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Is the sloth bear in India secure? A preliminary report on distribution, threats and conservation requirements

Authors:
  • Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife (retired) and Alliance for Tompotika Conservation

Abstract and Figures

The Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. Sloth Bear populations have declined and its range has shrunk over the past century, primarily due to habitat loss. However, even fundamental information on distribution and present status is lacking for most of its range. We collated recent information from literature and by distributing questionnaires to wildlife researchers, managers and naturalists in India. We analysed the data in a spatial framework using satellite based forest-cover maps to assess the status of populations and habitat, and estimated habitat availability and population size for India. Sloth Bears are widely distributed in India, where large patches of tropical forests still exist. However, secure habitat of high quality is estimated to be only about 10% of the forest area in India, and the Sloth Bear population size for all of India is estimated to be between 6,000 and 11,000. The Western Ghats range and central India are the only strongholds of distribution, in terms of population abundance and habitat availability. The protected areas, deciduous forests, large forest patches and contiguous forests support high abundance populations and in other areas, the populations mostly occur in low abundance, or are declining and some have been recently extirpated. In addition to habitat fragmentation and loss, habitat degradation is widespread and is a significant threat. Overall, the Sloth Bear is threatened, although it appears to be secure in some parts of its range. However, if the suggested conservation requirements can be realised quickly, its long term survival can be ensured. The findings of this analysis emphasise the urgent need for a field survey to assess Sloth Bear status and form a base for further research work.
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IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006 172-181
INTRODUCTION
The Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) occurs commonly
and is distributed widely across the tropical forests of the
Indian subcontinent. However, its distribution is patchy
corresponding with the present forest cover. In the past, even
until the early 1800s, Sloth Bears may have occurred in most
non-arid, low-altitude forests of India. They were reported to
be abundant during mid-1800s, but declined severely due to
hunting and habitat loss from late 1800s until the 1950s (Gilbert
1897; Dunbar-Brander 1923; Prater 1948; Phythian-Adams
1950; Krishnan 1972). A similar or accelerated habitat loss
continued even after 1950, until about the 1980s, primarily
due to conversion of forests for agriculture (FSI 1987). The
forest cover declined from about 40% of the geographical
area of India in the 1950s, to less than 20% in the 1980s, when
the decline slowed owing to growth in conservation efforts.
As a result of the continued habitat destruction and
degradation, Sloth Bear populations have declined or become
fragmented. Recently, they have become locally extirpated in
some areas (Krishnan 1972; Garshelis et al. 1999; Singh 2001).
Despite their widespread occurrence and the threats to their
survival, availability of reliable information on their
distribution and present status is limited. There has not been
an assessment in recent times and there has not been a
rigorous estimation of population size for any forest area in
India, nor has there been any systematic monitoring of trends
in populations. The extent of their present distribution too, is
not fully known. Such fundamental information is urgently
required for planning any large-scale conservation for the
species, and more importantly, to answer the basic question
of whether the Sloth Bear in India is secure. This dearth of
information and the need for expanding and updating
information were also highlighted in the latest IUCN/SSC Bear
Conservation Action Plan (Garshelis et al. 1999).
The earliest distributional data for the Sloth Bear is
from sportsmen’s records, many of which have been published
in early volumes of the Journal of Bombay Natural History
Society (JBNHS). Mammal surveys were carried out in India
during the mid-1800s by pioneering collectors like Blanford,
Blyth, Elliot, Jerdon, Hardwicke, Hodgson, Horsfield, and
Sykes. However, there were still large gaps in information,
particularly on the taxonomy, behaviour and distribution of
nearly all mammals (as observed in 1911, by W.S. Millard,
R.A. Spence and N.B. Kinnear, the editors of the JBNHS).
The need for organising a systematic collection to lay a strong
foundation for systematic mammology in India was realised
by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) (Wroughton
1912) and it started the first of the systematic mammal surveys
in 1910, and carried it through for the next 20 years. However,
these early surveys were not specifically aimed at documenting
distribution, but were mostly concerned with collecting
Key words: conservation, distribution, extirpation, fragmentation, habitat loss, India, isolation, Sloth Bear, Melursus
ursinus, population estimate, relative abundance
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE? A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON DISTRIBUTION,
THREATS AND CONSERVATION REQUIREMENTS
K. YOGANAND
1, 4
, CLIFF G. RICE
2
, A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
3
AND JOHN SEIDENSTICKER
1, 5
1
Smithsonian’s National Zoological Park, Department of Biological Conservation, Washington, DC, 20008-2598, USA.
2
Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, WA, 98501, USA. Email: ricecgr@dfw.wa.gov
3
Wildlife Institute of India, P. O. Box 18, Dehradun 248001, India. Email: ajt.johnsingh@gmail.com
4
Email: slothbear_research@yahoo.com
5
Email: seidenstickerj@si.edu
The Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. Sloth Bear populations have declined and its
range has shrunk over the past century, primarily due to habitat loss. However, even fundamental information on
distribution and present status is lacking for most of its range. We collated recent information from literature and by
distributing questionnaires to wildlife researchers, managers and naturalists in India. We analysed the data in a spatial
framework using satellite based forest-cover maps to assess the status of populations and habitat, and estimated habitat
availability and population size for India. Sloth Bears are widely distributed in India, where large patches of tropical
forests still exist. However, secure habitat of high quality is estimated to be only about 10% of the forest area in India,
and the Sloth Bear population size for all of India is estimated to be between 6,000 and 11,000. The Western Ghats
range and central India are the only strongholds of distribution, in terms of population abundance and habitat availability.
The protected areas, deciduous forests, large forest patches and contiguous forests support high abundance populations
and in other areas, the populations mostly occur in low abundance, or are declining and some have been recently
extirpated. In addition to habitat fragmentation and loss, habitat degradation is widespread and is a significant threat.
Overall, the Sloth Bear is threatened, although it appears to be secure in some parts of its range. However, if the suggested
conservation requirements can be realised quickly, its long term survival can be ensured. The findings of this analysis
emphasise the urgent need for a field survey to assess Sloth Bear status and form a base for further research work.
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
173J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
specimens from different localities for taxonomic work and
for documenting the diversity of mammals present in the
region. Nevertheless, the vast area covered by these early
records gave us a fair idea of the broad distribution of
mammals, including that of the Sloth Bear, during those times
(Prater 1948). However, the accumulation of data did not keep
pace with the destruction of habitats. Over 50 years after
their predecessors realised the need for systematic surveys,
the editors of the JBNHS in 1966, H. Santapau, S.J.,
D.E. Reuben, Z. Futehally and J.C. Daniel regretfully noted
that authentic information on the status of species and
habitats, based on latest field observations were still very
much lacking.
