Content uploaded by Yoganand K
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Yoganand K
Content may be subject to copyright.
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006 172-181
INTRODUCTION
The Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) occurs commonly
and is distributed widely across the tropical forests of the
Indian subcontinent. However, its distribution is patchy
corresponding with the present forest cover. In the past, even
until the early 1800s, Sloth Bears may have occurred in most
non-arid, low-altitude forests of India. They were reported to
be abundant during mid-1800s, but declined severely due to
hunting and habitat loss from late 1800s until the 1950s (Gilbert
1897; Dunbar-Brander 1923; Prater 1948; Phythian-Adams
1950; Krishnan 1972). A similar or accelerated habitat loss
continued even after 1950, until about the 1980s, primarily
due to conversion of forests for agriculture (FSI 1987). The
forest cover declined from about 40% of the geographical
area of India in the 1950s, to less than 20% in the 1980s, when
the decline slowed owing to growth in conservation efforts.
As a result of the continued habitat destruction and
degradation, Sloth Bear populations have declined or become
fragmented. Recently, they have become locally extirpated in
some areas (Krishnan 1972; Garshelis et al. 1999; Singh 2001).
Despite their widespread occurrence and the threats to their
survival, availability of reliable information on their
distribution and present status is limited. There has not been
an assessment in recent times and there has not been a
rigorous estimation of population size for any forest area in
India, nor has there been any systematic monitoring of trends
in populations. The extent of their present distribution too, is
not fully known. Such fundamental information is urgently
required for planning any large-scale conservation for the
species, and more importantly, to answer the basic question
of whether the Sloth Bear in India is secure. This dearth of
information and the need for expanding and updating
information were also highlighted in the latest IUCN/SSC Bear
Conservation Action Plan (Garshelis et al. 1999).
The earliest distributional data for the Sloth Bear is
from sportsmen’s records, many of which have been published
in early volumes of the Journal of Bombay Natural History
Society (JBNHS). Mammal surveys were carried out in India
during the mid-1800s by pioneering collectors like Blanford,
Blyth, Elliot, Jerdon, Hardwicke, Hodgson, Horsfield, and
Sykes. However, there were still large gaps in information,
particularly on the taxonomy, behaviour and distribution of
nearly all mammals (as observed in 1911, by W.S. Millard,
R.A. Spence and N.B. Kinnear, the editors of the JBNHS).
The need for organising a systematic collection to lay a strong
foundation for systematic mammology in India was realised
by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) (Wroughton
1912) and it started the first of the systematic mammal surveys
in 1910, and carried it through for the next 20 years. However,
these early surveys were not specifically aimed at documenting
distribution, but were mostly concerned with collecting
Key words: conservation, distribution, extirpation, fragmentation, habitat loss, India, isolation, Sloth Bear, Melursus
ursinus, population estimate, relative abundance
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE? A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON DISTRIBUTION,
THREATS AND CONSERVATION REQUIREMENTS
K. YOGANAND
1, 4
, CLIFF G. RICE
2
, A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
3
AND JOHN SEIDENSTICKER
1, 5
1
Smithsonian’s National Zoological Park, Department of Biological Conservation, Washington, DC, 20008-2598, USA.
2
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, WA, 98501, USA. Email: ricecgr@dfw.wa.gov
3
Wildlife Institute of India, P. O. Box 18, Dehradun 248001, India. Email: ajt.johnsingh@gmail.com
4
Email: slothbear_research@yahoo.com
5
Email: seidenstickerj@si.edu
The Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. Sloth Bear populations have declined and its
range has shrunk over the past century, primarily due to habitat loss. However, even fundamental information on
distribution and present status is lacking for most of its range. We collated recent information from literature and by
distributing questionnaires to wildlife researchers, managers and naturalists in India. We analysed the data in a spatial
framework using satellite based forest-cover maps to assess the status of populations and habitat, and estimated habitat
availability and population size for India. Sloth Bears are widely distributed in India, where large patches of tropical
forests still exist. However, secure habitat of high quality is estimated to be only about 10% of the forest area in India,
and the Sloth Bear population size for all of India is estimated to be between 6,000 and 11,000. The Western Ghats
range and central India are the only strongholds of distribution, in terms of population abundance and habitat availability.
