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Comparison of quality of refined and whole wheat tortillas
Abstract
The use of whole wheat flour instead of refined flour significantly improves the nutritional profile of flour tortillas. However, whole and refined flours differ in properties and in how they process, thus needing process modifications to get the desired product quality. To understand these differences, refined and whole wheat flours, dough and tortillas were evaluated and compared for physical and rheological properties. Overall, whole wheat flour required more water (59% of flour weight) than refined wheat (53%) to make machineable dough. Refined flour doughs were more extensible and softer than whole wheat flour doughs, thus easier to process. Whole wheat flour tortillas were larger, thinner and less opaque than refined flour tortillas. In general, refined wheat tortillas were more shelf-stable than whole wheat tortillas. Smaller particle size and less fiber in the refined wheat flour mainly contributed to the observed differences. Among the whole wheat samples, tortillas from strong flours had excellent shelf-stability, which must be considered when whole wheat tortillas are processed. This will minimize the need to add vital wheat gluten or other dough strengtheners.
... Ongoing research efforts have been initiated toward the improvement of nutritional profiles of wheat tortillas. Out of several methods under consideration, the production of tortillas from composite flour is a viable approach [1] [5], which is achieved by substitution of wheat flour with other flour to make healthier tortillas. Previous studies have shown that yam flours have higher mineral content, higher dietary fiber content, higher resistant starch content, and lower estimated glycemic index (eGI) than refined wheat flour [6] [7]. ...
... In a comparative study of whole and refined wheat flour, tortillas made from whole-wheat flour were reported to be larger, less opaque, and thinner compared to refined flour tortillas. It was explained that the difference in whole and refined wheat tortillas were because high fiber caused a dilution effect on the gluten content, consequently effecting the size, thickness, and texture, which decreased the tortilla quality of whole-wheat tortillas [5]. In the US, many consumers prefer fluffy, thick, and opaque tortillas [35]. ...
... The moisture content of the tortillas during seven days of storage is presented in Figure 1 which then reduced as the storage period increased. This observation can be related to their initial high water absorption and thickness that might be responsible for the reduction in dehydration rate during the baking process [5]. The moisture content of wheat flour tortillas typically ranges from 30% -32% [36], which is near or slightly above the moisture content of most of the tortillas in this study. ...
... The key quality attributes that provide the desired functionality in tortillas are extensibility during pressing (diameter) and retention of flexibility over time (shelf stability) (Alviola & Awika, 2010). Important works has been developed to improve aminoacids profile, glycemic index, antioxidant profile, dietary fiber content (Friend, 1992;Scazzina et al., 2008;Barros et al., 2010;Anton et al., 2008;Prasopsunwattana et al., 2009), despite the large amount of information available on the nutritional and physiological properties of fructans, there is not information available on their effects on wheat flour tortilla quality. O'Brien (2003) observed that fat could be substituted in bread until 25% without effect on quality characteristics. ...
... This attribute is mainly determined by the presence, in fiber structure, of a large number of hydroxyl groups which enter into interactions with water via hydrogen bonds (Mis et al., 2012). Barros et al. (2010) reported that whole wheat flours had a higher water absorption and a longer mixing time than their refined flour counterparts. It took longer and more water for whole wheat flour to hydrate and develop gluten because the proteins had to compete for water with fiber (Barros et al., 2010). ...
... Barros et al. (2010) reported that whole wheat flours had a higher water absorption and a longer mixing time than their refined flour counterparts. It took longer and more water for whole wheat flour to hydrate and develop gluten because the proteins had to compete for water with fiber (Barros et al., 2010). Peressini and Sensidoni (2009) observed that inuline addition to wheat flour increased mixing stability. ...
Reduced fat wheat tortilla was formulated A formulation reduced in shortening with the fiber dietary properties of the whole grain has been proposed. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effect of the replacement of wheat flour by oatmeal and shortening by inuline, on some physical characteristics and fat and dietary content of wheat tortillas. Three treatments of tortilla were tested: refined, whole and a 4:3:3 refined: whole flour: oatmeal plus 9:1 shortening: inuline. Analysis of dietary fiber, fat, texture, diameter, thickness and color were performed. Results showed that this oatmeal-inuline tortillas had similar texture and thickness and lower diameter that conventional wheat tortillas. Oatmeal-inuline tortillas are redder than refined wheat tortilla. Oatmeal-inuline substitution tortilla had 45% less fat and 71% more dietary fiber than refined flour tortilla with same textural characteristics.
... Whole-wheat tortilla dough requires more water and longer time to be machineable, as it is less soft and extensible than refined flour dough. As compared to refined flour tortillas, whole-wheat tortillas were larger in diameter, thinner, less fluffy (smaller specific volume), darker color, less opaque, weaker, less extensible and shelfstable (Barros et al., 2010). ...
... The high fiber content in whole-wheat flour weakens the dough gluten network, resulting in a dough less resistant to hot-pressing. Therefore, whole-wheat tortillas have less dough structure and integrity to retain the air bubbles created during baking (Barros et al., 2010), which suggests, opacity is a challenge to achieve in WWF tortillas. ...
... As the fastest-growing bakery product in the U.S. , incorporating whole-wheat flour (WWF) into tortillas is a practical approach to introduce more whole grains into the American diet and potentially increase whole grain consumption. Although WWF can provide more health benefits (Marquart et al., 2007), the high bran content presents many quality challenges in WWF tortillas, for instance, the larger the flour particle size, the harder and less extensible dough, and less shelf-stable tortillas (Barros et al., 2010). Therefore, strategies designed to improve the quality of WWF tortillas will certainly draw the attention of food manufacturers. ...
The objective of this study was to examine factors influencing current use and consumption of brown and white rice in Chinese restaurants. Thirty Chinese restaurants were selected from the Twin Cities metro area to participate in the study. Face-to-face or phone interviews, based on a questionnaire, were conducted with a manger/owner of each restaurant. Plate waste observations were used to examine consumption for brown rice consumers (n = 200) and white rice consumers (n = 153) in a chain-Chinese restaurant. Data were analyzed using a t-test and analysis of variance. Results indicated that in 15 of the total restaurants, both brown and white rice were served. The main motivator for serving brown rice was to attract health conscious consumers, while low customer request was the major constraint for non-use. Authentic/family owned restaurants were less likely to serve brown rice than chain restaurants. Brown rice (85%) consumption was significantly higher than white rice (79%; P = .02), based on an average serving size of 8.7 oz. These results suggest that the availability of brown rice in restaurants increases consumption among brown rice eaters.
... Boita et al. [55] reported that resistance to extension and extensibility of dough gradually decreased as the bran content of wheat flour increased from 6.25 to 25%, which also differs from the results reported by Nash et al. [54] for refined flour. ese results might be explained by the differences between refined flour and WWFs in gluten network, particle size, and dietary fiber content [53]. In respect of the milling method, there was no significant difference in both resistance to extension and extensibility, as shown in the result of two-way ANOVA (Supplementary Table 1). ...
... In respect of the milling method, there was no significant difference in both resistance to extension and extensibility, as shown in the result of two-way ANOVA (Supplementary Table 1). Barros et al. [53] reported that resistance to extension depended on the flour type and found a similar tendency in resistance to extension and extensibility with respect to the present study. Meanwhile, Wang et al. [47] reported increasing extensibility of WWF with decreasing particle size. ...
The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of milling methods (jet mill (JM) and hammer mill (HM)) and wheat cultivars (Keumkang (K), Jokyung (J), and Anzunbaengi (A)) on physicochemical and dough properties of whole-wheat flour (WWF). The color, particle size, starch damage (SD), falling number (FN), water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI), pasting and Mixolab® properties, and dough extensibility of WWF were measured. Significant differences were observed in proximate compositions as well as in color, particle size, FN, and WAI between the distinct milling methods and cultivars ( p<0.001 ). The particle sizes of each cultivar milled with a HM (K: 188.5 µ m; J: 115.7 µ m; A: 40.34 µ m) were larger than those milled with a JM (K: 41.8 µ m; J: 50.7 µ m; A: 20.8 µ m). The final viscosity of WWF milled with a HM (K: 1304 cP; J: 1249 cP; A: 1548 cP) was higher than that of cultivars milled with a JM (K: 1092 cP; J: 1062 cP; A: 994 cP). Dough extensibility and resistance to extension also differed among the cultivars, and the C2 Mixolab® parameter (an indicator of protein weakening) was influenced by the milling method. Overall, results from principal component analysis showed that, among the three cultivars, Keumkang WWF was the most affected by the milling method.
... The enrichment or improvement of nutritional attributes of tortillas has focused in terms of protein, dietary fibre and or antioxidant capacity. Whole wheat-flour, oat:inulin mixes, whole and defatted soy flour, whole kamut flour, carrot juice, whole waxy barley, pinto bean flour, sprouted whole-wheat flour, sorghum polyphenols, distillers dried grains with solubles are some ingredients previously evaluated in tortilla (Scazzina et al. 2008;Anton et al. 2009;Prasopsunwattana et al. 2009;Barros et al. 2010;Heredia-Olea et al. 2015;Pourafsar et al. 2015;Liu et al. 2017;Perez-Carrillo et al. 2015;Serna-Saldivar 2016). In all cases, the challenge is to retain tortilla quality attributes like colour, texture and organoleptic acceptance. ...
... The 10-SBR tortillas had the highest b* value that laid within typical values for white flour tortillas (Alviola and Awika 2010). Barros et al. (2010) observed that whole grain wheat tortillas were redder and yellower compared to counterparts produced with refined flour. ...
Dry soybean (Glycine max) residue (SBR) is a byproduct rich in dietary fibre and protein with high levels of essential amino acids. The effects due to the substitution of refined wheat flour with 5% or 10% SBR in dough rheology and hot-press tortilla texture, dimensions, colour, protein and dietary fibre contents were studied. Substitution of 10% SBR improved flour in terms of gluten strength and sedimentation without significantly affecting dough hardness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, and extensibility. The dimensions, colour and sensory acceptance of the supplemented tortillas were not affected by the addition of the SBR. The 10% SBR tortillas contained 1.77 times more insoluble dietary fibre, protein content of 9.3%, in vitro protein digestibility of 84% and protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) of 52.63%. Results indicated that wheat flour tortillas with 10% SBR an excellent alternative to regular counterparts owing to their higher dietary fibre and protein quantity and quality.