Even now, for many of the forest areas in India, basic
information on the presence or absence of Sloth Bears is not
available. For some areas, such data may exist at a local level,
but is not available to a wider readership. There have been a
few attempts to collate such data (Jaffeson 1975; Garshelis et
al. 1999) and to develop a larger database (Wildlife Institute
of India’s National Wildlife Database, WII/NWDB). However,
most of the information on distribution and abundance used
by these earlier studies is either outdated, refers to
unconfirmed sources, or was originally obtained based on
incorrect methods. They also contain substantial errors or
lacuna. For instance, over 20% of the Protected Areas (PAs –
includes national parks and wildlife sanctuaries) listed as
being inhabited by Sloth Bears in the Bear Action Plan
(Garshelis et al. 1999) or in WII/NWDB do not hold Sloth
Bears or their presence there is doubtful (e.g. Namdapha,
Sariska national parks). Over 100 PAs that certainly or possibly
have Sloth Bears were not included in those lists (e.g. Cauvery,
Koyna wildlife sanctuaries). Some of the data presented in
those lists were from the early 1980s, where the present status
of Sloth Bears is unknown. Moreover, there is hardly any
information on Sloth Bears found in the forest areas outside
PAs.
Considering the deficiency in data and the threats to
Sloth Bear populations, a countrywide field survey to assess
the population abundance and the threats to the populations
and their habitat is urgently needed. To lay a theoretical
foundation for such a field survey, we analysed currently
available data in a spatial framework to assess Sloth Bear
status and investigated the relationships among the status
of populations, habitat and landscape parameters. We also
estimated habitat availability and population size in India based
on these data.
METHODS
We distributed over 800 questionnaires (Appendix 1)
to wildlife researchers, wildlife managers, naturalists, and non-
governmental environmental organisations working in various
parts of India. Forests from where Sloth Bears had already
been reported or where Sloth Bears were likely to occur were
emphasised. In addition, we pooled our personal observations
on Sloth Bears that we had acquired during our respective
wildlife studies, from about 25 different areas, spread across
India (in the Western Ghats, central India and western
Shivalik/Terai areas). Printed issues of five journals, from 1990
to 2002, namely JBNHS, Indian Forester, Tigerpaper,
Sanctuary Asia and Hornbill were searched for information
on Sloth Bear distribution and status. Only reports referring
to specific observations of Sloth Bears were used. Any passing
mention of Sloth Bear presence, as in checklists, without
further confirmation was disregarded. In addition, issues of
the JBNHS published from 1910-72 were searched specifically
for information on areas where Sloth Bears were reported or
suspected to have become extinct recently, to verify if they
existed in those areas in the past. The information given by
questionnaire respondents was verified with our
observations, other persons knowledgeable about the
reported area, or with literature, if any available. However, we
recognise that it may not be possible to completely avoid
errors in this type of database, which is based substantially
on second-hand information. Any such infrequent errors,
however, would not influence the broad patterns and regional-
level status that we discuss here. For the areas where the
Sloth Bear was reported to be “absent” or “locally extirpated”,
being certain about its absence there, would not be realistic,
and so we assumed that there was a high probability that the
Sloth Bear did not occur there or occurred only at very low
densities.
Sizes of PAs were taken from Rodgers et al. (2002), and
for non-PAs, sizes given by the respondents were used. To
estimate potential habitat available for Sloth Bears in India,
tropical forests falling within or contiguous with the known
distributional limit were used. The potential habitat in PAs
was estimated from Rodgers et al. (2002), and for non-PAs,
from the State forest cover estimates of FSI (1997). Relative
composition of forest cover in India, in terms of the main
tropical forest types, was calculated from ICFRE (2000). For
all analyses, only the five major tropical forest types, namely,
Wet Evergreen, Semi-evergreen, Moist Deciduous, Dry
Deciduous and Dry Scrub (or thorn forest) were considered.
The relative abundance rank assigned by the
respondents for each reported location and the size of those
locations were used to calculate the proportion of area falling
into each rank. Since a few areas were expected to have
population estimates based on reliable and rigorous methods,
we disregarded the data on population sizes given by the
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
174 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
respondents or those found in literature. Instead, we used
the relative abundance ranking provided by the respondents
to estimate Sloth Bear population size. These rankings were
more reliable because they were based on both sightings and
signs, and often on a long-term knowledge of the area. We
calibrated the relative abundance ranks, with minimum and
maximum likely average densities corresponding to each rank
(rare = 1-2; occasional = 2-4; frequent = 6-10; abundant = 8-14
bears / 100 sq. km). These average density ranges were
developed based on the estimate the first author has made
during a radio tracking study on Sloth Bears in Panna, central
India (K. Yoganand, unpublished data), and the first-hand
knowledge we have gathered while working in other Sloth
Bear habitats across India. This range of density values
reflects the uncertainty in estimation and is assumed to bracket
the likely average density value for each abundance rank.
Forest cover maps of the UNEP-World Conservation
Monitoring Center and satellite data of the NOAA Advanced
Very High Resolution Radiometer (data from 1992-93), were used
to delineate the forest cover in India. Forest areas were
categorised into four size classes (< 151 sq. km; 151-300 sq. km;
301-800 sq. km and > 800 sq. km) and four isolation levels
(< 1 km; 1-5 km; 5-20 km; > 20 km). Forest patches where Sloth
Bears were reported were used to delineate distribution extents
and prepare a range map.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Database
Out of the 800 questionnaires distributed, 367 were
returned with information ranging from Sloth Bear presence
in an area to rankings of relative abundance and perceptions
of population trend and possible threats. The literature search
yielded 125 more records and we had personal observations
for 26 areas, totalling 518 records. About 30% of these were
multiple or unverifiable records for some areas. Records
covered 361 forest areas, including PAs (53%) and non-PAs
(reserve forest, private forests, and some non-protected areas),
spread out in 26 different States and Union Territories of India.
Wildlife researchers provided 42%, Forest Department
personnel provided 33%, and naturalists and non-
governmental environmental organisations provided 25% of
the records. Of the 361 areas, Sloth Bears were reported to be
present in 260, not found in 94, and 7 areas needed
reconfirmation.
Distribution range in India
Sloth Bear range in India extends from the southernmost
forests of the Western Ghats in the south to the forests of the
Shivalik ranges along the foothills of the Himalaya, in the
north. The Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan to the west and the
floodplain habitats of Assam to the east, form the limits of its
range west to east. Within this extent, Sloth Bears are found
in most areas where large patches of forests exist (Fig. 1).
However, the populations have become fragmented at both
scales, between and within regions, into several discrete units.
Outside these main units, some isolated forest patches in the
middle of Deccan Plateau in the states of Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh, and the isolated, broken hills of the Eastern
Ghats of Tamil Nadu hold Sloth Bears. The Sloth Bear reports
from Garo Hills, Mizo Hills and Tripura State in the Northeast
need confirmation.
Distribution among forest types
Sloth Bears occur more frequently in Moist and Dry
Deciduous Forests (42% and 33% respectively, together
constituting 75% of the reported areas), and less frequently
in Wet Evergreen (13%) and Dry Scrub (6%) type of forests.