The protected areas, deciduous forests, large forest patches and contiguous forests support high abundance populations
and in other areas, the populations mostly occur in low abundance, or are declining and some have been recently
extirpated. In addition to habitat fragmentation and loss, habitat degradation is widespread and is a significant threat.
Overall, the Sloth Bear is threatened, although it appears to be secure in some parts of its range. However, if the suggested
conservation requirements can be realised quickly, its long term survival can be ensured. The findings of this analysis
emphasise the urgent need for a field survey to assess Sloth Bear status and form a base for further research work.
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
173J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
specimens from different localities for taxonomic work and
for documenting the diversity of mammals present in the
region. Nevertheless, the vast area covered by these early
records gave us a fair idea of the broad distribution of
mammals, including that of the Sloth Bear, during those times
(Prater 1948). However, the accumulation of data did not keep
pace with the destruction of habitats. Over 50 years after
their predecessors realised the need for systematic surveys,
the editors of the JBNHS in 1966, H. Santapau, S.J.,
D.E. Reuben, Z. Futehally and J.C. Daniel regretfully noted
that authentic information on the status of species and
habitats, based on latest field observations were still very
much lacking.
Even now, for many of the forest areas in India, basic
information on the presence or absence of Sloth Bears is not
available. For some areas, such data may exist at a local level,
but is not available to a wider readership. There have been a
few attempts to collate such data (Jaffeson 1975; Garshelis et
al. 1999) and to develop a larger database (Wildlife Institute
of India’s National Wildlife Database, WII/NWDB). However,
most of the information on distribution and abundance used
by these earlier studies is either outdated, refers to
unconfirmed sources, or was originally obtained based on
incorrect methods. They also contain substantial errors or
lacuna. For instance, over 20% of the Protected Areas (PAs –
includes national parks and wildlife sanctuaries) listed as
being inhabited by Sloth Bears in the Bear Action Plan
(Garshelis et al. 1999) or in WII/NWDB do not hold Sloth
Bears or their presence there is doubtful (e.g. Namdapha,
Sariska national parks). Over 100 PAs that certainly or possibly
have Sloth Bears were not included in those lists (e.g. Cauvery,
Koyna wildlife sanctuaries). Some of the data presented in
those lists were from the early 1980s, where the present status
of Sloth Bears is unknown. Moreover, there is hardly any
information on Sloth Bears found in the forest areas outside
PAs.
Considering the deficiency in data and the threats to
Sloth Bear populations, a countrywide field survey to assess
the population abundance and the threats to the populations
and their habitat is urgently needed. To lay a theoretical
foundation for such a field survey, we analysed currently
available data in a spatial framework to assess Sloth Bear
status and investigated the relationships among the status
of populations, habitat and landscape parameters. We also
estimated habitat availability and population size in India based
on these data.
METHODS
We distributed over 800 questionnaires (Appendix 1)
to wildlife researchers, wildlife managers, naturalists, and non-
governmental environmental organisations working in various
parts of India. Forests from where Sloth Bears had already
been reported or where Sloth Bears were likely to occur were
emphasised. In addition, we pooled our personal observations
on Sloth Bears that we had acquired during our respective
wildlife studies, from about 25 different areas, spread across
India (in the Western Ghats, central India and western
Shivalik/Terai areas). Printed issues of five journals, from 1990
to 2002, namely JBNHS, Indian Forester, Tigerpaper,
Sanctuary Asia and Hornbill were searched for information
on Sloth Bear distribution and status. Only reports referring
to specific observations of Sloth Bears were used. Any passing
mention of Sloth Bear presence, as in checklists, without
further confirmation was disregarded. In addition, issues of
the JBNHS published from 1910-72 were searched specifically
for information on areas where Sloth Bears were reported or
suspected to have become extinct recently, to verify if they
existed in those areas in the past. The information given by
questionnaire respondents was verified with our
observations, other persons knowledgeable about the
reported area, or with literature, if any available. However, we
recognise that it may not be possible to completely avoid
errors in this type of database, which is based substantially
on second-hand information. Any such infrequent errors,
however, would not influence the broad patterns and regional-
level status that we discuss here. For the areas where the
Sloth Bear was reported to be “absent” or “locally extirpated”,
being certain about its absence there, would not be realistic,
and so we assumed that there was a high probability that the
Sloth Bear did not occur there or occurred only at very low
densities.