... Given that Americans are recommended to consume at least half of their grains as whole grains ( USDHHS and USDA, 2015), incorporating whole-wheat flour (WWF) into tortillas is a practical approach to introduce more whole grains into the American diet and potentially increase whole grain consumption. Although WWF can provide more health benefits ( Marquart et al., 2007), the high bran content presents many quality challenges in WWF tortillas, for instance, the larger the flour particle size, the harder and less extensible dough, and less shelfstable tortillas ( Barros et al., 2010). Therefore, strategies designed to improve the quality of WWF tortillas will certainly draw the attention of food manufacturers. ...
... For all three wheat classes, WWF-0 had significantly (p < 0.05) shorter stability time than its corresponding SG flour. The bran particles in WWF dilute gluten and contribute to weaker dough structure ( Barros et al., 2010). Nevertheless, stability time of WWF increased with the reduction of particle size through fine grinding. ...
... Barros, Alviola, and Rooney (2010) compared the quality of refined and WWF tortillas and found that the WWF tortillas had lower opacity scores than their corresponding refined flour tortillas. The high fiber content in WWF weakens the gluten network and results in dough less resistant to hot pressing (Barros et al., 2010). Therefore, WWF tortillas have weaker dough structure and integrity to retain the air bubbles created during baking. ...
... Nevertheless, the opacity scores of WWF tortillas were much lower than those of refined flour tortillas, as reported in the literature. The high fiber content in WWF weakens gluten strength, so the dough is less resistant to hot press, which makes it difficult to retain the gas created during baking (Barros et al., 2010). Thus, translucency is more severe in the WWF tortilla system and higher levels of leavenings were necessary. ...
... Since wheat flour dough is a viscoelastic material, it gradually relaxes with equilibrium stress depending on molecular structure (Steffe, 1996). Relaxation time is the time that is required for the maximum dough compression force to decay 36.8% of its value (Barros, Alviola, & Rooney, 2010). Doughs requiring shorter time to relax have weak gluten network which are expected to produce large diameter tortillas, and vice versa (Barros et al., 2010). ...
... Relaxation time is the time that is required for the maximum dough compression force to decay 36.8% of its value (Barros, Alviola, & Rooney, 2010). Doughs requiring shorter time to relax have weak gluten network which are expected to produce large diameter tortillas, and vice versa (Barros et al., 2010). ...
Ingredient substitution can produce modest changes in wheat dough that are not detectable by standard methods, but significantly impact final product quality. This study used dynamic oscillatory frequency sweep tests to evaluate effects of substitution of sodium with potassium and calcium based leavening systems on tortilla dough viscoelastic properties in relation to final product quality. Treatments involved replacing 0, 50 and 100% NaHCO3. Complex modulus (G*) and phase angle (δ) values of dough samples were determined at increasing frequencies (0.01–10 Hz/25 °C) within the linear viscoelastic region (5 Pa/25 °C). Tortillas were processed and evaluated for quality over 16 d of storage. Traditional dough compression force and relaxation time from stress relaxation test did not detect treatment effects (P < 0.05). Significant differences (P < 0.05) in dough G* and δ values were detected above 3.162 Hz and 0.01 Hz, respectively. Final tortilla quality (flexibility, diameter, and color) was significantly affected by treatment. Tortilla flexibility was highly correlated with G* (r = −0.92) and δ (r = −0.80) at 10 Hz. Dynamic oscillatory testing can predict the functional performance of leavening agents for producing tortillas with superior shelf stability.
... The RF protein values agree with the results obtained by Park et al. (2010) and Barros et al. (2010). The WF protein values agree with results obtained by Barros et al. (2010) and Doblado-Maldonado et al. (2012). ...
... The RF protein values agree with the results obtained by Park et al. (2010) and Barros et al. (2010). The WF protein values agree with results obtained by Barros et al. (2010) and Doblado-Maldonado et al. (2012). According to Oro (2013), variations in protein content can be caused by differences in the percentage of WR and RF in the flour mix. ...
A composição química da farinha de trigo e a presença de fibras afeta as características dos pães. Uma forma de contribuir com a prevenção de doenças crônicas não transmissíveis é através de alimentação saudável, incluindo grãos integrais na dieta alimentar e reduzindo as calorias de determinado alimento, substituindo a gordura. Assim, este trabalho tem como objetivo determinar a composição centesimal das amostras de farinha de trigo integral, refinada e as misturas entre elas; bem como os parâmetros farinográficos (absorção de água, tempo de desenvolvimento e estabilidade) das mesmas. Além disso, verificar volume específico, perfil de textura do miolo e análise de imagem de pães elaborados com 60% de farinha de trigo integral e com 3% de gordura ou com substituto de gordura. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância. À medida que aumenta o percentual de farinha integral, os teores de proteína, cinzas e fibra insolúvel alcançam valores significativamente maiores e a absorção de água fica maior na farinografia, bem como o tempo de desenvolvimento e a estabilidade. O amido modificado enzimaticamente utilizado na elaboração de pão com 60% de farinha de trigo integral funcionou como um efetivo substituto de gordura. O pão integral elaborado com substituto de gordura apresentou volume específico significativamente igual ao pão integral elaborado com gordura, porém com diferenças em relação a parâmetros do perfil de textura, maior firmeza e menor elasticidade além de maior densidade celular do que o pão elaborado com gordura.
... These tortillas had approximately 7.5 units lower E color scores compared with counterparts obtained from mill 4. The tortillas from the flour obtained from mill 2 had the highest negative a value, probably because it contained a wheat mix consisting of only red wheats (15% HRW and 85% SRW). Parameter a and b values were similar to data reported by Barros et al (2010) and Ramírez-Wong et al (2007). However, L was lower than that reported by Barros et al (2010) and higher than that reported by Ramírez-Wong et al (2007). ...
... Parameter a and b values were similar to data reported by Barros et al (2010) and Ramírez-Wong et al (2007). However, L was lower than that reported by Barros et al (2010) and higher than that reported by Ramírez-Wong et al (2007). ...
Refined wheat flours commercially produced by five different U.S. and Mexican wheat blends intended for tortilla production were tested for quality and then processed into tortillas through the hot-press forming procedure. Tortilla-making qualities of the flour samples were evaluated during dough handling, hot pressing, baking, and the first five days on the shelf at room temperature. The predominant variables that affected the flour tortilla performance were wet gluten content, alveograph W (220-303) and P/L (0.70-0.94) parameters, farinograph water absorption (57%) and stability (10.8-18.7 mm), starch damage (5.43-6.71%), and size distribution curves (uniform particle distribution). Flours produced from a blend of Dark Northern Spring (80%) and Mexican Rayon (20%) wheat had the highest water absorption, and tortillas obtained from this blend showed the highest diameter and lowest thickness. The whitest and best textured tortillas were obtained from the flour milled from three hard types of Mexican wheat blend. A Mixolab profile was generated from the best tortilla flours, those produced by mills 3 and 4. The Mixolab profile showed that a good flour for hot-press tortillas had a relatively lower absorption and short dough mix time compared with a bread flour and should have a significantly higher gluten compared with an all-purpose flour. Compared with bread flour, the tortilla flour had higher retrogradation and viscosity values. The Mixolab profile proved to be a good preliminary test to evaluate flours for hot-press tortillas.
... On the other hand, refined cereals are those from which almost all valuable ingredients from the raw material have been removed (except endosperm or starch), in order to extend the shelf life of the main component or improve its sensory characteristics [9]. Starch can cause serious health problems in humans, because it becomes mucus in the human body [10]. ...
The aim of the work was to determine how much consumers are aware of the benefits of whole grain products, and whether and how this awareness affects their buying habits. Primary data were collected through a survey questionnaire (non-random sample), then processed in Excel and presented graphically. The results show that the majority of respondents are aware of the benefits of whole grain products and that this awareness greatly influences their purchasing habits. In addition, consumers are influenced by lifestyle, product taste, health benefits, tasting, advertising, price and other people's opinion about the product, etc. Those who answered that they do not consume whole grain products cited the high price as the main reason. They have received information about the benefits of whole grain products from family, relatives, friends, acquaintances, Internet experts and colleagues, but they still lack information. Also, promotion largely creates consumer awareness. Price reduction, tasting, improved taste and promotion would contribute to greater realization of whole grain products. Creating educational campaigns about the benefits of whole grain products would encourage consumers to buy more of them, which would increase their production and have a positive impact on public health.
... The variation in functional properties is attributed to the relative proportion of carbohydrates, lipids and protein in different flours. Functional properties of flours are also changed by processing conditions such as extraction, isolation, drying, milling, blending, baking, cooking and fermentation [4,5,6]. Protein solubility, swelling capacity, water holding capacity, gelling abilities and foaming properties are intrinsic physicochemical properties of flours based on the relative strength of hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups of starch and protein. ...
The functional properties, proximate, mineral and anti-nutritional composition of maize/soya bean composite flour blends were investigated. The maize flour (MF) was blend with soya bean flour (SF) in the ratios of 90:10,80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50 (MF: SF) respectively. The flour blends were analyzed using Standard methods. The range in functional properties of the blends were, bulk density, (0.90 ±0.09 - 0.94 ±0.12g/mL), swelling capacity, (1.79 ±1.68 - 2.29 ±1.22%), pH (5.18 ±0.29 - 6.76 ± 0.48) and water absorption capacity (11.96 ±0.18 - 16.22 ±0.11%). The proximate composition of blend shows that the protein content of the samples increased steadily with increased substitution with soya bean flour 79.13 ±0.10 % in 90:10 and 63.66 ±0.34 % in 50:50 sample ratios while carbohydrate and fiber decreased, fat, and ash increased with increase in soya bean flour addition. The mineral composition of the blends also showed that potassium, phosphorous, iron, zinc and magnesium was increasing, while the anti-nutrient gradually decreased as shown in the following ranges, phytate (0.36 ± 0.01- 1.23 ± 0.01 mg/100g), oxalate (0.10 ± 0.01-0.31 ± 0.01 mg/100g.) and tannin (0.02 ± 0.01- 0.18 ± 0.00 mg/100g) respectively. The study showed that the nutritional value and functional properties of maize flour can be drastically improved by supplementing the flour with adequately processed Soya bean flour. Swelling capacity, water absorption capacity, pH, protein, ash, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, iron, zinc and magnesium contents of the composite blends increased significantly with increased supplementation with soya bean flour. Compositing maize and soya bean flour has resulted in decreased anti-nutrient content of the composite flour samples. Soya beans can effectively be used in locally formulated weaning foods as an acceptable protein supplements. The processes, parameters and formulation developed through this study has successfully produced a high protein energy weaning food with acceptable functional characteristic as well as excellent nutritional quality.