In terms of area, over 90% of the area where Sloth Bears occur
is Moist and Dry Deciduous forests (Fig. 2). A large proportion
of Dry and Moist Deciduous Forests hold Sloth Bears at
high-abundance (64% and 46% of areas, respectively),
whereas, Sloth Bears occur in low-abundance in a majority of
Evergreen and most Dry Scrub areas. The Dry Scrub type
constitute about 8% of the forest cover of India, whereas, it
forms only a little over 1% of the area of occurrence of Sloth
Bears. In summary, the Sloth Bear seems essentially to be a
tropical deciduous forest species.
Population status
Of the 260 areas where Sloth Bears were reported to be
present, relative abundance ranking was given for 213 areas.
Of these, only in 4.2% of the areas Sloth Bears were
“abundant”, in 44.1% they were “frequent”, in 36.2% they
were “occasional”, and in 15.5% they were “rare”. Over two-
thirds (68%) of the high-abundance areas (ranked as abundant
or frequent) were in PAs, in contrast to 59% of the low-
abundance (ranked as occasional or rare) areas or 67% of
areas where Sloth Bears were “rare” were in non-PAs.
Sloth Bears occur in high abundance mostly in central
Indian and Western Ghats regions. Of the areas where Sloth
Bears exist in high abundance (n=80), about 58% were either
large or moderately large areas. However, some areas (20%)
were also very small in size. Most of these small or very small
areas, however, are contiguous with adjoining forests or are
part of large forest patches. Among the areas with low
abundance (n = 69), about two-thirds are small or very small
in size (Fig. 3). The rest of the areas having a low abundance
of Sloth Bears, despite larger sizes are perhaps due to other
factors. In addition to size, isolation, location in the range
(central or peripheral), habitat quality, degradation level and
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
175J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
human-induced mortality may be the other factors determining
distribution and abundance.
Isolation, from the nearest large forest patch or Sloth
Bear population, appears to be another factor related to
abundance (Fig. 4). It has been found that 58% of the high-
abundance areas (n = 100) are contiguous or only slightly
isolated (< 1 km distance). Only 10% of the highly isolated
(> 20 km distance) areas have high Sloth Bear abundance,
and in a majority of these areas, Sloth Bears were on the
decline. In contrast, the areas where Sloth Bear population
trend was rated as increasing (n = 24), 79% are not isolated, or
minimally isolated. Most (65%) of these increasing
populations also occur in large or moderately large areas
(Fig. 3). Of the rest (35%; areas smaller than 301 sq. km), most
are contiguous with adjoining forests. Also, most of the
increasing populations are in the centre of the range, where
large forest patches still occur, in contrast to the declining ones,
which are along the peripheries of the range. Some forests are
better protected now and hence the habitats are probably
recovering from past degradation. Bear populations may also
be recovering from former low levels in these areas.
Sloth Bears have become locally extinct in 35 forest
areas in recent times. Most of these areas lie in the northern
Western Ghats (Maharashtra and Gujarat states), the north-
western semi-arid area (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh)
and the western Shivalik/Terai (Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh;
Fig. 1: Estimated range of Sloth Bear in India, as derived from the present forest cover, a limited field survey
and an extensive questionnaire and literature survey. Locations of forest areas presently having Sloth Bears
and where they have been recently extirpated are marked
Present
Extirpated
Estimated range
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
Fig. 1). However, some areas are in the southern and middle
Western Ghats region (mostly in Kerala). Furthermore,
information from the north-eastern region was scanty and
there might be areas where Sloth Bear populations might have
recently been extirpated. Of the extirpated areas, 71% are small
or very small and none is large in size (more than 800 sq. km;
Fig. 3). However, some areas (29%) are also moderately large
(between 301 and 800 sq. km), indicating that, apart from size,
other factors too contributed to local extinction, such as
isolation, which seems to be a major factor. It was found that
69% of the extirpated areas (n = 35) are highly or moderately
isolated (Fig. 4) and only 7 areas are not or only slightly
isolated. Also, most of the extirpated areas are on the
peripheries of the Sloth Bear range. It is important to note
that patch size or isolation per se, often may not cause Sloth
Bear decline or extirpation, but these conditions aggravate
the impact, of human caused habitat degradation and killing,
on Sloth Bear populations, by limiting growth of populations
and immigration of Sloth Bears from adjacent areas.
Population projection
We used minimum and maximum likely average densities
and the proportional forest area corresponding to each
abundance rank, and then projected those to 60,000 sq. km of
potential habitat in PAs, and 200,000 sq. km of potential habitat
in non-PAs. This yielded minimum and maximum population
estimates of 9,858 and 17,424 Sloth Bears in India. Out of
these, about 30% are in PAs. Although over two-thirds of the
Fig. 2: Relative composition of forest cover in India, relative distribution of area of occurrence of Sloth Bears and relative composition
of areas where Sloth Bears have recently been extirpated, in terms of five major tropical forest types
Fig. 3: Relative distribution of forest areas in each size class (demarcated by administrative boundaries)
for each status category of Sloth Bear populations
Forest cover in India Area of occurrence Extirpated area (n=35)
(n=60,000 sq. km)
Very small
(<151 sq. km)
Small
(151-300 sq. km)
Moderate
(301-800 sq. km)
Large
(>800 sq. km)
Wet
evergr.
I
Semi-evergr.
B
Moist
decid.
m
Dry
decid.
Dry
scrub
oir/o
High
abundance
Low
abundance
Extirpated
(n=21)
Increasing
(n=23)
(n=80)
(n=69)
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
177J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
population are estimated to be in non-PAs, it is likely that this
is an overestimate, for the following reasons. Non-PAs were
represented by a disproportionately low sample (only about
20,000 sq. km or 10% of the potential non-PA habitat are
represented in this data set). Also, most of the non-PAs from
where data were received were adjoining PAs and hence are
likely to have high abundance of Sloth Bears. However, these
are not representative of all non-PAs, as locations away from
or non-contiguous with PAs are likely to have poorer habitat
and populations in low abundance. The extent of potential
Sloth Bear habitat used in the population projection is
estimated from total forest cover, which included up to 40%
degraded areas (FSI 1997, NFAP-MEF 1999). These degraded
areas would reduce the estimated potential habitat by a
substantial amount. Considering these factors, we assumed
that a well-represented non-PA data set would have about
half the abundance level of the present one (as indicated by
the limited data we have). Consequently, the estimated
population size in non-PAs would reduce by half. This
reduction means that the estimated total population size could
be between 6,000 and 11,000, with PAs holding about a little
over half of the total population.