Sizes of PAs were taken from Rodgers et al. (2002), and
for non-PAs, sizes given by the respondents were used. To
estimate potential habitat available for Sloth Bears in India,
tropical forests falling within or contiguous with the known
distributional limit were used. The potential habitat in PAs
was estimated from Rodgers et al. (2002), and for non-PAs,
from the State forest cover estimates of FSI (1997). Relative
composition of forest cover in India, in terms of the main
tropical forest types, was calculated from ICFRE (2000). For
all analyses, only the five major tropical forest types, namely,
Wet Evergreen, Semi-evergreen, Moist Deciduous, Dry
Deciduous and Dry Scrub (or thorn forest) were considered.
The relative abundance rank assigned by the
respondents for each reported location and the size of those
locations were used to calculate the proportion of area falling
into each rank. Since a few areas were expected to have
population estimates based on reliable and rigorous methods,
we disregarded the data on population sizes given by the
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
174 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
respondents or those found in literature. Instead, we used
the relative abundance ranking provided by the respondents
to estimate Sloth Bear population size. These rankings were
more reliable because they were based on both sightings and
signs, and often on a long-term knowledge of the area. We
calibrated the relative abundance ranks, with minimum and
maximum likely average densities corresponding to each rank
(rare = 1-2; occasional = 2-4; frequent = 6-10; abundant = 8-14
bears / 100 sq. km). These average density ranges were
developed based on the estimate the first author has made
during a radio tracking study on Sloth Bears in Panna, central
India (K. Yoganand, unpublished data), and the first-hand
knowledge we have gathered while working in other Sloth
Bear habitats across India. This range of density values
reflects the uncertainty in estimation and is assumed to bracket
the likely average density value for each abundance rank.
Forest cover maps of the UNEP-World Conservation
Monitoring Center and satellite data of the NOAA Advanced
Very High Resolution Radiometer (data from 1992-93), were used
to delineate the forest cover in India. Forest areas were
categorised into four size classes (< 151 sq. km; 151-300 sq. km;
301-800 sq. km and > 800 sq. km) and four isolation levels
(< 1 km; 1-5 km; 5-20 km; > 20 km). Forest patches where Sloth
Bears were reported were used to delineate distribution extents
and prepare a range map.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Database
Out of the 800 questionnaires distributed, 367 were
returned with information ranging from Sloth Bear presence
in an area to rankings of relative abundance and perceptions
of population trend and possible threats. The literature search
yielded 125 more records and we had personal observations
for 26 areas, totalling 518 records. About 30% of these were
multiple or unverifiable records for some areas. Records
covered 361 forest areas, including PAs (53%) and non-PAs
(reserve forest, private forests, and some non-protected areas),
spread out in 26 different States and Union Territories of India.
Wildlife researchers provided 42%, Forest Department
personnel provided 33%, and naturalists and non-
governmental environmental organisations provided 25% of
the records. Of the 361 areas, Sloth Bears were reported to be
present in 260, not found in 94, and 7 areas needed
reconfirmation.
Distribution range in India
Sloth Bear range in India extends from the southernmost
forests of the Western Ghats in the south to the forests of the
Shivalik ranges along the foothills of the Himalaya, in the
north. The Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan to the west and the
floodplain habitats of Assam to the east, form the limits of its
range west to east. Within this extent, Sloth Bears are found
in most areas where large patches of forests exist (Fig. 1).
However, the populations have become fragmented at both
scales, between and within regions, into several discrete units.
Outside these main units, some isolated forest patches in the
middle of Deccan Plateau in the states of Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh, and the isolated, broken hills of the Eastern
Ghats of Tamil Nadu hold Sloth Bears. The Sloth Bear reports
from Garo Hills, Mizo Hills and Tripura State in the Northeast
need confirmation.
Distribution among forest types
Sloth Bears occur more frequently in Moist and Dry
Deciduous Forests (42% and 33% respectively, together
constituting 75% of the reported areas), and less frequently
in Wet Evergreen (13%) and Dry Scrub (6%) type of forests.