... The developed fish wafers physical parameters in the present work were diameter 5.72cm, thickness 0.7cm, weight of fish wafers 1.33gm, water absorption capacity ( (2019) prepared fish crackers used for snacks with fish bones contained hardness (N) 5.0, Linear expansion (%) 62%. Barros et al. (2010) showing diameter (mm) 164, thickness (mm) 2.35. ...
This study focused on the development and storage of fish wafers made from the deep sea fish Trichiurus lepturus. The wafers consist of 80% tapioca flour and 20% fish powder, underwent a 90-day of storage study, packed in HDPE and LDPE pouches at room temperature. For the assessment of fish wafers, biochemical, microbiological and sensory evaluation were recorded. There was slight increase in the biochemical parameters of fish wafers packed in both HDPE and LDPE bags. TPC at the end of the storage was 2.83×103cfu/g in HDPE and 2.96×103 cfu/g in LDPE, was within the acceptable limit. No mould growth was observed. Sensory evaluation confirmed acceptability until the 90th days of storage. This work demonstrates that the fish wafers stored in HDPE and LDPE pouches ensure the safety and quality of fish wafers.
... Flour tortillas from refined wheat are low in dietary fiber (almost 1.8%) and other desirable components, such as antioxidants. 50 Blue corn is an important maize variety due to its nutritional properties: it contains the highest level of anthocyanins (up to 325 mg/100 g). 51 Bello-P erez et al 52 in 2015 found that the antioxidant capacity and dietary fiber content of blue tortillas are enhanced when made using the nixtamalization process with calcium salts. ...
Meta-inflammation is a chronic, low-grade state of inflammation secondary to cardiometabolic disorders related to overweight (OW), obesity (OB), consumption of poor nutritional and hypercaloric diets with excessive amounts of lipids and sugars. It can lead to severe metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Several studies have reported that plant-based diets (PBDs) can be a useful non-pharmacological therapeutic tool for the prevention and treatment of meta-inflammation, since it has been reported that patients following PBDs have lower serum levels of proinflammatory markers, a reduction in weight, and an overall healthier lipid profile. In this review, we describe the pathophysiology of meta-inflammation, the growing worldwide trend toward adoption of PBDs, and how PBDs act to reduce meta-inflammation.
... In case of T1 and T2, significant difference was observed in fat, as reflected from t value, t (2) =8.55, p= 0.01 and total fiber content, t (2) =6.52, p=0.02. Barros et al. 2010 reported that, the use of whole wheat flour instead of refined flour significantly improved the nutritional profile of flour tortillas. Similarly, wheat flour used for formulating sattu had a positive impact on the nutritional composition of the sattu mix. ...
Wheat (T1) and maize (T2) based sattu were formulated using chick pea, barley and other food adjuncts. Results revealed that, no significant difference was observed in the protein and ash content between control (chickpea basede sattu mix) and T1. However, significant difference was observed between the control and T2 sample between moisture, fat, insoluble and total fiber, with the exception of protein, soluble fiber and ash. In case of T1 and T2, significant difference was observed in fat and total fiber content. Coming on to the mineral composition, significant difference was observed between the mineral content in control and T1, with respect to calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron, manganese and copper. In case of control and T2, significant difference was observed with respect to calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron and copper, with the exception of manganese. Coming on to the mineral content of both the formulations, significant difference was observed with respect to all the minerals estimated. Significant difference was observed in the total amylose content between control and formulated samples on 0, 30 and 60 days. Microstructural studies of raw and roasted sattu and its ingredients by observation under scanning electron microscope revealed that substantial structural changes occurred during processing. The raw grains were tightly packed and contained no air spaces. However, a large number of air spaces are formed in the cotyledon of the roasted grain sample. It was observed that, T1and T2 had medium GI value (56 and 58% respectively), Whereas for control it was 60%. The formulated samples were found to be shelf stable for 60 days at RT, with an increase in moisture content of 4–6%. All the samples were sensorial acceptable and there was no perceptible off odor or off taste.
... This result is in line with previous research [3]. Likewise, [25]says that the tortilla rolling and breaking can be minimized by adding high fiber to the tortilla. Therefore, the addition of fiber-rich flour-like pumpkin can improve the rolling and binding ability of tortilla chips.Different products also show that the Pumpkin dietary fiber and bioactive ingredients and dietary fiber much determine pumpkin bakery products' preventive properties. ...
Consumers’ tendency to prefer practical and ready-to-eat snack products such as tortillas provides new ideas for food diversification that can be accepted by the community. Pumpkin has been developed as an alternative food ingredient that has been processed into flour. It has been used as an alternative for making some products. The high nutritional content of pumpkin, vitamin A and vitamin C is very suitable for raw material in making tortillas expected to produce tortillas with a high level of proteins and vitamins. Not only pumpkin flour, but there is also a potential ingredient for making tortillas, the jackfruit seeds. Jackfruit seeds are waste from jackfruit. This waste becomes a problem of environmental pollution if not addressed immediately. Jackfruit seeds still have a high nutritional content. This study aims to determine the best formulation combination between pumpkin and jackfruit seeds for making tortillas and determine the effect of the combination of pumpkin and jackfruit seed on tortillas’ chemical and organoleptic properties. The research data were analyzed using an experimental design, CRD (completely randomized design) with one factor, the pumpkin and jackfruit seeds combination, treatment A (pumpkin 20%: jackfruit seeds 80%), B (pumpkin 35%: jackfruit seeds 65 %), C (pumpkin 50%: jackfruit seeds 50%), D (pumpkin 65%: jackfruit seeds 35%), E (pumpkin 80%: jackfruit seeds 20%) which is repeated three times to get 15 units trial. The analysis results were continued with the Honestly Significant Difference test (HSD) at the 5% level. The parameters were moisture content, ash content, fiber content, and organoleptic tests (color, aroma, texture, and taste). The results showed that the combination of pumpkin and jackfruit seeds significantly affected the content of moisture, ash, and fiber, and the score of color, taste, and texture but did not affect the tortilla aroma score. The result showed that the decrease of the pumpkin using, the decreased of the moisture, ash, and crude fiber content. The best treatment based on chemical and organoleptic properties is treatment C (50:50). In the future, issues related to the environment will become a concern for humanity in line with industrialization, which causes harmful excess in increased waste. For this reason, the development of agro-industry in the future is a sustainable agro-industry, such as the use of jackfruit seed waste into tortillas.
... Studies have shown that adding dietary fiber increases water absorption and dough stability, whereas negatively affecting the dough development time (Penella et al., 2008;Peressini & Sensidoni, 2009;Rosell et al., 2001). Some researchers found that adding dietary fiber increased dough's resistance to deformation and decreased its extensibility (Barros et al., 2010). ...
This study was performed to investigate the effect of wheat bran dietary fiber (WBDF) on the gluten network structure in fermented doughs. In this study, doughs with varying amounts of WBDF (0%, 6%, or 12%) were fermented for different lengths of time (0–50 min). The free sulfhydryl groups, gluten secondary structure, and dough microstructure were investigated to determine the variations in the gluten matrix during dough fermentation with or without WBDF. The results showed that adding WBDF adversely affected the proper gluten matrix formation, but these defects could be partially overcome by fermentation. Specifically, in the late fermentation stage, the β‐turns increased, implying more optimal formation of the gluten network structure. Adding 6% WBDF enabled the formation of a relatively complete gluten network structure in the sample systems as the fermentation progressed. Dough properties are closely related to the quality of the flour products. Clarifying the effect of WBDF on the gluten network is important for the quality of fiber‐rich dough. A stable and well‐formed gluten network structure is obtained by incorporation of a low percentage (6%) of WBDF and fermentation process. It is beneficial to the production of healthy high‐quality fermented food. This study develops a technological process for the production of flour products enriched with WBDF.
... The holes and voids might cause a less compact and softer texture of the cooked noodles, which was consistent with the decrease of the noodle hardness values. It has been reported that the inner and surface structure (porosity) of the noodle strands had a great effect on the texture properties of the noodles (Barros et al., 2010).In general, the semolina in dough strengthened the cross-linking amongst gluten network, reducing hollows and voids in the noodle structure. Subsequently, the changes in the inner and surface microstructure of the noodles influenced the sensory quality of the final product. ...
Orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) noodles were created by replacing a portion of the wheat flour with OFSP flour in a formulation. This study was performed to identify the physical and chemical characteristics as well as sensorial attributes of noodles prepared from OFSP with some flours (wheat flour and semolina). The addition of xanthan gum and incubation time was examined. Instrumental analyses of noodles (cooking loss, volume increase, rehydration ratio, structure and microstructure) were carried out to assess the impact of experimental factors. The obtained results revealed that noodles made with more OFSP flour had a more yellow color than those with less OFSP flour. The mixture of OFSP and wheat flour in the formula F2 (the percent of OFSP 18.79% and wheat flour 28.18%) produced noodles with high quality and was the most favorable in appearance, taste, texture, and acceptability among the four formulas. Cooking weight and volume were increased from 164.89 to 174.12% and from 184.74 to 194.81%, respectively when semolina was added to the formula. The supplemental semolina 10.57%, xanthan gum of 2% and the incubation time 30 mins were obtained to enhance dough binding properties. The results suggest that OFSP flour could be replaced up to 40% wheat flour for noodles to improve the nutritional value (i.e. increased b-carotene) and might be acceptable to consumers with health food.