Habitat Status
Tropical Dry and Moist Deciduous Forests are the
dominant forest types in India, constituting over 80% of the
tropical forests (Fig. 2). About two-thirds of these forests
presently hold or are thought to hold Sloth Bears, out of
which about 40% are degraded (FSI 1997) and probably have
Sloth Bears only at very low densities. Therefore, only about
30% of the forest area of India can be considered as high
quality habitats for the Sloth Bear. Even within these high
quality habitats, only about 25% - 30% might be protected
(NFAP-MEF 1999, Rodgers et al. 2002) and can be considered
secure habitat. In other words, only about 10% of the forest
area or 2% of the geographical area of India can be considered
as secure habitat of high quality for the Sloth Bear. However,
the decline in forest cover in India seems to have been arrested
and in the last two decades there has only been a marginal
decrease in the forest cover and only a marginal increase in
degraded areas (data period 1981-95; NFAP-MEF 1999). In
fact, from 1993 onwards, the forest cover seems to have
increased considerably, from 19.3% to 20.6% of the
geographical area of India (FSI 2001). These statistics on
increase in forest cover are debatable, considering the
inconsistency in estimation methods. Nevertheless, the
encouraging trend is that forests with over 40% canopy
density have increased from 11.17% in 1993-95 to 12.68% at
present, indicating a recovery from degradation. Also, the
area under PAs has increased from 109,652 sq. km in 1988 to
154,573 sq. km in 2002, raising the level from 17% to 23% of
forest cover of India (Rodgers et al. 2002).
The Western Ghats and central Indian highlands still
have relatively extensive habitats for Sloth Bears. The Sloth
Bear population is contiguous over large areas in these
regions and they also seem to occur in high abundance in
several areas in these regions. However, these regions are
also considerably fragmented. The north-western semi-arid
region is highly isolated from the adjacent central Indian
forests and is also severely fragmented, as are the western
Fig. 4: Relative distribution of forest areas in each isolation class (isolation from nearest large forest patch or Sloth Bear population)
for each status category of Sloth Bear populations
High-abundance
Extirpated
Declining
Increasing
(n=100)
(n=35)
(n=27)
(n=24)
0
Not
isolated
(<lkm)
DI
Low
isolation
(1
-
5
km)
0
Mod.
Isolation!
(5
-
20
km)
0
High
isolation
(>
20
km)
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
and eastern Shivalik/Terai regions that have also become
isolated from the rest of the populations. The fragmented
Eastern Ghats range has some large patches of forests in the
southern, middle and northern parts, which however are
isolated from each other and are largely fragmented within
the patches.
Threats
Respondents considered habitat loss or degradation,
overgrazing, over-extraction of minor forest produce and
related human disturbances, fire damage, and conflict with
humans, as the top five threats to the Sloth Bear and its habitat
(Fig. 5). Surprisingly, poaching (including poaching of cubs
to be kept captive) was considered a lesser threat. Habitat
loss or degradation was the most frequent threat in the Sloth
Bear areas, reported in 68% of the areas. It was consistently
ranked as the top threat in groups of areas (including high-
abundance, PAs, non-PAs, extirpated, declining), indicating
its widespread prevalence, except in the areas where Sloth
Bear populations were reported to be increasing. In the areas
where populations were reported to be declining, habitat loss
or degradation was reported in over 80% of the areas,
suggesting that this threat contributes greatly to population
decline.
Although conflict with humans was considered a threat
in over 40% of all Sloth Bear areas, it is disproportionately
more frequent in areas of high Sloth Bear abundance. However,
this may just be a coincidence, as frequency of conflict would
depend greatly on the degree of use of these forest areas by
people (K. Yoganand, unpublished). Poaching was reported
to be a threat in only 12% of all areas, and not more than 20%,
even in non-PAs, declining or extirpated areas. Poaching was
reported mainly from eastern and north-eastern parts of central
India, western Terai, and central and northern parts of Eastern
Ghats. Many of the forests adjoining, or in between the areas
reported to have poaching, are highly likely to face poaching,
but have not been reported to be so. This suggests that either
poaching of Sloth Bears was truly infrequent or respondents
and authors were unaware of poaching or reporting poaching
was considered a disgrace and was intentionally not reported.
In summary, small sizes of forest patches, fragmentation and
resultant isolation, loss of deciduous forests, habitat
degradation, and possibly poaching are the major threats
facing Sloth Bear populations. However, a comprehensive
threat assessment can be accomplished only based on data
from extensive field surveys.
CONSERVATION REQUIREMENTS
It is not possible for us at this stage, with the limited
data and without a comprehensive field assessment, to make
specific recommendations. The first author is presently
conducting such a field assessment and based on that
assessment a landscape level conservation plan for the Sloth
Bear will be prepared. Therefore, on the basis of the present
analysis, we suggest certain general conservation
requirements:
1. Populations should be maintained in all the regions of
India, keeping the regions as the basic units for
conservation planning, rather than considering the
whole of India as one unit.
2. Forest areas along the fringes of Sloth Bear distributional
Fig. 5: Percent of forest areas having Sloth Bears facing various threats,
as reported in literature or by respondents to a questionnaire survey
100%
m
All
sloth
bear
areas
(n=260)
B
High-abundance
areas
(n=103)
Q
Declining
areas
(n=31)
HPAs(n=138)
ONon-PAs(n=122)
Habt
loss/degr
Over
graz.
Fire
MFP
extract
Poaching
Conflict
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
179J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
range, highly fragmented regions, and isolated
populations need to have specific conservation plans
focussed on the Sloth Bears.
3. Sloth Bears may be reintroduced to extirpated areas
where large, contiguous deciduous forests still exist
(e.g. Rajaji National Park, in the part to the west of River
Ganga).
4. Until suitable population estimation techniques are
developed, Sloth Bear populations should be monitored
using indices of population abundance and a
statistically sound protocol. One such protocol was
outlined by Yoganand and Rice (in review), which was
also demonstrated at a workshop held for the Sloth
Bear range PA managers, in Panna, in September 2001.
This population monitoring method uses incidences of
Sloth Bear signs as indices of population abundance.
The survey involves counting Sloth Bear scats and
diggings along forest trails, obtaining the required
number of replicate samples to achieve enough
statistical power to detect changes in the population.
This method can be used to monitor changes in Sloth
Bear population, in an area, over time, but its utility for
comparing Sloth Bear abundance among different areas
appears to be minimal.
5. Large patches of deciduous forests are required to be
protected, to maintain Sloth Bears in high abundance,
and these can act as source populations for
surrounding smaller patches.
6. Contiguity between forest patches needs to be
maintained (and should be restored where it has been
lost), to facilitate movement among patches and
dispersal to peripheral or weakly connected areas.
7. Habitat degradation in small or isolated areas that still
hold Sloth Bears needs to be arrested, if these
populations are to be stopped from becoming locally
extinct.
8. Habitats should be restored in degraded areas where
populations are declining. This restoration would also
significantly expand the habitat available for Sloth Bears
(over 400,000 sq. km of administrative forest area in
India is composed of degraded forest, scrub or with no
forest cover – FSI 1997).
