, where possible, core data. The five sequences are each interpreted to consist of turbidites grading laterally into hemipelagites. These primary deposits may be modified later by downslope creep or sliding and slumping. Because bathymetry is a major control on location of turbidity-current flows, slides, and slumps, the depositional history of the Veracruz Tongue provides indirect evidence of tectonic evolution of the Mexican Ridges fold belt and the Campeche Knolls salt province. Salt domes first formed a barrier to turbidity-current flow from the east at the close of the middle Miocene. The Mexican Ridges fold belt evolved gradually until it formed a complete barrier to turbidity-current flow from the west at the close of the Pliocene. As a result of shift in direction of turbidity-current flow through time, potentially sand-prone Miocene turbidities are overlain by hemipelagic clays and clayey oozes, a situation favorable to hydrocarbon entrapment.
One hundred and seventy-nine Lamont Geological Observatory heat-flow measurements in the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea are presented; their reliability is carefully estimated. Together with 197 other measurements, they are used to describe the broad regional pattern of heat flow in the Atlantic Ocean. The average heat flow over the mid-Atlantic ridge is within 20% of the heat flow of the basins, and the absence of a wide heat-flow maximum in the observed values precludes the possibility of continuous continental drift during the Cenozoic by the spreading-floor mechanism in the Atlantic Ocean. In contrast, the excess of heat flow measured over the East Pacific rise is consistent with the existence of large convective transfer of heat in the underlying mantle.