... The variations in functional properties are attributed to the relative proportions of carbohydrates, protein, and lipids in different flours. Also, the functional properties of flours are changed by changes in the processing conditions such as milling, blending, fermentation, baking, extraction, isolation, drying, and cooking (Amza et al., 2011;Barros et al., 2010;Basediya et al., 2013). A blend formation of low quality of frequently available cereals with good functional characteristics may be valuable in improving the economic value and quality of food products (Abou et al., 2010;Olapade and Akinyanju, 2014;Ogori et al., 2013). ...
The study focused on evaluating proximate compositions and functional properties of different flour blends. Three representative flour samples were produced from each mixture of maize-millet, soybean-wheat, and rice-wheat in the ratios of 70:30, 50:50, and 30:70 percent for all combinations. The proximate composition and functional properties of flour blends were determined using the methods of AOAC. There was significant difference in the proximate compositions of the flours (p =0.05). The moisture content of the blends was highest at 5.41% for maize-millet blend ratio of 70:30% and lowest at 1.8% for soybean-wheat blend ratio of 30:70%. The crude protein content of the grain flour samples ranged from 16.32% to 44.10%. Soybean-wheat flour blend had the highest fat content of 7.34% for 70:30% and maize-millet blend had the least fat content of 1.30 for 50:50%. Maize-millet flour blend had the highest ash content of 4.02% for 30:70% and lowest for rice-wheat with 0.35% for 50:50%. The percent carbohydrate content of the flours ranged from 42.60% to 65.01%. The percent crude fibre content of the flours ranged from 2.13% to 10.01%. Soya bean-wheat flour blend had the highest average crude fibre content. There was significant difference in the functional properties of the flour blends (p =0.05). The oil absorption capacity (OAC) of the flours ranged from 1.00 to 2.25 ml/g. The rice-wheat flour blend had the highest water absorption capacity (WAC) of 2.60 ml/g for 30:70% blend ratio, while the lowest WAC was 0.50 ml/g for soybean-wheat blend. The foaming capacity (FC) of the flour blends ranged from 10.83 to 15.40%, while the emulsion capacity ranged from 35.05% to 50.95%. The swelling index ranged from 1.13% to 1.98%. The high emulsion capacity of soybean-wheat flour blend suggested that it was more digestible and therefore could be suitable for use as ingredient in infant food formulations.The high swelling index indicates that rice-wheat flour blend could be more suitable in food systems where swelling is required. The high emulsion capacity of soybean-wheat flour blend suggested that it was more digestible and therefore could be suitable for use as ingredient in infant food formulations.
... Wang, Hou, Kweon, and Lee, in 2016 investigated the effects of particle size on solvent retention capacity, expandability and cracker baking performance in two US soft wheat cultivars. Barros et al. (2010) compared the physical and rheological properties of refined and whole wheat tortillas. The presence of high quantity of bran may provide quality challenges in flour, i.e. the larger the flour particle size, the harder and less extensible the dough produced, and the more reduced the shelf stability. ...
In the present study, the effect of particle size (PS) on phenolic acid content and proximate composition (moisture, ash, protein, total fat, crude fiber and total carbohydrates) of whole-wheat flour (WWF) was determined. Five different particle size fractions <1.18 to>0.43, <0.43 to>0.30, <0.30 to>0.15, < 0.15 to>0.08 mm, and < 0.08 mm (ASTM recommended), of three commercial wheat varieties (Benazir, TJ-83, Imdad) were used for the present study. Total phenolic acid was determined using HPLC-DAD detections after base hydrolysis of the samples. Proximate composition of each particle size fraction of all three wheat flours were determined by recommended AOAC methods. In all wheat varieties, maximum quantities of total phenolic acids (162.12–554.16 mg/100 g) were obtained from <1.18 to>0.43 mm PS fractions. The maximum moisture content (8.12–8.98 g/100 g) was observed in the two lower PS (<0.15 mm) fractions while ash and protein were highest in the largest PS (<1.18 to>0.43) i.e. 2.10–2.77 mg/100 g and 10.9–11.8 mg/100 g respectively. The total fat (0.24-0.53 mg/100 g) and crude fiber (0.40-0.59 mg/100 g) were highest in <0.43 to>0.30 PS fraction of all wheat varieties. The average carbohydrates (g/100 g) and energy (kilojoules) were ranged from 77.4-79.9, 1502.0-–1518.8 for Imdad; 79.7-84.3, 1518.8-–1527.2 for Benazir; and 78.4-81.1, 1506.2-–1518.8 for TJ-83 wheat varieties. Pearson correlation showed negative correlation between particle size and carbohydrate and energy content and positive correlation with phenolic acids content. This study concludes that particle size has direct influence on the distribution of phenolic acids, carbohydrate, protein, crude fiber, ash, crude fat and moisture in the three wheat varieties.
... Stress relaxation experiments have been widely used with many foods but have found a lot of intense applications with wheat flour dough since slower relaxation times are associated with good baking quality (Bloksma, 1990;Wang and Sun, 2002;Barros et al., 2010;Chen and Fu, 2016). Measurements of large-deformation creep and stress relaxation properties were found to be useful to distinguish between 10 5 10 4 10 3 10 2 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4 ...
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Basic Concepts................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2.1 Stress and Strain.................................................................................................................. 3
1.2.2 Classification of Materials................................................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Types of Deformation.......................................................................................................... 4
1.2.3.1 Shear Flow ........................................................................................................... 4
1.2.3.2 Extensional (Elongational) Flow ......................................................................... 7
1.2.3.3 Volumetric Flows................................................................................................. 9
1.2.4 Response of Viscous and Viscoelastic Materials in Shear and Extension.......................... 9
1.2.4.1 Stress Relaxation................................................................................................ 10
1.2.4.2 Creep...................................................................................................................11
1.2.4.3 Small Amplitude Oscillatory Measurements .....................................................11
1.2.4.4 Interrelations between Steady Shear and Dynamic Properties..........................14
1.3 Methods of Measurement................................................................................................................18
1.3.1 Shear Measurements.......................................................................................................... 19
1.3.2 Small Amplitude Oscillatory Measurements (SAOS)....................................................... 24
1.3.3 Large Amplitude Oscillatory Measurements.................................................................... 26
1.3.3.1 Time Dependency of Tomato Paste, Mayonnaise and Soft and Hard
Dough in SAOS and LAOS ................................................................................41
1.3.4 Extensional Measurements................................................................................................ 44
1.3.5 Stress Relaxation ............................................................................................................... 53
1.3.6 Creep Recovery ................................................................................................................. 57
1.3.7 Transient Shear Stress Development ..................................................................................61
1.3.8 Yield Stresses..................................................................................................................... 63
1.4 Constitutive Models ....................................................................................................................... 64
1.4.1 Simulation of Steady Rheological Data ............................................................................ 66
1.4.2 Linear Viscoelastic Models............................................................................................... 67
1.4.2.1 Maxwell Model.................................................................................................. 71
1.4.2.2 Voigt Model ....................................................................................................... 73
1.4.2.3 Multiple Element Models................................................................................... 76
1.4.2.4 Mathematical Evolution of Nonlinear Constitutive Models.............................. 78
1.4.3 Nonlinear Constitutive Models ......................................................................................... 81
1.4.3.1 Differential Constitutive Models....................................................................... 81
1.4.3.2 Integral Constitutive Models ............................................................................. 84
1.4.3.3 Simulation for Large Amplitude Oscillatory Flow............................................ 89
1.5 Molecular Information from Rheological Measurements............................................................. 91
1.5.1 Dilute Solution Molecular Theories.................................................................................. 91
1.5.2 Concentrated Solution Theories........................................................................................ 94
1.5.2.1 The Bird-Carreau Model ................................................................................... 94
1.5.3 Understanding Polymeric Properties from Rheological Properties.................................101
1.5.3.1 Gel Point Determination...................................................................................101
1.5.3.2 Glass Transition Temperature and the Phase Behavior ................................... 105
1.5.3.3 Networking Properties..................................................................................... 107
1.6 Use of Rheological Properties in Practical Applications..............................................................111
1.6.1 Sensory Evaluations .........................................................................................................112
1.6.2 Molecular Conformations.................................................................................................115
1.6.3 Product and Process Characterization .............................................................................117
1.7 Numerical Simulation of Flows....................................................................................................119
1.7.1 Numerical Simulation Techniques...................................................................................119
1.7.2 Selection of Constitutive Models......................................................................................121
1.7.3 Finite Element Simulations ..............................................................................................121
1.7.3.1 FEM Techniques for Viscoelastic Fluid Flows................................................ 122
1.7.3.2 FEM Simulations of Flow in an Extruder ....................................................... 123
1.7.3.3 FEM Simulations of Flow in Model Mixers.................................................... 126
1.7.3.4 FEM Simulations of Mixing Efficiency .......................................................... 128
1.7.4 Verification and Validation of Mathematical Simulations...............................................133
1.8 Concluding Remarks.................................................................................................................... 136
References.............................................................................................................................................. 138
... On the other hand, the changes that occur in dough will be due to the increase in theoretical surface area of GPF after grinding. It is known that when wheat flour is supplemented with fibers or by-products rich in fibrous materials (Barros et al. 2010;Almeida et al. 2010) the dough rheological characteristics are modified, that changes are attributed to the disruption of the gluten protein matrix. The nature and extent of GPF interactions with the gluten protein matrix play a dominant role on both processing dough and final product quality of baked products. ...