9. PAs in India sustain about half of the population of
Sloth Bears, which perhaps is as small as 3,000. PA
coverage of Indian forests should be increased to
include a greater proportion of Sloth Bear habitats,
particularly in the stronghold areas. For instance, central
Indian forests require to be better covered in the PA
network (Rodgers et al. 2002). Large patches of forests
and areas that are important in providing connectivity
between forest patches should be given a priority in
future expansion of the PA coverage.
10. Many PAs are small in size and isolated from each
other. PA sizes should be increased to include at least
800 sq. km of area, where forests exist, so as to hold a
viable population of at least 50 adults (assuming a
median density of 6 bears/100 sq. km).
11. Conflicts between people and bears that result in
physical attacks should be managed effectively. There
are some measures that could be applied over a wide
area, where bear attacks are defensive, to reduce the
frequency of attacks (K. Yoganand, unpublished).
These measures include; asking people to avoid
localities of dense shrub cover, avoid using the forests
in the crepuscular period, suggesting that the forest
management does not allow people to use localities or
habitats that are frequently used by Sloth Bears (such
as escarpments and hillocks). In areas where the conflict
is of a different nature or is serious, site-specific
assessment needs to be done to determine appropriate
conflict reduction measures.
12. Localities where poaching of bears or bear cubs might
be occurring frequently should be identified and the
poaching stopped.
CONCLUSION
We have conducted this spatial analysis based primarily
on derived data and the limited experience we have
researching the Sloth Bear and surveying its habitat. However,
broad-level patterns in the Sloth Bear distribution and some
underlying factors causing such patterns have been identified
by this analysis. We have produced a notable distribution
map that can be a base for further improvements. We have
also assessed the status of Sloth Bear populations and
their habitats and evaluated the possible threats.
Nevertheless, the methods that were followed to obtain the
original data by various respondents and authors are largely
unverified and we have neither a measure of accuracy nor an
estimate of error in the data. Therefore, the results presented
here are best viewed as a starting point from which more
detailed assessments of Sloth Bear conservation can be
developed.
Given the results presented here, the Sloth Bear appears
to be secure in only some parts of its range in India.
Considering that its total population size may be as low as
6,000 and not all the regional populations are safe and even
the stronghold areas are threatened by fragmentation and
degradation, the Sloth Bear in India is threatened. However,
the potential exists to establish secure populations
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE JOURNAL CENTENARY SEMINAR
throughout the Sloth Bear range, if the conservation
requirements outlined here are accomplished quickly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We conducted the initial questionnaire survey for this
report as part of the Wildlife Institute of India – United States
Fish and Wildlife Service collaborative project on Sloth Bear
ecology in Panna National Park, India. We received funding
support from the National Geographic Society, Chicago
Zoological Society and International Association for Bear
Research and Management for the Panna project. The
Smithsonian National Zoological Park (SNZP) and the Friends
of the National Zoo (FONZ) supported K.Y. while he did the
rest of the data collection, analysis and wrote this paper.
By their valuable support, SNZP and FONZ essentially
made this report possible. K.V.R. Priyadarshini helped in
the literature survey and reviewed this paper. If not for
the enthusiastic contribution of information by the
respondents to the questionnaire survey, this urgent piece of
work would have been delayed for long. We are grateful to all
of them.
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DUNBAR-BRANDER, A.A.D. (1923): Wild animals in central India. First
Indian Edition (1982), Natraj Publishers, Dehradun, India. 296
pp.
FSI (1987): State of the forest report: 1987. Forest Survey of India,
Dehradun. 87 pp.
FSI (1997): State of the forest report: 1997. Forest Survey of India,
Dehradun. 72 pp.
FSI (2001): State of the forest report: 2001. Forest Survey of India,
Dehradun. 130 pp.
GARSHELIS, D.L., A.R. JOSHI, J.L.D. SMITH & C.G. RICE (1999): Sloth
bear conservation action plan. In: Bears: Status survey and
conservation action plan (Eds. Servheen, C. & B. Peyton).
IUCN/SSC Bear and Polar Bear Specialist Groups. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland. 309 pp.
GILBERT, R. (1897): Notes on the Indian Bear (Melursus ursinus).
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 10: 688-690.
ICFRE (2000): Forestry Statistics of India. Indian Council for Forestry
Research and Education, Dehradun. 308 pp.
JAFFESON, R.C. (1975): Melursus ursinus survival status and conditions.
R.C. Jaffeson, Washington, D.C. Unpublished Report.
KRISHNAN, M. (1972): An ecological survey of the large mammals of
peninsular India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 47-49.
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India, New Delhi, India. 179 pp.
PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, E.G. (1950): Jungle memories: Part V – Bears.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 1-8.
PRATER, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural
History Society, Mumbai, India. 324 pp.
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area network in India: A Review (Executive Summary). Wildlife
Institute of India, Dehradun, India. 44 pp.
SINGH, H.S. (2001): Regional planning for Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus)
conservation in the western India. Unpublished.
WROUGHTON, R.C. (1912): Bombay Natural History Society’s mammal
survey of India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 392-410.
IS THE SLOTH BEAR IN INDIA SECURE?
181J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 103 (2-3), May-Dec 2006
Appendix 1: The questionnaire that was mailed to wildlife researchers, managers, naturalists, and non-governmental organisations
working in various parts of India, to gather information on Sloth Bear distribution and status.
SLOTH BEAR DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS – QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
Wildlife Institute of India is carrying out a study on the ecology of the Sloth Bear in Panna National Park with the support of the US
Fish and Wildlife Service. As part of the study, we are conducting a questionnaire survey to assess the status and distribution of
the Sloth Bear throughout India. The information you provide will be valuable for the conservation of the species. Choose from the
choices, or give your brief answers. Please make copies if you have information for more than one area. We appreciate your help
and concern for the Sloth Bear.
Reporter Name: _____________________________________ Title: ________________________________________________
Address: _______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Name of the forest area: __________________________________________________________
Forest status: £ National Park/ £ Wildlife Sanctuary/ £ Reserve Forest/ £ Private Forest/ £ Non-protected
Forest type: £ Evergreen/ £ Moist Deciduous/ £ Dry Deciduous/ £ Grassland/ £ Hilly, Rocky area/ £ Degraded scrub
1. In your area, the Sloth Bear is £ Abundant/ £ Frequent/ £ Occasional/ £ Rare/ £ Not found
2. Its distribution is: £ Widespread/ £ Localised/ £ Seasonal
3. Approximate number of Sloth Bears in your area: _______________________________________
Approximate area covered in your estimate: _____________________________ £ sq. km/ £ ha
4. Your abundance estimate is based on: £ Sightings/ £ Signs/ £ Forest Dept. census/ £ Interviewing local people
5. Bear diggings (excavations for feeding on ants & termites) are: £ Common/ £ Rare/ £ Not seen
6. Bear population trend: £ Increasing/ £ Declining/ £ Stable
7. What are the threats to bears in your area? £ Habitat loss/ £ Degradation/ £ Grazing/ £ Felling/ £ Fire
Minor forest products collection/ £ Encroachment/ £ Monoculture plantations/ £ Trade in Bear parts/ £ Cub poaching
Conflict with people/ £ Killing nuisance Bears/ £ any other (please specify)
8. Were the Sloth Bears formerly present, but extinct now? £ Yes/ £ No
If yes, what reasons would you give?