In terms of area, over 90% of the area where Sloth Bears occur
is Moist and Dry Deciduous forests (Fig. 2). A large proportion
of Dry and Moist Deciduous Forests hold Sloth Bears at
high-abundance (64% and 46% of areas, respectively),
whereas, Sloth Bears occur in low-abundance in a majority of
Evergreen and most Dry Scrub areas. The Dry Scrub type
constitute about 8% of the forest cover of India, whereas, it
forms only a little over 1% of the area of occurrence of Sloth
Bears. In summary, the Sloth Bear seems essentially to be a
tropical deciduous forest species.
Population status
Of the 260 areas where Sloth Bears were reported to be
present, relative abundance ranking was given for 213 areas.
Of these, only in 4.2% of the areas Sloth Bears were
“abundant”, in 44.1% they were “frequent”, in 36.2% they
were “occasional”, and in 15.5% they were “rare”. Over two-
thirds (68%) of the high-abundance areas (ranked as abundant
or frequent) were in PAs, in contrast to 59% of the low-
abundance (ranked as occasional or rare) areas or 67% of
areas where Sloth Bears were “rare” were in non-PAs.
Sloth Bears occur in high abundance mostly in central
Indian and Western Ghats regions. Of the areas where Sloth
Bears exist in high abundance (n=80), about 58% were either
large or moderately large areas. However, some areas (20%)
were also very small in size. Most of these small or very small
areas, however, are contiguous with adjoining forests or are
part of large forest patches. Among the areas with low
abundance (n = 69), about two-thirds are small or very small
in size (Fig. 3). The rest of the areas having a low abundance
of Sloth Bears, despite larger sizes are perhaps due to other
factors. In addition to size, isolation, location in the range
(central or peripheral), habitat quality, degradation level and
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
175J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
human-induced mortality may be the other factors determining
distribution and abundance.
Isolation, from the nearest large forest patch or Sloth
Bear population, appears to be another factor related to
abundance (Fig. 4). It has been found that 58% of the high-
abundance areas (n = 100) are contiguous or only slightly
isolated (< 1 km distance). Only 10% of the highly isolated
(> 20 km distance) areas have high Sloth Bear abundance,
and in a majority of these areas, Sloth Bears were on the
decline. In contrast, the areas where Sloth Bear population
trend was rated as increasing (n = 24), 79% are not isolated, or
minimally isolated. Most (65%) of these increasing
populations also occur in large or moderately large areas
(Fig. 3). Of the rest (35%; areas smaller than 301 sq. km), most
are contiguous with adjoining forests. Also, most of the
increasing populations are in the centre of the range, where
large forest patches still occur, in contrast to the declining ones,
which are along the peripheries of the range. Some forests are
better protected now and hence the habitats are probably
recovering from past degradation. Bear populations may also
be recovering from former low levels in these areas.
Sloth Bears have become locally extinct in 35 forest
areas in recent times. Most of these areas lie in the northern
Western Ghats (Maharashtra and Gujarat states), the north-
western semi-arid area (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh)
and the western Shivalik/Terai (Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh;
Fig. 1: Estimated range of Sloth Bear in India, as derived from the present forest cover, a limited field survey
and an extensive questionnaire and literature survey. Locations of forest areas presently having Sloth Bears
and where they have been recently extirpated are marked
Present
Extirpated
Estimated range
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
Fig. 1). However, some areas are in the southern and middle
Western Ghats region (mostly in Kerala). Furthermore,
information from the north-eastern region was scanty and
there might be areas where Sloth Bear populations might have
recently been extirpated. Of the extirpated areas, 71% are small
or very small and none is large in size (more than 800 sq. km;
Fig. 3). However, some areas (29%) are also moderately large
(between 301 and 800 sq. km), indicating that, apart from size,
other factors too contributed to local extinction, such as
isolation, which seems to be a major factor. It was found that
69% of the extirpated areas (n = 35) are highly or moderately
isolated (Fig. 4) and only 7 areas are not or only slightly
isolated. Also, most of the extirpated areas are on the
peripheries of the Sloth Bear range. It is important to note
that patch size or isolation per se, often may not cause Sloth
Bear decline or extirpation, but these conditions aggravate
the impact, of human caused habitat degradation and killing,
on Sloth Bear populations, by limiting growth of populations
and immigration of Sloth Bears from adjacent areas.