The present study was undertaken to assess the effects generated by grape peels flour (GPF), as a source of dietary fibers, on the white wheat flour (WF) dough rheological behavior. Dynamic and empirical rheological measurements were carried out in order to study the viscoelasticity of GPF-enriched wheat flour-based dough matrices and to identify the main actions of GPF particle size (large, medium, and small) at replacement levels from 0% up to 9%. The water competition of GPF is explained by different water binding and gelling capacities, synergistic and/or antagonistic effects of GPF compounds on the major rheological properties. Power low and Burgers models were successfully fitted with the dynamic oscillatory and creep-recovery data being suitable to interpret viscoelastic behavior of dough. Composite flour dough with smaller particle size presented higher G′ and G″ values at addition level above 5% GPF, exhibiting higher viscous component with concomitantly higher peak viscosity. Creep-recovery tests for samples with small particle size at 5% addition level showed that the elasticity and the recoverable proportion was higher compared to the rest of GPF formulations and control sample. Significant correlations (p < 0.05) were found between several parameters determined by both dynamic and empirical rheological measurements which have essential roles in monitoring GPF-enriched wheat flour dough in a wide set of different kinds of samples. This information could be helpful to optimize the particle size and addition level of GPF that could be useful to produce GPF-enriched designed bread.
... As the MZ decreased from 487.9 to 148.5μm, there was no significant difference for the moisture content among all the groups, while the oil content of instant fried noodles decreased from 26.5 to 19.8%, which close to the similar level of control. It had been reported that oil content of instant fried noodles was highly related to the inner structure of noodles [33]. ...
... This is probably a less favorable end-use property of whole wheat products due to the bran and germ, which deteriorate rheological characteristics. Thus, the inferior quality of whole grain products has been an issue, and research has been focused on enhancing the nutritional and functional quality of the final products from whole wheat flour (8). The goal of this study was to evaluate the compositions, emphasizing on the dietary fiber and protein contents, of 31 Korean wheat cultivars and to categorize them into groups with a high similarity in the chemical compositions in order to specify a potential genetic source for wheat breeding lines with high dietary fiber content. ...
Whole grain wheat flour (WGWF) is the entire grain (bran, endosperm, and germ) milled to make flour. The WGWF of 31 Korean wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars were analyzed for the chemical compositions, and classified into groups by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCL). The average composition values showed a substantial variation among wheat varieties due to different wheat varieties. Wheat cv. Shinmichal1 (waxy wheat) had the highest ash, lipid, and total dietary fiber contents of 1.76, 3.14, and 15.49 g/100 g, respectively. Using HCL efficiently classified wheat cultivars into 7 clusters. Namhae, Sukang, Gobun, and Joeun contained higher protein values (12.88%) and dietary fiber (13.74 %). Regarding multi-trait crop breeding, the variation in chemical compositions found between the clusters might be attributed to wheat genotypes, which was an important factor in accumulating those chemicals in wheat grains. Thus, once wheat cultivars with agronomic characteristics were identified, those properties might be included in the breeding process to develop a new variety of wheat with the trait.
... The variation in functional properties is attributed to the relative proportion of carbohydrates, lipids and protein in different flours. Functional properties of flours are also changed by any change in the processing conditions such as extraction, isolation, drying, milling, blending, baking, cooking and fermentation (Amza et al., 2011;Barros, Alviola, & Rooney, 2010;Basediya et al., 2013). Low quality blend formation of frequently available cereals possessing good functional characteristics may be helpful in improving the quality and economic value of food products (Abou et al., 2010;Ogori et al., 2013;Olapade & Akinyanju, 2014). ...
Functional properties such as protein solubility, swelling capacity, water holding capacity, gelling ability, bulk density and foaming capacity of flours of some commonly used cereals and legume (wheat, refined wheat, maize and chickpea) and their blends were studied. Blends of flours were prepared by mixing equal proportions of selected floors. Statistically significant difference in studied functional properties except bulk density was observed among cereal flours and their blends. Chickpea flour was found to possess comparatively high water holding capacity, protein solubility index and swelling capacity. The functional properties of maize and wheat flours were found to be improved when blended with chickpea. Chickpea flour and its blends with cereal flours were found to possess good functional score and suggested as favorable candidates for use in the preparation of viscous foods and bakery products. The data provide guidelines regarding the improvement in functional properties of economically favorable cereal flours.
... Dough extensibility is the most critical parameter for predicting the final tortilla diameter (F. Barros, Alviola, & Rooney, 2010) because an extensible dough can spread more during hot-pressing without shrinking back or tearing, thereby producing intact, large diameter tortillas. Dough extensibility values of the samples varied widely and ranged from 20.5 to 75.5 mm (Table 3). ...
Deletion of one or more high molecular weight glutenin subunit (HMW-GS) alleles alters gluten functionality in ways that can be exploited to design wheat for specialty products. In this work, we investigated whether combining 7 + 9 allelic pair at Glu-B1 locus with deletion of other HMW-GS alleles at Glu-A1or Glu-D1 locus would produce ideal gluten functionality for tortillas. Flours from 17 wheat lines were evaluated for insoluble polymeric protein (IPP) content and gluten properties. Tortillas were produced by hot-press method and evaluated during 16 days storage. Compared to non-deletion lines, deletion line generally had lower IPP (362 vs 414 mg/g); produced more extensible dough (44.9 vs 33.4 mm), which required lower equilibrium force to compress (4.12 vs 7.55 N); and produced larger diameter tortillas (180 vs 165 mm). In general, deletion lines produced tortillas with poor flexibility (score <3.0) after 16 days. However, combination of 7 + 9 allelic pair at Glu-B1 locus with deletions at Glu-A1 or Glu-D1 consistently produced large diameter tortillas that retained good flexibility during 16 days of storage. The 7 + 9 allelic pair at Glu-B1 plays a crucial role in wheat gluten functionality essential for tortillas, and may be a good target for genetic improvement of wheat for flatbreads.
... % [43], where as that in polished rice is still lower at 0.22 to 1.25 % [44]. The use of whole wheat flour instead of refined flour significantly improved the nutritional profile of flour tortillas [45]. There are different functional foods developed in different countries like USA, Japan, EU from whole grains considering its nutritional potential [46]. ...
Whole grains are reported to be rich in nutrients, nutraceuticals and have number of health beneficial effects. A convenient multi-whole grain mix for the preparation of a drink or porridge was formulated by using cereals, millets, pulses and nuts. Particle size was mostly of 180-250 microns (52%). Amylograph characteristics like GT, PV, HPV, CPV were 82°C, 285BU, 310BU, and 605BU, respectively were ideal for drink. The mix was found to be rich in carbohydrate, protein, fibre and calorie. The 100g of the mix had nutraceuticals like carotenoids (290µg), γ-tocopherol (4.6mg), α-tocopherol (1.5mg), and polyphenols-soluble, bound and total (94,132 and 226mg GA Eq.). Bioactive properties like vitamin E activity, free radical scavenging activity, total antioxidant activity and starch digestibility were 2.6i.u., 153mg catechin.Eq./100g, 17mg Tocopherol equivalent and 61.8%. Mix was sensorily acceptable in the form of drink and porridge and can be used as an ideal nutritious food for all age group.
... The negative correlation between bran colour yellowness and rupture distance (r=-0.31) and the occurrence of the bran colour parameters in the stepwise regression models may be linked to the weakening of the gluten network due to the increase in the fibre content through the addition of the bran (Barros, Alviola, & Rooney, 2010). ...
Kernel colour variation in hard white wheat can be concern due to a lack of consistency because one of the main advantages is their lighter kernel colour which can produce visually appealing lighter coloured end-products. This study was carried out to determine the effect of the environment on commercially grown hard white wheat grain quality including colour and its association with whole wheat end-product quality. Commercial samples of the hard white spring cultivar Snowbird were collected over the 2003-2007 crop years from agro-climatic zones in western Canada. Samples were analyzed for kernel colour and for physicochemical, rheological and end-product properties. Kernel, bran, whole wheat and straight grade flour and whole wheat end-product colours were recorded using the CIE L* a* b* scale. The agro-climatic zone in which the grain was grown had a significant effect on the kernel and bran colour. However the agro-climatic zone had only a limited effect on whole wheat pan bread colour but did have a greater effect on whole wheat tortilla and whole wheat yellow alkaline noodle colour. Kernel colour parameters only had a limited effect on the whole wheat end-product colour.
... In pasta products, the addition of cereal fractions influences water absorption, the swelling index, optimum cooking and cooking loss, texture (rubbery, chewy, decrease in pasta firmness), appearance (colour, surface roughness) and taste (Foschia, Peressini, Sensidoni, & Brennan, 2013). Several studies on the technological and sensory effects of replacing refined flour by whole-wheat flour or bran and aleurone into food products are published every year (Aravind, Sissons, Egan, & Fellows, 2012; Barros, Alviola, & Rooney, 2010; Brennan, Merts, Monro, Woolnough, & Brennan, 2008; Lebesi & Tzia, 2011; Schmiele, Jaekel, Patricio, Steel, & Chang, 2012; Sudha, Vetrimani, & Leelavathi, 2007). Most of the studies are focused on wheat bran due to its high nutritional value and low price. ...
... % [43], where as that in polished rice is still lower at 0.22 to 1.25 % [44]. The use of whole wheat flour instead of refined flour significantly improved the nutritional profile of flour tortillas [45]. There are different functional foods developed in different countries like USA, Japan, EU from whole grains considering its nutritional potential [46]. ...
Background
Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are encouraged to choose refined grains instead of whole grains as part of the low-phosphorus diet for managing chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorders (CKD-MBD). However, there is no direct evidence indicating that limiting whole grains has a beneficial impact on CKD outcomes.
Methods
This study analyzed Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort data in two ways, namely cross-sectional examination of CKD-MBD biomarkers and prospective examination of health outcomes. A total of 4,067 (cross-sectional) and 4,331 (prospective) participants were included. The primary exposure was reported intake of whole grains (analyzed as servings/day, servings/1,000kcal, and refined grain servings/whole grain servings). CKD-MBD biomarkers included serum phosphorus, fibroblast growth factor-23, parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, and calcium. Outcomes included cardiovascular events, kidney failure, and all-cause mortality.
Results
In adjusted models, reported intake of whole grains was associated with higher phosphorus intake and serum phosphorus when assessed crudely (serving/day), but not when analyzed in relation to energy. Higher intake of refined grain relative to whole grains was associated (all models) with higher risk of kidney failure (Model 4: 1.01, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.02; P=0.01, all-cause mortality (Model 4: 1.01, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.01; P=0.01), and cardiovasulcar disease except for the fully adjusted model. Higher dietary density was associated with lower mortality in models adjusted for demographic and clinical factors including kidney function, but not in the fully adjusted model that futher adjusted for dietary factors.