9. Prospect for Sloth Bear survival in your area:£ Good/ £ Fair/ £ Poor
10. Any other comments:
Kinldy return filled-up forms (complete or part) to: K. Yoganand, c/o Dr. A.J.T. Johnsingh, Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18,
Dehradun 248001, U.P., India.
... At present, sloth bears have been given the "vulnerable" status by the IUCN, with India housing 90% of the extant population [10]. Sloth bears are found in a variety of habitats across India, with Central India and Western Ghats being strongholds of the species [11]. Protected areas, large patches of contiguous forests and dry deciduous forests support large abundances of sloth bears [11]. ...
... Sloth bears are found in a variety of habitats across India, with Central India and Western Ghats being strongholds of the species [11]. Protected areas, large patches of contiguous forests and dry deciduous forests support large abundances of sloth bears [11]. However, their population has declined significantly over the years due to habitat loss and fragmentation caused by human activities Diversity 2024, 16, 74 2 of 12 such as deforestation, agricultural expansion and urbanization [11,12]. ...
... Protected areas, large patches of contiguous forests and dry deciduous forests support large abundances of sloth bears [11]. However, their population has declined significantly over the years due to habitat loss and fragmentation caused by human activities Diversity 2024, 16, 74 2 of 12 such as deforestation, agricultural expansion and urbanization [11,12]. These factors not only fragment landscapes but also act as impediments to genetic exchanges between animal populations. ...
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Endemic to the Indian subcontinent, the sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) is a threatened species, present in fragmented habitats across India. Field techniques such as direct observation and camera trapping alone are not sufficient and may not be explicit enough to understand a monomorphic species like the sloth bear at larger spatial scales. In this study, we looked into the genetic structure, variability and population demographics amongst the extant sloth bear populations in the highly fragmented Vidarbha landscape, using a panel of 13 microsatellite markers with a cumulative PID value of 1.48 × 10−5 PIDsibs. Our results revealed genetic clustering (K = 5) and moderate structuring amongst the study populations. Despite being geographically distant and placed in two different genetic clusters, sloth bears from the Melghat Tiger Reserve and Sahyadri Tiger Reserve shared genetic signatures, indicating connectivity, while migration was detected amongst other study areas as well. The findings from this study can serve as baseline assessment for future genetic monitoring of the species in the human-dominated landscape and assist in managerial decisions to step up protection of fragmented forest patches and reduce human–bear conflicts without compromising on the genetic connectivity.
... Historically, they were found in abundance (mid-1800s) spread in the regions of Himalaya in north to Western Ghats of southern India (Gilbert 1897;Dunbar-Brander 1923;Prater 1996;Phythian-Adams 1950;Krishnan 1972). However, continuous poaching, habitat degradation and fragmentation have led to a sharp decline in their population leading to the extinction of the species from some regions (Krishnan 1972;Laurie and Seidensticker 1977;Garshelis et al. 1999b;Singh 2001), this has also resulted in the shrinking of their habitat giving rise to fragmented distribution (Garshelis et al. 1999b;Johnsingh 2003;Yoganand et al. 2006;Sathyakumar et al. 2012;Thatte et al. 2021). Presently, they are known to inhabit lowland areas ranging up to 1000 m (Johnsingh 2003; Garshelis et al. 1999a;Ratnayeke et al. 2007). ...
... Their specialised morphological characteristics such as protrusible lower lip, missing pair of upper incisors, shaggy coat and long claws have enabled this species to survive in varying habitats (Garshelis et al. 1999b; Domico and Newman 1988). Despite this, continuous decline in their population has categorised the species as Vulnerable (IUCN Red list) and has been declared as Schedule I species under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972(Garshelis et al. 1999bYoganand 2005;Yoganand et al. 2006;Dharaiya et al. 2016). ...
... Larger protected habitats are potentially important for maintaining sloth bear populations, which might act as a source for adjacent habitats. However, maintaining landscape connectivity allows the dispersal and movement of species to poorly connected habitats (Yoganand et al. 2006;Rot et al. 2023). Only half of the total sloth bear population survives in protected areas; hence, it is imperative to increase the connectivity between fragmented or degraded forest patches increasing the possibilities of gene exchange (Rodgers et al. 2002;Yoganand et al. 2006). ...
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Ecological corridors have been identified as an important tool in the conservation of sloth bears by providing the structural and functional connectivity between isolated habitats. We evaluated possible connectivity linking five protected habitats in Gujarat state (India). The resistance score was developed for layers impeding the movement of sloth bears using the Analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Maximum resistance was shown by areas with human-bear conflict locations followed by land use/ land cover. Based on the resistance scores, we mapped six potential corridors amongst protected habitats through least-cost path corridor analysis. Our results show the two links with minimum resistance between Ratanmahal-Shoolpaneshwar and Balaram Ambaji-Jambughoda. In the latter linkage, a large Euclidean distance tends to lower the quality of the corridor. A single link identified connecting Jessore and Balaram is potentially an important path to conserve the habitat in the north. We estimated the centrality flow along with the least cost path (LCP) assessing the importance of each node representing protected habitats in developing connectivity. Analysis revealed Balaram Ambaji as an important link in developing the connectivity through all the habitats for sloth bears in Gujarat state. The present study allows conserving potential habitats with less density of sloth bears by connecting them with highly dense habitats through ecological corridors. Developing the ecological corridors once validated on ground level can lead to long-term conservation of wildlife residing across the disconnected areas in the state, this, in turn, will assist in improving the quality of habitats while promoting coexistence amongst the humans and bears.
... In addition to climate change, poaching and human-wildlife conflict are important issues in the conservation of key protected species in Nepal (DNPWC 2017;Jnawali et al. 2011;Liu et al. 2017;Rai et al. 2020). Previous studies have identified the challenges facing the protection of sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) habitats in Nepal (Jnawali et al. 2011), Sri Lanka (Ratnayeke et al. 2007) and India (Bargali et al. 2012;Singh et al. 2018;Yoganand et al. 2006). Globally, decreasing in the habitat and number of sloth bears are expected to increase in the future . ...
... Poaching is also a threat to bear conservation globally. Bones, teeth, claws and gall bladder are used locally and their fur is used for hair generation; bears are also "entertainment" as dancing bears Jnawali et al. 2011;Yoganand et al. 2006). ...
... The forest cover in the GRB showed an increasing trend between 1990 and 2015 (Rai et al. 2018), which could explain the increase in habitat in the study area. The sloth bear is mainly found in the tropical deciduous forest (Yoganand et al. 2006) in the Tarai region of Nepal. Bioclimatic factors are also an important determinant of habitat change. ...