Population projection
We used minimum and maximum likely average densities
and the proportional forest area corresponding to each
abundance rank, and then projected those to 60,000 sq. km of
potential habitat in PAs, and 200,000 sq. km of potential habitat
in non-PAs. This yielded minimum and maximum population
estimates of 9,858 and 17,424 Sloth Bears in India. Out of
these, about 30% are in PAs. Although over two-thirds of the
Fig. 2: Relative composition of forest cover in India, relative distribution of area of occurrence of Sloth Bears and relative composition
of areas where Sloth Bears have recently been extirpated, in terms of five major tropical forest types
Fig. 3: Relative distribution of forest areas in each size class (demarcated by administrative boundaries)
for each status category of Sloth Bear populations
Forest cover in India Area of occurrence Extirpated area (n=35)
(n=60,000 sq. km)
Very small
(<151 sq. km)
Small
(151-300 sq. km)
Moderate
(301-800 sq. km)
Large
(>800 sq. km)
•
Wet
evergr.
I
Semi-evergr.
B
Moist
decid.
m
Dry
decid.
•
Dry
scrub
oir/o
High
abundance
Low
abundance
Extirpated
(n=21)
Increasing
(n=23)
(n=80)
(n=69)
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
177J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
population are estimated to be in non-PAs, it is likely that this
is an overestimate, for the following reasons. Non-PAs were
represented by a disproportionately low sample (only about
20,000 sq. km or 10% of the potential non-PA habitat are
represented in this data set). Also, most of the non-PAs from
where data were received were adjoining PAs and hence are
likely to have high abundance of Sloth Bears. However, these
are not representative of all non-PAs, as locations away from
or non-contiguous with PAs are likely to have poorer habitat
and populations in low abundance. The extent of potential
Sloth Bear habitat used in the population projection is
estimated from total forest cover, which included up to 40%
degraded areas (FSI 1997, NFAP-MEF 1999). These degraded
areas would reduce the estimated potential habitat by a
substantial amount. Considering these factors, we assumed
that a well-represented non-PA data set would have about
half the abundance level of the present one (as indicated by
the limited data we have). Consequently, the estimated
population size in non-PAs would reduce by half. This
reduction means that the estimated total population size could
be between 6,000 and 11,000, with PAs holding about a little
over half of the total population.
Habitat Status
Tropical Dry and Moist Deciduous Forests are the
dominant forest types in India, constituting over 80% of the
tropical forests (Fig. 2). About two-thirds of these forests
presently hold or are thought to hold Sloth Bears, out of
which about 40% are degraded (FSI 1997) and probably have
Sloth Bears only at very low densities. Therefore, only about
30% of the forest area of India can be considered as high
quality habitats for the Sloth Bear. Even within these high
quality habitats, only about 25% - 30% might be protected
(NFAP-MEF 1999, Rodgers et al. 2002) and can be considered
secure habitat. In other words, only about 10% of the forest
area or 2% of the geographical area of India can be considered
as secure habitat of high quality for the Sloth Bear. However,
the decline in forest cover in India seems to have been arrested
and in the last two decades there has only been a marginal
decrease in the forest cover and only a marginal increase in
degraded areas (data period 1981-95; NFAP-MEF 1999). In
fact, from 1993 onwards, the forest cover seems to have
increased considerably, from 19.3% to 20.6% of the
geographical area of India (FSI 2001). These statistics on
increase in forest cover are debatable, considering the
inconsistency in estimation methods. Nevertheless, the
encouraging trend is that forests with over 40% canopy
density have increased from 11.17% in 1993-95 to 12.68% at
present, indicating a recovery from degradation. Also, the
area under PAs has increased from 109,652 sq. km in 1988 to
154,573 sq. km in 2002, raising the level from 17% to 23% of
forest cover of India (Rodgers et al. 2002).
The Western Ghats and central Indian highlands still
have relatively extensive habitats for Sloth Bears. The Sloth
Bear population is contiguous over large areas in these
regions and they also seem to occur in high abundance in
several areas in these regions. However, these regions are
also considerably fragmented. The north-western semi-arid
region is highly isolated from the adjacent central Indian
forests and is also severely fragmented, as are the western
Fig. 4: Relative distribution of forest areas in each isolation class (isolation from nearest large forest patch or Sloth Bear population)
for each status category of Sloth Bear populations
High-abundance
Extirpated
Declining
Increasing
(n=100)
(n=35)
(n=27)
(n=24)
0
Not
isolated
(<lkm)
DI
Low
isolation
(1
-
5
km)
0
Mod.