Conclusion
Intake of whole grains was not associated with CKD-MBD biomarkers. Intake of whole grains in relation to refined grains was associated with lower risk of cardiovascular disease, kidney failure, and mortality. The results of this study put into question the long-standing practice of restricting whole grains in patients with chronic kidney disease.
Bakery products are prevalently consumed foods in the world, and they have been regarded as convenient dietary vehicles for delivering nutritive ingredients into people's diet, of which, dietary fiber (DF) is one of the most popular items. The food industry attempts to produce fiber-enriched bakery products with both increasing nutritional value and appealing palatability. As many new sources of DFs become available, and consumers are moving towards healthier diets, studies of using these DFs as functional ingredients in baked goods are becoming vast. Besides, the nutrition value of DF is commonly accepted, and many investigations have also revealed the health benefits of fiber-enriched bakery products. Thus, this chapter presents an overview of (1) trends in supplementation of DF from various sources, (2) impact of DF on dough processing, quality and physiological functionality of bakery products, and (3) technologies used to improve the compatibility of DF in bakery products.
For the first time, wheat bran was fermented with Eurotium cristatum.
(E. cristatum), and alterations in the structural and functional characteristics were explored. The results showed that the soluble dietary fibre (SDF) content significantly increased in fermented bran, and the water and oil holding capacities improved. The total polyphenols, anthocyanin, and main flavour substance phenylethyl alcohol were significantly increased by E. cristatum fermentation. The ferulic acid content was approximately 12.06 times higher in fermented bran than in unfermented bran. These changes may be due to the release of hydrolytic enzymes during E. cristatum fermentation. E. cristatum fermentation enhanced the antioxidant and anti-obesity activities of bran. Furthermore, this study showing that E. cristatum fermentation produced β-hydroxy acid metabolites of monacolin K (MKA) in wheat bran. Thus, this research suggests that E. cristatum can be a starter culture to produce functional foods.
Dietary fiber (DF) is often characterized by high nutritional quality, as it can cure many chronic diseases and improve texture, sensory characteristics, and the shelf life of food. This chapter presents the applications of DF in flour products. The quality characteristics of DF enriched in bread, biscuits, noodles, and cakes are presented and described. The partial mechanism of DF in flour products is discussed from several basic aspects, such as the effects of dough properties (mixing properties, pasting properties, and elastic properties) and the gluten network. DF-induced changes in water migration and protein structure in dough were also analyzed. The primary purpose of this chapter is to comprehensively evaluate potential applications of DF in flour products, addressing common problems, and reviewing potential solutions to promote further study and applications of DF. We anticipate the prospects for applying DF in flour products.
As the market does not offer a portable and long-lasting product combining rice and beans in a single preparation, this study intends to characterize a new and alternative gluten-free biscuit, based on the most classic Brazilian staple food: rice and beans. For that, six formulations were designed to test using those ingredients as raw flours and cooked grains. One of them, formulated with wheat flour served as control. After baking, biscuits were submitted to instrumental, physicochemical, and consumer's sensory tests. Tests showed that when cooked beans substituted dried beans flour, the notes of acceptance increased and nutritional profile improved significantly (p < 0.05), which demonstrated to be an innovative use to bakery ingredients. One of the formulations even superseded the acceptance of the control formulation. At least two of the rice and beans formulations presented physicochemical profiles close to the control, with good protein (±10 g/100g) and mineral (±5 g/100g) contents, also being a food source of fibers (±8.2 g/100g), meaning they can bring potential benefits to people on gluten-restricted diets and celiac consumers, as well as to Brazilians who could consume rice and beans, now in a new versatile way.
Whole‐grain foods (from cereals and pseudocereals) have been proven to exert protective role against the risks of many chronic diseases through the number of epidemiological studies. Dietary fibers, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds, such as phenolic compounds, phytosterols, tocols, and carotenoids are concentrated much more in the outer layers of grains, which are discarded during the production of refined grains. Thus, development of healthy grain‐based products will increase the functional properties of final product and provides beneficial physiological effect. One of the strategies for the development of healthy products relies on incorporating whole‐grain flours, which presents a technological challenge as it results in negative changes in the product structure and overall sensory quality. This chapter discuss various healthy grains based product and its nutritional and functional properties.
Research background:
Wholewheat flour is a very good source of nutritional compounds and functional ingredients for human diet. However, it causes negative effect on bread quality. Different milling techniques can be used to obtain wholewheat flour, minimizing the negative effect of both bran and germ on bread quality. The aim of this work is to study the effect of particle size and shape of wholegrain flour on the interaction among the different components, water distribution, dough rheology and bread volume.
Experimental approach:
Wholewheat flour of three varieties (Klein Rayo, Fuste and INTA 815) was obtained in cyclonic, hammer and roller mills. The characteristics of wholewheat flour were explored, and the water distribution and rheological properties of dough were determined by thermogravimetric analysis and Mixolab test, respectively. Finally, microscale bread was prepared.
Results and conclusions:
The amount of water-soluble pentosans, damaged starch and wet gluten was affected by the milling procedure. Regarding dough rheological properties, wholewheat flour obtained in hammer mill had the lowest water absorption capacity and the highest developing time. This result could be mainly attributed to particle shape in these samples with large amount of endosperm attached to the bran, hindering protein unfolding. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that both fine and large bran particle size seem to have the same effect on water properties in wholewheat dough during heating. Bread made with Klein Rayo variety had the highest specific volume, indicating that wheat with high protein content and breadmaking quality is needed to make wholewheat bread. The results of this work showed that particle shape, rather than particle size, affected the quality of wholewheat flour for breadmaking.
Novelty and scientific contribution:
The effect of milling type and particle shape of the wholewheat flour had a greater effect than the wheat variety. Thus, the wholegrain milling process should be carefully selected taking to account the shape of the produced particle. This may open new opportunities for developing wholewheat bread with better acceptance by consumers.
This chapter describes the characteristics of traditional Mexican foods to readers from all backgrounds. It discusses the instrumental texture characteristics of corn and wheat tortillas, alegria (an amaranth seed sweet), ate (a firm gel made from fruits with high pectin content), pan de muerto (a traditional seasonal bread), and queso Cotija (a local ripened cheese). In Mexico, many people tear the soft corn tortilla into pieces so that each part carries food from the dish to the mouth as it would be done with a spoon. Xanthan, a microbial polysaccharide used as a food thickener, has been included as an ingredient into the formulation for tortilla making. Among the traditional Mexican foods, corn and wheat tortillas have evolved into industrial production and have transcended the country's borders to become global food.
Wheat is the most widely grown cereal crop in the world. It is the main material of major staple food in many diets, providing a large proportion of daily energy intake [1]. The demand for wheat for human consumption is also increasing globally, including in countries which are climatically unsuited for wheat production, due to the adoption of Western-style diets. After grinding, wheat flour can be used for the preparation of bread, steamed bread, biscuits, noodles, and other foods; wheat flour also can be fermented into beer, alcohol, liquor (such as vodka), or biomass fuel.
In the present study, the hypoglycemic effects of wheat bran alkyresorcinols were investigated in type 2 diabetes mellitus mice induced by a high-fat/high-sucrose diet combined with low dose streptozotocin.
Chemical composition (moisture, protein, starch, ash, fiber, fat), vitamins (vitamin C, vitamin B1, vitamin B2), total polyphenol content, antioxidant capacity, minerals, and amino acid of 14 potato cultivars in China were evaluated. The results indicated that all parameters varied significantly among different potato cultivars. The total starch, crude protein and fat content ranged between 57.42–67.83%, 10.88–14.10% and 0.10–0.73% dry weight (DW), respectively. Moreover, the consumption of potato increased remarkably the dietary intake of vitamins, K, Mn and Cu. In addition, the chemical score of amino acid varied considerably between different cultivars, which ranged from 54 (Neida 3 and Neida 41) to 71 (Neida 34). Grey relational analysis (GRA) indicated that Neida 26 exhibited the most comprehensive nutritional values among potato cultivars, followed by Neida 42. Different potato flours had a significant effect on the quality parameters of potato steamed bread (PSB), Neida 26 and Neida 34 were more suitable for making PSB.
Le problème dans cette étude est celui de l’incorporation de la gomme Grewia mollis dans le mélange blé-taro avec pour objet d’améliorer le taux de substitution du blé par la farine de taro qui, selon la littérature, ne peut dépasser de valeurs allant de 10 à 15 % sans altérer de façon considérable la qualité de la pâte de pain. Les objectifs définis dans cette étude sont triples : (1) d’abord connaitre les propriétés de la farine de taro variété Lamba qui, avant cette étude n’a pas fait l’objet d’études antérieures. (2) Déterminer les conditions optimales d’extraction de la gomme Grewia, dont on connait de la littérature les caractéristiques physicochimiques et fonctionnelles et pas les meilleures conditions d’extraction. (3) Etudier dans un plan de mélange à trois composantes l’effet du pourcentage de gomme, de farine de taro et blé sur les propriétés rhéologiques et sensorielles de la pâte et du pain. Dans cette étude les méthodes usuelles de caractérisation ont été utilisées. Pour l’objectif 1, le dispositif expérimental prend en compte la taille du tubercule (4 modalités) comme facteurs, et les paramètres mesurés sont : la composition proximale, la granulométrie et la forme de particules, les propriétés thermiques et rhéologiques de la farine. Pour l’objectif 2, la gomme est extraite selon un plan composite centré à faces centrées avec comme facteurs le ratio volume d’eau sur masse de la poudre de l’écorce, la température et le temps d’extraction, et les réponses sont la viscosité de la solution et le taux d’extraction. Une caractérisation du profil de sucres de la gomme a été faite. Pour l’objectif 3, un plan de mélange ternaire Grewia-taro-blé à contraintes a été effectué. Le volume de pousse de la pâte, le test de double morsure, le test du fluage-recouvrement ont été mesurés sur la pâte, alors que les pains obtenus ont fait l’objet d’une analyse du test de double compression et d’acceptabilité. Les résultats de l’objectif 1 ont montré que la composition physicochimique du taro varie en fonction de la masse et du pelage, le profil en acide aminé présente une absence des acides aminés soufrés. Les résultats de l’extraction de la gomme dans l’objectif 2 ont montré que seul le ratio augmente significativement la viscosité et le rendement d’extraction de la gomme. Les conditions optimales d’extraction de la gomme Grewia mollis sont les suivantes: pH: 7,1 temps : 1h température: 73,1 °C ratio eau / poudre : 55,4 / 1, pour une viscosité de 0,98 Pa.s et un rendement de 0,32%. Les résultats de l’objectif 3 montrent que l’augmentation de la gomme Grewia mollis entraine une augmentation de la capacité d’absorption d’eau des farines mélangées, une augmentation de la viscoélasticité, du volume de pousse, du volume de pain, de l’acceptabilité générale jusqu’à un seuil de 2,5% puis une baisse est observée. Les analyses de corrélation ont montré que l’augmentation de la capacité d’absorption d’eau entraine une baisse des paramètres du fluage et du recouvrement de la pâte, du volume de pousse
Practical applications:
Refined wheat flour in the recipe for instant-fried noodle was replaced by whole wheat flour (WWF), which is rich in dietary fibers, vitamins, and other bioactive compounds. The addition of WWF delayed the retrogradation tendency of starch in the dry mix. WWF-added instant noodles had softer texture, less sticky surface, and lower peroxide value. Based on the results of this study, the refined wheat flour in the recipe for instant-fried noodle could be partially replaced by WWF to make noodles with better texture profile and higher consumer acceptance.