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The Gandaki River Basin (GRB), located in the central Himalaya, provides habitats for a large number of important flora and fauna species. The habitats of key protected species have changed over time as a result of climate changes and human activities related to land use change, including the development of roads. This study assessed the present and future distributions of sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) habitats using the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model. Bioclimatic data, a digital elevation model and roads were used as environmental layers to assess current and future distributions of habitat. Results show that the overall habitat within the study area is likely to undergo important changes in the future. Bio 8 (the mean temperature of the wettest quarter) and slope were found to be important variables affecting the distribution of the species. The habitats very highly suitable for sloth bears currently cover an area of 148 km2 within the GRB. These habitats are predicted to increase by 122 km2 more by 2050. Overall, a net change by 680.38 km2 was found in the GRB. Conservation measures are necessary for this key protected species and its habitat within the GRB and elsewhere in Nepal.
... They inhabit an extensive variety of habitats, including grasslands, savannahs, and forests (Johnsingh, 2003;Bargali et al., 2004), but poaching and habitat degradation are causing their numbers to decline. Hence, they have experienced local extirpation from several pockets in India, disappeared from Bangladesh, and became restricted to lowland habitats in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bhutan (Servhee, 1990;Garshelis et al., 1999;Yoganand et al., 2006;Dharaiya et al., 2020). Moreover, due to their involvement in human attacks, sloth bears are regarded as a dangerous species, which reduces support for conservation efforts and leads to retaliatory kills (Ratnayeke et al., 2014;Debata et al., 2017). ...
... In the Jessore sanctuary, sloth bears have been observed avoiding areas infested with invasive woody P. juliflora in the low to middle-elevation areas due to high grades of cattle grazing. Though sloth bear distribution in India is influenced by the existence of deciduous forests, scrub forests, and semiarid plains, with forest cover having the most favourable impact despite the protection level of the protected area Yoganand et al., 2006;Puri et al., 2015). In the study area, habitat degradation and fragmentation can significantly impact the interactions between species and their habitats. ...
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Global terrestrial ecosystem is threatened by several factors, such as infestation of invasive plants, which influence the habitat use by wildlife. Prosopis juliflora is such a plant species, sprawled over arid and semiarid ecosystems in India. Under this study, we assumed that intensification of P. juliflora negatively affects the habitat used by sloth bears Melursus ursinus, along with geographical, ecological and anthropogenic predictors in Jessore Sloth bear Sanctuary, Gujarat, India. To inquire so, we conducted sign surveys (1 km trail length in each grid) in three seasons, i.e., winter, summer and monsoon. Further, the presence/absence of species’ signs was logistically modelled with elevation, terrain ruggedness, area proportions of dense forest, open scrub, P. juliflora infested area and human encroachment with respect to the seasons. We found that the area proportion of P. juliflora negatively affects habitat use by sloth bears, while elevation, terrain ruggedness, and area proportions of dense forest and open scrub positively trigger. The proportion of encroachment varied between the seasons. Further, we inferred the human-sloth bear encounter probability from the seasonal models. During summer, followed by winter, we evidenced the relatively high probability of bear occurrence around settlements, which can be advocated by the availability of food items around villages. The current study supports the prescribed ecology of sloth bears in semiarid regions in the Indian subcontinent. The study recommends the appropriate urgent management to arrest the conversion of native forest and scrub covers to P. juliflora dominant cover, thereby avoiding probabilistic human-sloth bear encounters.
... The sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), one of the four bear species found in the Indian subcontinent, is mainly confined to the isolated patches of forested habitat both inside and outside of the protected areas (PAs) (Sathyakumar et al., 2012;Dharaiya, Bargali & Sharp, 2016;Jhala, Qureshi & Nayak, 2020). Despite the species' broad geographic distribution, especially across the moist and dry deciduous forests of the Western Ghats and central Indian landscape (Yoganand et al., 2006), information on population abundance based on a rigorous statistical framework is lacking (Dharaiya, Bargali & Sharp, 2016). However, the range-wide population abundance of sloth bears reportedly ranges between 10,000 and 20,000 (Garshelis, Joshi & Smith, 1999;Chauhan, 2006;Yoganand et al., 2006;Sathyakumar et al., 2012). ...
... Despite the species' broad geographic distribution, especially across the moist and dry deciduous forests of the Western Ghats and central Indian landscape (Yoganand et al., 2006), information on population abundance based on a rigorous statistical framework is lacking (Dharaiya, Bargali & Sharp, 2016). However, the range-wide population abundance of sloth bears reportedly ranges between 10,000 and 20,000 (Garshelis, Joshi & Smith, 1999;Chauhan, 2006;Yoganand et al., 2006;Sathyakumar et al., 2012). None of these estimates was reliable enough to monitor the population trends because of the differential data collection methods and types of data used in the analyses (Sathyakumar et al., 2012;Dharaiya, Bargali & Sharp, 2016). ...
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Reliable estimation of abundance is a prerequisite for a species’ conservation planning in human-dominated landscapes, especially if the species is elusive and involved in conflicts. As a means of population estimation, the importance of camera traps has been recognized globally, although estimating the abundance of unmarked, cryptic species has always been a challenge to conservation biologists. This study explores the use of the N-mixture model with three probability distributions, i.e., Poisson, negative binomial (NB) and zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP), to estimate the relative abundance of sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) based on a camera trapping exercise in Sanjay Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh from December 2016 to April 2017. We used environmental and anthropogenic covariates to model the variation in the abundance of sloth bears. We also compared null model estimates (mean site abundance) obtained from the N-mixture model to those of the Royle-Nichols abundance-induced heterogeneity model (RN model) to assess the application of similar site-structured models. Models with Poisson distributions produced ecologically realistic and more precise estimates of mean site abundance (λ = 2.60 ± 0.64) compared with other distributions, despite the relatively high Akaike Information Criterion value. Area of mixed and sal forest, the photographic capture rate of humans and distance to the nearest village predicted a higher relative abundance of sloth bears. Mean site abundance estimates of sloth bears obtained from the N-mixture model (Poisson distribution) and the RN model were comparable, indicating the overall utility of these models in this field. However, density estimates of sloth bears based on spatially explicit methods are essential for evaluating the efficacy of the relatively more cost-effective N-mixture model. Compared to commonly used index/encounter-based methods, the N-mixture model equipped with knowledge on governing biotic and abiotic factors provides better relative abundance estimates for a species like the sloth bear. In the absence of absolute abundance estimates, the present study could be insightful for the long-term conservation and management of sloth bears.
... Food and feeding ecology of the sloth 'bear in its range has been studied by several researchers: Bandipur Tiger Reserve (Johnsingh, 1981), Mudumalai (Baskaran et al., 1997;Desai et al., 1997), Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Sreekumar & Balakrishnan, 2002), North Bilaspur forest division (Bargali et al., 2004), Panna Tiger Reserve (Yoganand et al., 2006), and Jessore Wildlife Sanctuary (Sukhadiya et al., 2013). Earlier studies of the sloth bear in countries like Nepal, India, and Sri Lanka suggested that the diets of sloth bears vary seasonally and depend on the availability of fruits and colonies of termite mounds (Schaller, 1967;Norris, 1969;Laurie & Seidensticker, 1997;Johnshingh, 1981;Baskaran, 1990;Gokula et al., 1991). ...
