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Protein, iron, zinc and calcium concentrations of potatoes following traditional processing as “chuño”
Abstract
Samples from unprocessed and processed cooked tubers of the nine most abundant potato cultivars used to prepare the traditional freeze-dried food product, “chuño” in the central highlands of Peru were prepared and analyzed for their protein and mineral concentrations. The protein, iron, zinc and calcium concentration of cooked chuño of the nine cultivars evaluated ranged from 0.49 to 1.15g, from 0.29 to 0.65mg, from 0.04 to 0.14mg and from 18.9 to 31.0mg per 100g on a fresh weight basis, respectively. Potatoes processed as chuño have a lower concentration of protein and zinc than unprocessed tubers, and a higher content of calcium, while iron concentration may be expected not to be subjected to changes. Water used in preparing the chuño is suggested to be the cause for an increased calcium concentration in the final product, as the water used had higher calcium content before (1.35mequiv./l) than after (0.84mequiv./l) use in the preparation. Thus, water seems to be source of the increased calcium concentration.
... The potatoes are subsequently stepped on for the skin to peel off and then left on the ground for 2-3 weeks [2,6]. The chuño process allows food production for long-term storage and emergencies [7]. In addition, it greatly reduces the cost of long-distance transportation. ...
... In addition, as the water formed by ice crystals melts, dehydration contributes to the broken cellular structure [15]. After FTD potato powder processing, the potato protein and zinc contents decrease, the calcium content increases, and the iron content remains unchanged [7]; the content of antioxidants decreases but is far from being eliminated [6]; and the apparent amylose content and ∆H values decrease, but the apparent viscosity increases [16]. In conclusion, research has focused mainly on the changes in components and physicochemical properties after FTD treatment. ...
To promote the application of freeze-thaw-dehydrated (FTD) potatoes and their gels, this study aimed to investigate the effects of freezing temperature on the physicochemical and gel properties of FTD potato powder and their correlation. The results revealed that, as the freezing temperature decreased, the solubility exhibited an overall downwards trend resulting from soluble solids and amylose liberation. Owing to the better cell integrity at −20 °C, the solubility was greater than that of the other treatment groups. In contrast, the trough viscosity and melting enthalpy increased, and the final viscosity, and setback first increased but then decreased. Regarding the properties of the FTD potato powder gel, the storage modulus, loss modulus, hardness, adhesiveness, chewiness, and consistency first increased but then decreased with decreasing freezing temperature. At a moderate freezing temperature (−20 °C), the solubility and stability of the FTD potato powder were well maintained, and the final viscosity, setback, and hardness reached their highest values. Correlation analysis revealed that, with decreasing freezing temperature, the amount of FTD potato powder initially increased, followed by a decrease in the final viscosity and setback. This trend was positively correlated with the hardness of the FTD potato gel (r = 0.98, r = 0.93).
... These values are the same as those reported by Collazos (1974). Burgos et al. (2008) show the protein, iron, zinc and calcium concentration of boiled white chuño of 9 native cultivars to range from 0.49 to 1.15 g, 0.29 to 0.65 mg, 0.04 to 0.14 mg and 18.9 to 31.0 mg respectively per 100 g (FWB). With the exception of carbohydrate, calcium and iron, the nutrient content of white chuño is greatly reduced in comparison with fresh potato (Woolfe, 1987). ...
... With the exception of carbohydrate, calcium and iron, the nutrient content of white chuño is greatly reduced in comparison with fresh potato (Woolfe, 1987). This is confirmed by recent research from Burgos et al. (2008) and De Haan et al. (2009) which shows that the transformation of potato into white chuño does not significantly affect iron concentrations, yet results in a decrease of the protein and zinc content, and an increase of calcium. Woolfe (1987) points out that the nutrient content of black chuño is also reduced, but not to such a great extent as in white chuño. ...