To improve the nutritional, physical and flavor properties of wheat bran, yeast and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were used for fermenting wheat bran in solid state. Appearance properties, nutritional properties, microstructure, hydration properties and flavor of raw bran and fermented bran were evaluated. After treatments, water extractable arabinoxylans were 3-4 times higher than in raw bran. Total dietary fiber and soluble dietary fiber increased after solid state fermentation. Over 20% of phytic acid was degraded. Microstructure changes and protein degradation were observed in fermented brans. Water holding capacity and water retention capacity of fermented brans were improved. Results suggest that solid state fermentation is an effective way to improve the properties of wheat brans.
Wheat is among our quantitatively most important foods, and is a major source of energy, protein, and several micronutrients. Due to cultural preferences, the bran and germ fraction of wheat is usually removed before the wheat is used for human consumption. Although the starch content does not change dramatically, the fiber content is strongly reduced, since a large part of the fiber is found in the outer bran layers of the wheat kernel. Starch is a dominant constituent of wheat, and is found in the endosperm fraction of the wheat kernel as semicrystalline granules that must be heat treated to be completely digestible in the human small intestine. The fiber content in wheat is highest in the outer layers, and is dominated by arabinoxylans. Due to a high lignification, the fiber of the outer layers of the wheat kernel is rather insoluble and inert. As a major source of energy in many countries, wheat is a significant contributor to obesity, and, since starch is a major source of energy, wheat is also a significant contributor to the pathogenesis and clinical symptoms of type 2 diabetes. Replacing refined wheat flour with whole wheat flour does not make a major contribution to the alleviation of these nutritional problems of too high wheat consumption.
Accurate determination of tortilla quality is imperative because of the growing market. This calls for quality tests that are replicable. However, current tortilla quality testing relies heavily on subjective tests with unknown reliability. This study aimed to determine the relationship between subjective tortilla quality testing andavailable objective methods, and assess whether the latter can potentially replace the former. Correlation and regression analyses were done using data on subjective opacity and rollability, and objectiveL* value and texture parameters based on 114 wheat samples. Opacity scores and L & values were significantly correlated, but this relationship was affected by evaluator experience; in a controlled setting, experienced evaluators scores were more reliable (SEM = ±0.25 - 3.8, r = 0.96) than less experienced evaluators (SEM = ±0.25 - 7.3, r = 0.92). Tortilla rollability, which approximatesshelf stability, correlated most strongly with the rupture distance from two-dimensional extensibility test (r = 0.77). Subjective rollability at day 16 of storage was predicted by rupture distance (day 0) and work (day 4) (R2 = 0.69). Adding rupture force to the model slightly improves the R2 to 0.72. Objective color and texture parameter measurements have a potential to replace thesubjective tests as primary methods for tortilla quality.
Tortillas have become popular and thus are an attractive vehicle to improve dietary fiber consumption. This work investigated the effect of a high dietary fiber cross-linked resistant starch (RS4), and strong gluten bread flour on wheat tortilla textural and quality attributes. Commercial tortilla and bread flours (TF and BF, respectively) were substituted with RS4 containing 90% dietary fiber at 0, 15, 20 and 25%. RS4 substitution decreased mixing resistance of both BF and TF dough, but had minimal effect on water absorption. The RS4-substituted tortillas required significantly less force (4.5–8.8 N) to extend than control (8.7–10.6 N), implying they were more tender. RS4 substitution increased opacity and diameter of tortillas, both desirable attributes. The RS4-substituted BF tortillas were significantly more shelf stable, retaining good flexibility (average score = 4.0) after 18 days of storage, compared with RS4-substituted TF tortillas, which lost flexibility within 4 days of storage.
Tortillas are currently popular due to the convenience they provide consumers and have surpassed sandwich bread as the preferred wrap for quick meals in the U.S.A. This makes tortillas a logical target to improve dietary fiber consumption. However, attempts to increase the dietary fiber content of tortillas have been unsuccessful due to the negative impact on product texture and shelf stability. Complicating the problem further is the fact that wheat tortilla flour does not have clearly defined quality parameters, as is the case with bread flour. This leads to inconsistent and unpredictable product quality. Taking advantage of the strong gluten in bread flour and the well-defined raw material quality parameters can allow for incorporation of significant dietary fiber in tortillas without adverse impact on product texture and shelf stability. This would eliminate the need for expensive additives to obtain desirable product texture.
Normal (cv. Keumkang, KK) and waxy-type (cv. Shinmichal, SMC) whole wheat flour was substituted at 20 and 40% for white wheat flour (WF) during bread dough formulation. The flour blends were subjected to dough and baking property measurement in terms of particle size distribution, dough mixing, bread loaf volume and crumb firmness. The particle size of white wheat flour was the finest, with increasing coarseness as the level of whole wheat flour increased. Substitution of whole wheat flour decreased pasting viscosity, showing all RVA parameters were the lowest in SMC40 composite flour. Water absorption was slightly higher with 40% whole wheat flour regardless of whether the wheat was normal or waxy. An increased mixing time was observed when higher levels of KK flour were substituted, but the opposite reaction occurred when SMC flour was substituted at the same levels. Bread loaf volume was lower in breads containing a whole wheat flour substitution compared to bread containing only white wheat flour. No significant difference in bread loaf volume was observed between normal and waxy whole flour, but the bread crumb firmness was significantly lower in breads containing waxy flour. The results of these studies indicate that up to 40% whole wheat flour substitution could be considered a practical option with respect to functional qualities. Also, replacing waxy whole flour has a positive effect on bread formulation over normal whole wheat flour in terms of improving softness and glutinous texture.
The effects of whole wheat flour (WWF) on the properties of the dough and the final quality of Sachima were investigated. Refined wheat flour (RWF) in the recipe for Sachima dry mix was replaced with WWF at different levels. The farinograph characteristics of the Sachima dough were significantly weakened by adding WWF, except for the water absorption ability. The dough extensibility was also weakened by adding WWF, while the values of resistance to a certain extension increased. WWF enhanced the fried crust hardness and breaking force and darkened the surface colour with lower L∗ and higher a∗ values. The puffing quality was negatively affected by WWF with a decreased specific volume. The structural oil content in fried Sachima sticks was reduced by 34.86% compared with the control. In conclusion, WWF can be used in Sachima to partially substitute RWF to produce a lower oil content Sachima.
Sixty-one commercial tortilla flours were tested for tortilla properties using a standardized tortilla bake test. Flour, dough, and tortilla properties were evaluated. All flours tested yielded tortillas with acceptable appearance and opacity, attributes important for the tortilla market. Twenty-eight of the tortilla flours yielded tortillas with a larger diameter, longer shelf stability, and higher moisture content, attributes that are desirable for many retail and wholesale markets. Data for the flours tested confirmed the results of previous tortilla research, i.e., more protein or damaged starch in the flour corresponded to smaller diameter tortillas with improved storage stability and intermediate protein content yielded better quality tortillas. Data from the 28 flours yielding good quality tortillas provided more support for the impact of damaged starch and less support for the impact of proteins on tortilla quality: 1) tortilla diameter correlated with A starch granules and negatively with B starch granules and damaged starch measured by enzyme-susceptible starch (ESS); 2) tortilla stability correlated with mixing time and damaged starch measured by ESS and negatively with resistance to mixing; and 3) tortilla moisture content correlated with amounts of insoluble polymeric protein, soluble polymeric protein, and gliadin. The flour qualities needed to yield good quality tortillas are not well defined; however, components should include protein content (10.0-12.0%), intermediate protein quality, and lower levels of starch damage during milling.
Wheat flours commercially produced at 74, 80, and 100% extraction rates made from hard white winter wheat (WWF) and hard red winter wheat (WRF) were used to produce tortillas at a commercial-scale level. Flour characteristics for moisture, dry gluten, protein, ash, sedimentation volume, falling number, starch damage, and particle-size distribution were obtained. Farinograms and alveograms were also obtained for flour-water dough. A typical northern Mexican formula was used in the laboratory to test the tortilla-making properties of the flours. Then commercial-scale tortilla-baking trials were run on each flour. The baked tortillas were stored at room and refrigeration temperatures for 0, 1, 2, and 3 days. Maximum stress and rollability were measured every day. Tortilla moisture, color, diameter, weight, and thickness were measured for each treatment. Finally, tortilla acceptability was tested by an untrained sensory panel. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were performed on the data. WWF had higher protein content, dry gluten, sedimentation volume, and water absorption than the WRF. The WWF was the strongest flour based on farinograph development time and alveograph deformation work. It also produced the most extensible dough measured with the alveograph (P/L). Flour protein and ash contents, water absorption, and tenacity increased directly with the flour extraction rate. Both WWF and WRF performed well in commercial-scale baking trials of tortillas. Tortillas made with both types of flours at 74 and 80% extraction rates had the best firmness and rollability. However, tortillas made with WWF 80% had the best color (highest L value). Tortillas prepared with 100% extraction rate flour were also well accepted by the sensory panel, had good textural characteristics, and became only slightly firm and slightly less rollable after three days of storage at room temperature.