Isolation!
(5
-
20
km)
0
High
isolation
(>
20
km)
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
and eastern Shivalik/Terai regions that have also become
isolated from the rest of the populations. The fragmented
Eastern Ghats range has some large patches of forests in the
southern, middle and northern parts, which however are
isolated from each other and are largely fragmented within
the patches.
Threats
Respondents considered habitat loss or degradation,
overgrazing, over-extraction of minor forest produce and
related human disturbances, fire damage, and conflict with
humans, as the top five threats to the Sloth Bear and its habitat
(Fig. 5). Surprisingly, poaching (including poaching of cubs
to be kept captive) was considered a lesser threat. Habitat
loss or degradation was the most frequent threat in the Sloth
Bear areas, reported in 68% of the areas. It was consistently
ranked as the top threat in groups of areas (including high-
abundance, PAs, non-PAs, extirpated, declining), indicating
its widespread prevalence, except in the areas where Sloth
Bear populations were reported to be increasing. In the areas
where populations were reported to be declining, habitat loss
or degradation was reported in over 80% of the areas,
suggesting that this threat contributes greatly to population
decline.
Although conflict with humans was considered a threat
in over 40% of all Sloth Bear areas, it is disproportionately
more frequent in areas of high Sloth Bear abundance. However,
this may just be a coincidence, as frequency of conflict would
depend greatly on the degree of use of these forest areas by
people (K. Yoganand, unpublished). Poaching was reported
to be a threat in only 12% of all areas, and not more than 20%,
even in non-PAs, declining or extirpated areas. Poaching was
reported mainly from eastern and north-eastern parts of central
India, western Terai, and central and northern parts of Eastern
Ghats. Many of the forests adjoining, or in between the areas
reported to have poaching, are highly likely to face poaching,
but have not been reported to be so. This suggests that either
poaching of Sloth Bears was truly infrequent or respondents
and authors were unaware of poaching or reporting poaching
was considered a disgrace and was intentionally not reported.
In summary, small sizes of forest patches, fragmentation and
resultant isolation, loss of deciduous forests, habitat
degradation, and possibly poaching are the major threats
facing Sloth Bear populations. However, a comprehensive
threat assessment can be accomplished only based on data
from extensive field surveys.
CONSERVATION REQUIREMENTS
It is not possible for us at this stage, with the limited
data and without a comprehensive field assessment, to make
specific recommendations. The first author is presently
conducting such a field assessment and based on that
assessment a landscape level conservation plan for the Sloth
Bear will be prepared. Therefore, on the basis of the present
analysis, we suggest certain general conservation
requirements:
1. Populations should be maintained in all the regions of
India, keeping the regions as the basic units for
conservation planning, rather than considering the
whole of India as one unit.
2. Forest areas along the fringes of Sloth Bear distributional
Fig. 5: Percent of forest areas having Sloth Bears facing various threats,
as reported in literature or by respondents to a questionnaire survey
100%
m
All
sloth
bear
areas
(n=260)
B
High-abundance
areas
(n=103)
Q
Declining
areas
(n=31)
HPAs(n=138)
ONon-PAs(n=122)
Habt
loss/degr
Over
graz.
Fire
MFP
extract
Poaching
Conflict
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
179J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
range, highly fragmented regions, and isolated
populations need to have specific conservation plans
focussed on the Sloth Bears.
3. Sloth Bears may be reintroduced to extirpated areas
where large, contiguous deciduous forests still exist
(e.g. Rajaji National Park, in the part to the west of River
Ganga).
4. Until suitable population estimation techniques are
developed, Sloth Bear populations should be monitored
using indices of population abundance and a
statistically sound protocol. One such protocol was
outlined by Yoganand and Rice (in review), which was
also demonstrated at a workshop held for the Sloth
Bear range PA managers, in Panna, in September 2001.
This population monitoring method uses incidences of
Sloth Bear signs as indices of population abundance.
The survey involves counting Sloth Bear scats and
diggings along forest trails, obtaining the required
number of replicate samples to achieve enough
statistical power to detect changes in the population.
This method can be used to monitor changes in Sloth
Bear population, in an area, over time, but its utility for
comparing Sloth Bear abundance among different areas
appears to be minimal.