... Generally, the sloth bear at preadult stage feeds mostly on insects, because they are rich in nutrition (Swenson et al., 1999;Mattson, 2001). Bears have a large home range, and they move a lot during fruiting season (Garshelis & Pelton, 1981;Peek et al., 1987;Yoganand et al., 2006). It was also reported that the sloth bear was found moving in different habitats in search of food in Chitwan National Park (Joshi et al., 1995(Joshi et al., , 1997. ...
... Previous studies reported that habitat destruction of wildlife by quarrying activity directly impacted their reproduction and survival similar to our study (8). In India habitat destruction is the main cause of sloth bear population declining and our study has shown that the first and immediate impact of stone quarrying in Mitrapur was the sloth bear's habitat destruction which was also indicated in previous studies in other areas [9]. Apart from habitat destruction, several environmental pollutions, landscape alternation, local vegetation loss, water contamination, local ecosystem alternation due to stone quarrying also negatively affected sloth bears which were observed during the investigation. ...
Article
Full-text available
In India, sloth bears are widely distributed but their population still in a risk of isolation and fragmentation. In Odisha, highest sloth bear population found in Swarnachud-Mitrapur reserve forest in the Nilagiri wildlife range (NWLR), which is a part of the Balasore wildlife division in Odisha and people of this region always face a major challenge of human-sloth bear conflict. Since 2021, stone quarrying activities have been operating in Kathagochhi village of Mitrapur and this area and its surroundings are the main habitat of sloth bears. Our present investigation observed that sloth bears of Mitrapur-Swarnachud reserve forest adversely affected by stone quarrying activities. Methodology includes field observation, photo documentation and interview of local people through a predesigned structured questionnaire to know the perceptions of local people about the impacts of stone quarrying on sloth bears and the local environment. Our study revealed that, stone quarrying activities cause sloth bear’s habitat destruction, increase human-sloth bear conflict, increase nutritional deprivation, increase sloth bears accident, declining their population in this region due to their migration to other areas, excessive noise from quarrying activities disturbed their behaviour like increase aggressiveness, fear, anxiety and alternation of timing of their daily activities. As their habitat exposed by quarrying activities, they were more prone to poaching, hunting, killing and capturing that ultimately affected their survival. There is an urgent need to conserve these species in this region by creating awareness programme among local people and maintaining strict regulation on stone quarrying activities in wild animal’s habitat.
... The sloth bear population size for all of India is estimated to be between 6,000 and 11,000. In terms of population richness and habitat availability, the Western Ghats range and Central India are the only strongholds of distribution (Yoganand et al., 2006). Although it is unknown how long sloth bears live in the wild, they have been reported to live up to 40 years in captivity (Ward and Kynaston, 1995). ...
... The sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) is one of the four bear species found in the Indian subcontinent and endemic to this region (Prater, 1965;Johnsingh, 2003;Sathyakumar et al., 2012). Most of the sloth bear populations are restricted to the moist and dry deciduous forests of the Western Ghats and central Indian landscape (Yoganand et al., 2006). The sloth bear is a myrmecophagous (ant and termite eating) ursid, which is notably involved in conflict with humans in some parts of its distributional range, especially human-dominated landscapes (Rajpurohit and Krausman, 2000;Bargali et al., 2005;Akhtar and Chauhan, 2008;Garcia et al., 2016;Debata et al., 2017;Dhamorikar et al., 2017;Singh et al., 2018;Sharp et al., 2020;Prajapati et al., 2021). ...
Article
Full-text available
The impact of humans on biodiversity, in the form of the spatially extensive occurrence of humans and subsequent habitat degradation, leads to negative interactions between humans and native wildlife. However, knowledge of the spatial and temporal interface between humans and wildlife is necessary to understand the root cause of such negative interactions, yet considerably understudied in the context of human-dominated landscapes in south and south-eastern Asia. We took this opportunity, gaining insights on seasonal spatial interaction and spatio-temporal overlap between sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) and humans, and subsequently predicted the conflict source sites and dispersion (i.e., hotspots) based on the robust geographic profiling (GP) method in the Sanjay Tiger Reserve (STR), a human-dominated landscape of central India. Detection data of sloth bear and human were obtained from camera trap survey conducted for two years (2017–2018) and records of conflict incidents (2009–2019) were collected from forest department. We found that sloth bears can co-occur with humans independently of seasons, based on occupancy models. However, during summer, higher temporal overlap (Δ4 = 0.46) and lower spatial overlap (0.31) were observed between sloth bears and humans. Contrastingly, lower temporal overlap (Δ4 = 0.29) and higher spatial overlap (0.44) were observed between the same two during winter. The activity patterns of sloth bears and humans differed significantly across seasons and within the same species in different seasons. Our findings indicated that significant changes in human activity, especially during summer, increased the likelihood of sloth bear-human interaction and subsequent conflict incidents. The mapping of conflict source and dispersion (with high accuracy) also predicted a greater probability of conflict during summer, compared to winter, and thus showed the successful application of GP models in this field. Also, camera trap data alone were able to predict the occurrence of hotspots, demonstrating the use of camera trap records in the successful prediction of source-dispersion of conflict. This study would be useful for decision-makers to alleviate sloth bear–human conflict based on insights on seasonal variation of spatio-temporal overlap between the two and direct conservation efforts accordingly.
Chapter
Bears belong to the order Carnivora, suborder Caniformia. Caniformia means “doglike”. Their family is called Ursidae. Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies: Ailuropodinae (monotypic with the giant panda), Tremarctinae (monotypic with the Andean spectacled bear), and Ursinae (containing six species: brown bear, American black bear, Polar bear, Asiatic black bear, sloth bear, sun bear). Bears’ closest living relatives are the pinnipeds, canids, and musteloids (Wesley-Hunt and Flynn 2005).
State of the forest report: 1987. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun
FSI (1987): State of the forest report: 1987. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun. 87 pp.
Wild animals in central India
DUNBAR-BRANDER, A.A.D. (1923): Wild animals in central India. First Indian Edition (1982), Natraj Publishers, Dehradun, India. 296 pp.
State of the forest report: 1997. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun
FSI (1997): State of the forest report: 1997. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun. 72 pp.
Bombay Natural History Society's mammal survey of India
  • R C Wroughton
WROUGHTON, R.C. (1912): Bombay Natural History Society's mammal survey of India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 392-410.
State of the forest report: 2001. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun
FSI (2001): State of the forest report: 2001. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun. 130 pp.
Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education
ICFRE (2000): Forestry Statistics of India. Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun. 308 pp.
The Book of Indian Animals
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Jungle memories: Part V -Bears
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Regional planning for Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) conservation in the western India
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