Cereal Chem. 76(4):496-502 Wheat flour tortillas were made from flour streams of three wheat cul- tivars: Jagger hard red winter wheat, 4AT-9900 hard white winter wheat, and Ernie soft red winter wheat. Wheat samples were milled on a Miag ex- perimental mill. Twelve flour streams and one straight-grade flour were obtained. Tortillas were made from each flour stream and the straight- grade flour by the hot-press method. Tor tilla stretchability and foldability were evaluated by a texture analyzer and six panelists, respectively. Flour protein and water absorption affected tortilla texture. The foldability eval- uated by panelists was positively correlated with flour protein content, farinograph water absorption, and damaged starch ( P < 0.05). The 2BK and 3BK streams of hard wheat produced tortillas with str ong stretch- ability and good foldability. Middling streams of hard wheat yielded tortillas with lighter color and less stretchab ility. Under the conditions tested in this study, soft wheat flours were not good for producing flour tor tillas.
Composite flours containing 15%, 25%, or 35% of small red, black, pinto, or navy bean flours (BF) and wheat were made into tortillas. Dough rheology, firmness, cohesiveness, rollability, and some physical properties of tortillas were negatively affected as BF concentration increased regardless of bean cultivar. Nutritionally, all bean tortillas had significantly higher levels of crude protein, total phenols, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS(+)) in vitro antioxidant activity (AA) and antinutritional compounds such as phytic acid (PA) and trypsin inhibitors (TI) than the wheat control. Tortillas to which 35% of small red, pinto and black BF was added had the highest levels of phenols, which were significantly correlated with both DPPH (r=0.99) and ABTS(+) (r=0.99) AA. Compared to raw flours, PA and TI were reduced from 37.37% to 43.78% and from 50% to 66%, respectively, in the tortillas. Overall analysis indicated that tortillas with acceptable texture and improved nutritional profile were produced at 25% substitution.
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The effects of fat, cysteine, water and gluten contents and processing parameters (mixing time and mixing temperature) of tortilla doughs were evaluated over 25 min resting time. Dough balls were rested 10 min, hot-pressed and baked. Viscoelastic dough properties (ranging from more solid-like to more fluid-like) were affected by ingredients, processing conditions, and resting time. Solid-like (firmness, toughness) properties of all doughs decreased during resting. Some doughs had unique properties which were retained throughout 25 min resting. Tortillas hot-pressed from doughs with more fluid-like properties (flows easily, soft) required less resting time and were larger in diameter than tortillas prepared from doughs with more solid-like properties. Ingredients and processing conditions modified dough and tortilla properties; however, changes due to ingredients, were substantially larger than those due to processing parameters. Some ingredients (less fat, less cysteine, less water, more gluten) and processing conditions (optimum mixing, less warm mixing temperature) increased the solid-like properties of dough. Dough hardness, resilience and extension force were higher and extension distance lower for firm, tough (solid-like) doughs.
The effects of fat, cysteine, water and gluten contents and processing parameters (mixing time and mixing temperature) of tortilla doughs were evaluated over 25 min resting time. Dough balls were rested 10 min, hot-pressed and baked. Viscoelastic dough properties (ranging from more solid-like to more fluid-like) were affected by ingredients, processing conditions, and resting time. Solid-like (firm ness, toughness) properties of all doughs decreased during resting. Some doughs had unique proper ties which were retained throughout 25 min resting. Tortillas hot-pressed from doughs with more fluid-like properties (flows easily, soft) required less resting time and were larger in diameter than tortillas prepared from doughs with more solid-like properties. Ingredients and processing condi tions modified dough and tortilla properties; however, changes due to ingredients, were substan tially larger than those due to processing parameters. Some ingredients (less fat, less cysteine, less water, more gluten) and processing conditions (optimum mixing, less warm mixing temperature) increased the solid-like properties of dough. Dough hardness, resilience and extension force were higher and extension distance lower for firm, tough (solid-like) doughs.
Effects of protease and transglutaminase (TG) on dough and tortilla microstructures, shelf-stability, and protein profile were determined to infer the role of gluten in tortilla staling. Control and enzyme-treated tortillas were prepared using a standard bake test procedure and evaluated for three weeks. Confocal micrographs of control dough showed thin protein strands forming a continuous web-like matrix. Protease-treated dough had pieces of proteins in place of the continuous matrix, while TG-treated dough had thicker protein strands that were heterogeneously distributed. Control tortillas had a well-distributed continuous protein structure. Protease-treated tortilla had a continuous structure despite being composed of hydrolyzed proteins in the dough, while the TG-treated tortilla retained clumps of proteins. Both treatments resulted in shorter shelf-stability of tortillas. An evenly distributed and moderately stronger gluten network is necessary for longer retention of tortilla flexibility. Solubility of protein fractions differed among treatments, but molecular weight distribution did not differentiate control and treated dough or tortillas. The proportion of each protein fraction appears to affect staling.
Soluble and insoluble fibres influenced both the quality and microstructure of dough and wheat flour tortillas. Doughs containing 8% soluble fibre had poor gluten development and extensive starch gelatinization during baking. This resulted in a tortilla with a dense, pasty crumb. Doughs containing 8% insoluble fibre had better gluten structures than those prepared using soluble fibres. Strands of insoluble fibre particles, however, physically disrupted the gluten network, causing the air bubbles to collapse, and decreased the shelf-stability of tortillas. It appears that soluble and insoluble fibres weaken the gluten matrix by different mechanisms.
Cereal Chem. 77(4):489-494 Functionality of four leavening acids (sodium aluminum phosphate (SALP), sodium aluminum sulfate (SAS), monocalcium phosphate (MCP) and sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP-28)) was evaluated during proces- sing of wheat flour tortillas. Formulas were optimized to yield opaque, large- diameter tortillas with pH 5. 9-6.1. Each leavening acid and sodium bicar- bonate was first evaluated at 38°C and then evaluated in combination with fumaric acid at 34 and 38°C. Ionic and pH interactions of leavening salts adversely affected dough properties and resting time. Opacity and pH of
Wheat flour fortified with 11.1% defatted soybean meal (SBM) or 5.6% soybean isolate (SBI) was processed into flour tortillas. Fortified tortillas contained 35% more protein and twice as much lysine as the 100% wheat flour tortilla. Addition of SBM or SBI decreased dough elasticity but increased dough water absorption and the force required to stretch the dough. The SBM fortified tortilla had better texture (P < 0.05) than the 100% wheat flour tortilla and similar flavor and color (P > 0.05). Rats fed fortified tortillas gained three times as much weight and doubled the protein efficiency ratio (PER) when compared to rats fed wheat flour tortillas. The apparent biological and net protein utilization values of the fortified tortillas were similar (P > 0.05) and higher (P < 0.05) than the wheat flour tortilla. The SBI fortified tortilla had a higher apparent protein digestibility (P < 0.05) than the 100% wheat flour and SBM fortified tortillas.
A cost-effective, faster and efficient way of screening wheat samples suitable for tortilla production is needed. Hence, we developed prediction models for tortilla quality (diameter, specific volume, color and texture parameters) using grain, flour and dough properties of 16 wheat flours. The prediction models were developed using stepwise multiple regression. Dough rheological tests had higher correlations with tortilla quality than grain and flour chemical tests. Dough resistance to extension was correlated best with tortilla quality, particularly tortilla diameter (r= -0.87, P<0.01). Gluten index was significantly correlated with tortilla diameter (r = -0.67, P less than 0.01) and specific volume (r = -0.73, P less than 0.01). Tortilla diameter was the parameter best predicted. An r2 of 0.87 was obtained when mix-time and dough resistance to extension were entered into the model. This model was validated using another sample set, and an r^2 of 0.91 was obtained. Refined and whole wheat flours, dough and tortillas were compared using five wheat samples. Refined flour doughs were more extensible and softer than whole wheat flour doughs. Whole wheat flour tortillas were larger, thinner and less opaque than refined flour tortillas. Refined wheat flour had much smaller particle size and less fiber than whole wheat flour. These are the major factors that contributed to the observed differences. In general, refined wheat tortillas were more shelf-stable than whole wheat tortillas. However, whole wheat tortillas from strong flours had excellent shelf-stability which must be considered when whole wheat tortillas are processed. . Different objective rheological techniques were used to characterize the texture of refined and whole flour tortillas during storage. Differences in texture between 0, 1 and 4 day-old tortillas were detected by rupture distance from one and two-dimension extensibility techniques. In general, the deformation modulus was not a good parameter to differentiate tortilla texture at the beginning of storage. It detected textural changes of 8 and 14 day-old tortillas. The subjective rollability method detected textural changes after 4 days storage.
Measurement of Dough and Gluten Extensibility using the SMS/ Kieffer Rig and the TA.XT2 Texture Analyzer Stable Micro Systems Ltd, God-alming
- J Smewing
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Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists
AACCI, 2000. Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists,
tenth ed. AACC International, St. Paul, MN.
White wheat: best thing since
- E Weise
Weise, E., 2005. White wheat: best thing since. http://www.usatoday.com/news/
health/2005-03-16-white-wheat_x.htm. USA Today, McLean, VA.
Measurement of Dough and Gluten Extensibility using the SMS/ Kieffer Rig and the TA
- J Smewing
Smewing, J., 1995. Measurement of Dough and Gluten Extensibility using the SMS/
Kieffer Rig and the TA.XT2 Texture Analyzer. Stable Micro Systems Ltd, Godalming, Surrey.
Microstructure of wheat flour tortillas: effects of soluble and insoluble fibers
- Seetharaman