5. Large patches of deciduous forests are required to be
protected, to maintain Sloth Bears in high abundance,
and these can act as source populations for
surrounding smaller patches.
6. Contiguity between forest patches needs to be
maintained (and should be restored where it has been
lost), to facilitate movement among patches and
dispersal to peripheral or weakly connected areas.
7. Habitat degradation in small or isolated areas that still
hold Sloth Bears needs to be arrested, if these
populations are to be stopped from becoming locally
extinct.
8. Habitats should be restored in degraded areas where
populations are declining. This restoration would also
significantly expand the habitat available for Sloth Bears
(over 400,000 sq. km of administrative forest area in
India is composed of degraded forest, scrub or with no
forest cover – FSI 1997).
9. PAs in India sustain about half of the population of
Sloth Bears, which perhaps is as small as 3,000. PA
coverage of Indian forests should be increased to
include a greater proportion of Sloth Bear habitats,
particularly in the stronghold areas. For instance, central
Indian forests require to be better covered in the PA
network (Rodgers et al. 2002). Large patches of forests
and areas that are important in providing connectivity
between forest patches should be given a priority in
future expansion of the PA coverage.
10. Many PAs are small in size and isolated from each
other. PA sizes should be increased to include at least
800 sq. km of area, where forests exist, so as to hold a
viable population of at least 50 adults (assuming a
median density of 6 bears/100 sq. km).
11. Conflicts between people and bears that result in
physical attacks should be managed effectively. There
are some measures that could be applied over a wide
area, where bear attacks are defensive, to reduce the
frequency of attacks (K. Yoganand, unpublished).
These measures include; asking people to avoid
localities of dense shrub cover, avoid using the forests
in the crepuscular period, suggesting that the forest
management does not allow people to use localities or
habitats that are frequently used by Sloth Bears (such
as escarpments and hillocks). In areas where the conflict
is of a different nature or is serious, site-specific
assessment needs to be done to determine appropriate
conflict reduction measures.
12. Localities where poaching of bears or bear cubs might
be occurring frequently should be identified and the
poaching stopped.
CONCLUSION
We have conducted this spatial analysis based primarily
on derived data and the limited experience we have
researching the Sloth Bear and surveying its habitat. However,
broad-level patterns in the Sloth Bear distribution and some
underlying factors causing such patterns have been identified
by this analysis. We have produced a notable distribution
map that can be a base for further improvements. We have
also assessed the status of Sloth Bear populations and
their habitats and evaluated the possible threats.
Nevertheless, the methods that were followed to obtain the
original data by various respondents and authors are largely
unverified and we have neither a measure of accuracy nor an
estimate of error in the data. Therefore, the results presented
here are best viewed as a starting point from which more
detailed assessments of Sloth Bear conservation can be
developed.
Given the results presented here, the Sloth Bear appears
to be secure in only some parts of its range in India.
Considering that its total population size may be as low as
6,000 and not all the regional populations are safe and even
the stronghold areas are threatened by fragmentation and
degradation, the Sloth Bear in India is threatened. However,
the potential exists to establish secure populations
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
throughout the Sloth Bear range, if the conservation
requirements outlined here are accomplished quickly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We conducted the initial questionnaire survey for this
report as part of the Wildlife Institute of India – United States
Fish and Wildlife Service collaborative project on Sloth Bear
ecology in Panna National Park, India. We received funding
support from the National Geographic Society, Chicago
Zoological Society and International Association for Bear
Research and Management for the Panna project. The
Smithsonian National Zoological Park (SNZP) and the Friends
of the National Zoo (FONZ) supported K.Y. while he did the
rest of the data collection, analysis and wrote this paper.
By their valuable support, SNZP and FONZ essentially
made this report possible. K.V.R. Priyadarshini helped in
the literature survey and reviewed this paper. If not for
the enthusiastic contribution of information by the
respondents to the questionnaire survey, this urgent piece of
work would have been delayed for long. We are grateful to all
of them.
REFERENCES
DUNBAR-BRANDER, A.A.D. (1923): Wild animals in central India. First
Indian Edition (1982), Natraj Publishers, Dehradun, India. 296
pp.
FSI (1987): State of the forest report: 1987. Forest Survey of India,
Dehradun. 87 pp.
FSI (1997): State of the forest report: 1997. Forest Survey of India,
Dehradun. 72 pp.
FSI (2001): State of the forest report: 2001. Forest Survey of India,
Dehradun. 130 pp.
GARSHELIS, D.L., A.R. JOSHI, J.L.D. SMITH & C.G. RICE (1999): Sloth
bear conservation action plan. In: Bears: Status survey and
conservation action plan (Eds. Servheen, C. & B. Peyton).
IUCN/SSC Bear and Polar Bear Specialist Groups. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland. 309 pp.
GILBERT, R. (1897): Notes on the Indian Bear (Melursus ursinus).
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 10: 688-690.
ICFRE (2000): Forestry Statistics of India. Indian Council for Forestry
Research and Education, Dehradun. 308 pp.
JAFFESON, R.C. (1975): Melursus ursinus survival status and conditions.
R.C. Jaffeson, Washington, D.C. Unpublished Report.
KRISHNAN, M. (1972): An ecological survey of the large mammals of
peninsular India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 47-49.
NFAP-MEF. (1999): National Forestry Action Programme - India.
Vol. 1. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
India, New Delhi, India. 179 pp.
PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, E.G. (1950): Jungle memories: Part V – Bears.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 1-8.
PRATER, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural
History Society, Mumbai, India. 324 pp.
RODGERS, W.A., H.S. PANWAR & V.B. MATHUR (2002): Wildlife protected
area network in India: A Review (Executive Summary). Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehradun, India. 44 pp.
SINGH, H.S. (2001): Regional planning for Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus)
conservation in the western India. Unpublished.
WROUGHTON, R.C. (1912): Bombay Natural History Society’s mammal
survey of India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 392-410.
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
181J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
Appendix 1: The questionnaire that was mailed to wildlife researchers, managers, naturalists, and non-governmental organisations
working in various parts of India, to gather information on Sloth Bear distribution and status.
SLOTH BEAR DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS – QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
Wildlife Institute of India is carrying out a study on the ecology of the Sloth Bear in Panna National Park with the support of the US
Fish and Wildlife Service. As part of the study, we are conducting a questionnaire survey to assess the status and distribution of
the Sloth Bear throughout India. The information you provide will be valuable for the conservation of the species. Choose from the
choices, or give your brief answers. Please make copies if you have information for more than one area. We appreciate your help
and concern for the Sloth Bear.
Reporter Name: _____________________________________ Title: ________________________________________________
Address: _______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name of the forest area: __________________________________________________________
Forest status: £ National Park/ £ Wildlife Sanctuary/ £ Reserve Forest/ £ Private Forest/ £ Non-protected
Forest type: £ Evergreen/ £ Moist Deciduous/ £ Dry Deciduous/ £ Grassland/ £ Hilly, Rocky area/ £ Degraded scrub
1. In your area, the Sloth Bear is £ Abundant/ £ Frequent/ £ Occasional/ £ Rare/ £ Not found
2. Its distribution is: £ Widespread/ £ Localised/ £ Seasonal
3. Approximate number of Sloth Bears in your area: _______________________________________
Approximate area covered in your estimate: _____________________________ £ sq. km/ £ ha
4. Your abundance estimate is based on: £ Sightings/ £ Signs/ £ Forest Dept. census/ £ Interviewing local people
5. Bear diggings (excavations for feeding on ants & termites) are: £ Common/ £ Rare/ £ Not seen
6. Bear population trend: £ Increasing/ £ Declining/ £ Stable
7. What are the threats to bears in your area? £ Habitat loss/ £ Degradation/ £ Grazing/ £ Felling/ £ Fire
Minor forest products collection/ £ Encroachment/ £ Monoculture plantations/ £ Trade in Bear parts/ £ Cub poaching
Conflict with people/ £ Killing nuisance Bears/ £ any other (please specify)
8. Were the Sloth Bears formerly present, but extinct now? £ Yes/ £ No
If yes, what reasons would you give?
9. Prospect for Sloth Bear survival in your area:£ Good/ £ Fair/ £ Poor
10. Any other comments:
Kinldy return filled-up forms (complete or part) to: K. Yoganand, c/o Dr. A.J.T. Johnsingh, Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18,
Dehradun 248001, U.P., India.