The potato in its Andean center of origin is commonly freeze-dried to assure long-term storability and consequent availability of food during periods of scarcity. The final product is known as chuño. Depending on the process and cultivars used, different kinds of chuño are prepared: white chuño (moraya, tunta) and black chuño. This paper explores the nutritional value of chuño using data from research in the Peruvian Andes. The paper specifically investigates the effect of regionally different processes on the mineral content of chuño: Zn, Fe, Ca, K, P, Mg and Na. First, the effect of 4 processes (P), resulting in 2 types of white and black chuño respectively, for 4 cultivars (C) belonging to distinct botanical species (P*C interaction). Second, the influence of locality, cultivar and process on nutrient concentrations (L*C*P interaction). Specifically, the effect of 3 contrasting growing environments on the mineral content of 4 cultivars processed into 2 types of white chuño. Results of the first experiment show that the mineral content of chuño, independent of the mineral analyzed, is significantly influenced by P*C interaction. Results of the second experiment show that particularly the dry matter, Ca, Mg and Na content of white chuño is significantly affected by L*C*P interaction. The zinc, potassium, phosphorus and magnesium content of all 'types' of chuño decreases in comparison with boiled (unprocessed) tubers. White chuño generally contains stable to high iron and high calcium concentrations.
... Most of the minerals follow the water pressed out of the potato during the chuño process as can be seen by the decrease in ash content. However, Burgos et al. [6] showed that chuño increase calcium content (aprox. 1-2-fold), iron is partly lost and 90% of the zinc is lost during this process. ...
... One important aspect is that the chuño and tunta process drastically decrease (almost 50%) the content of glycoalcoloids and thereby reducing toxicity and allowing for the consumption of more bitter varieties than otherwise [7]. Thiamin(mg/100g dry matter) 1-2 [9,10,11,13] 0,06-0,15 [9,10] nd 0,02 [10] 30-100 [7,9,10] 0,2-0,6 [ Peñarrieta et al., [3].;Burgos et al., [6].; Zorn and Lieberman, [7].; Peruvian Tables of food composition [9].; Bolivian tables of food composition. ...
It is believed that the chuño and tunta procedures, sun drying while allowing the potato to freeze, were introduced by the population of the Andean highlands between 2000 and 3000 years ago. There are clear evidences that the methods were employed during the pre-tiwanakan Chiripa culture period (aprox. 400 B.C.) when potato growing was the base of the agriculture in the Lake Titicaca western region (presently Bolivia and Perú). The production of potato was one the most important targets for the "sukakollos", a system of irrigation trenches surrounding the flat cultivation beds providing them with a mild micro-climate during cold nights providing frost protection . The transformation of potato into "chuño" (black sun-dried potato) and "tunta" (white sun-dried potato) gave the community the possibility to store crops over the seasons. Chuño and tunta during the times have been and are currently widely used in traditional cooking in the Andean region. Due to their historical and cultural, and indeed economical importance, these products deserved a scientific approach regarding their chemical composition and nutritional worth. For example, after decoction of chuño it has been found that it possesses high contents of some minerals such as calcium and iron. Also a slight to moderate loss of antioxidants namely phenolic compounds in comparison with fresh potatoes has been previously reported. Thus, these products can be considered as a source of nutrients and antioxidants. However, most of the available scientific information about these products is published in the Spanish language. This fact makes difficult the diffusion of the qualities of these foods overseas. On the other hand, it is necessary to further investigate them as an alternative component for healthy diets.This chapter presents a thorough review of the existing literature, both in English and Spanish, on chuño and tunta, with respect to their nutritional and chemical properties and their applications as food ingredients in the Andean cuisine.
... Control tubers have lower Ca contents 222 AE 20-357 AE 30 mg/kg FD with respects to products from TVA. The analytical data from the present work relate well with values recently reported by others (Burgos et al., 2009a) even though this latter work deals with potatoes from Peru that consist of different varieties from those of present work cultivated at different altitude and in a geologically different land. Values as high as $500 mg/kg are estimated for white potatoes (flesh and skin) from data deposited elsewhere (USDA, 2014). ...
... The variety SIF produced in the same area the year 2011 had a higher content for Zn (23.7 AE 1.5) than KEN (16.3 AE 0.8). The controls for 2012 harvest span 14.0 AE 0.7-21.7 AE 1.0 mg/kg FD, and values found in the literature (Burgos et al., 2009a;Andre et al., 2007;USDA (2014), in potatoes white, flesh, skin, raw, $15 mg/kg) were in acceptable agreement with values from this work. Even for Zn the data for harvest 2013 (14.5 AE 0.8 mg/kg FD, KEN; 10.2 AE 0.5 mg/kg FD, SIF) were lower than those found for previous years. ...
Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) from the high Tiber valley area (TVA; Tuscany, Italy), have been sampled and analyzed for selected mineral content (Na, Mg, K, Ca, and Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn) and vitamin C, the year 2012; some samples from 2011 and 2013 crops were also collected and analyzed. The varieties were Daytona (DAY), Kennebec (KEN), Sifra (SIF) and Volare (VOL). Control samples consisted of mixed commercial varieties from the local market, namely C1, C2 and C3. The low content of sodium, especially for KEN (46 ± 3 mg/kg FD (freeze dry), year 2012) and SIF (47 ± 3) (VOL (55 ± 3) and DAY (61 ± 3) have a little higher values) is worth of note and in agreement with the scarce concentration of Na in the soil (291 ± 12 mg/kg DM). Magnesium was abundant in KEN (1434 ± 75 mg/kg FD, year 2012) and VOL (1334 ± 70). The content of K for DAY and KEN (13,147 ± 900 and 13,185 ± 900 mg/kg FD) was higher than for VOL and SIF; whereas Ca was in the range 340 ± 16–490 ± 28 mg/kg FD. The contents of Cu and Zn were higher in KEN (8.1 ± 0.3 and 25 ± 1 mg/kg FD) when compared to the other varieties and controls. The content of vitamin C is high for KEN and SIF and decreased significantly upon cooking (50% for KEN).
... Most of the minerals follow the water pressed out of the potato during the chuño process as can be seen by the decrease in ash content. However, Burgos et al. [6] showed that chuño increase calcium content (aprox. 1-2-fold), iron is partly lost and 90% of the zinc is lost during this process. ...
... One important aspect is that the chuño and tunta process drastically decrease (almost 50%) the content of glycoalcoloids and thereby reducing toxicity and allowing for the consumption of more bitter varieties than otherwise [7]. Thiamin(mg/100g dry matter) 1-2 [9,10,11,13] 0,06-0,15 [9,10] nd 0,02 [10] 30-100 [7,9,10] 0,2-0,6 [ Peñarrieta et al., [3].;Burgos et al., [6].; Zorn and Lieberman, [7].; Peruvian Tables of food composition [9].; Bolivian tables of food composition. ...
About three thousand years ago a method for preserving foods particularly potatoes was developed by Andean highlands’ people. Some historians believe that this method was first employed during the Tiwanaku culture period (aprox. 400 B.C.) when the harvesting of potato crops was practiced in the Lake Titicaca western region (presently Bolivia and Perú). The production of potato was one the most important achievements regarding food supply in the Tiwanaku empire due to the application of contemporary agronomical improvements, namely the “sukakollos” or irrigation trenches which provoked some kind of micro-climate giving rise to high food production rates. The transformation of potato into “chuño”(black sun-dried potato) and “tunta”(white sun-dried potato) gave them the possibility to store crops for longer time periods being these products the major economical resource of the Tiwanaku age.
Chuño and tunta during the times have been and are currently widely used in traditional cooking in the Andean region. Due to their historical and cultural, and indeed economical importance, these products deserved a scientific approach regarding their chemical composition and nutritional worth. For example, after decoction of chuño it has been found that it possesses high contents of some minerals such as calcium and iron. Also a slight to moderate loss of antioxidants namely phenolic compounds in comparison with fresh potatoes has been previously reported. Thus, these products can be considered as a source of nutrients and antioxidants. However, most of the available scientific information about these products is published in the Spanish language. This fact makes difficult the diffusion of the qualities of these foods overseas. On the other hand, it is necessary to further investigate them as an alternative component for healthy diets.
This chapter presents a thorough review of the existing literature, both in English and Spanish, on chuño and tunta, with respect to their nutritional and chemical properties and their applications as food ingredients in the Andean cuisine.
... The sequence, frequency and time of the different steps involved in processing both 'types' of chuño were different. Processing of white chuño of the 'Huancavelica type' involved five major steps: (i) spreading (day 1); (ii) freezing (days 1-4); (iii) treading (day 5); (iv) washing (days 5-13); (v) drying (days [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27]. Treading was done on grassy areas with farmers trampling previously frozen tubers with bare feet. ...
... These general tendencies are consistent with earlier reports. 9,18,19 The effect of the process on sodium concentration is less linear compared to the other minerals. However, its concentration generally tends to increase in comparison to unprocessed tubers. ...
Variables and interaction effects affecting the mineral concentration of Andean bitter potatoes converted into so-called white chuño are unknown. We report on the effect of three contrasting production environments (E) on the dry matter (DM), zinc, iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus and sodium concentration of four potato native bitter genotypes (G) processed (P) into two different 'types' of white chuño.
The DM content and iron, calcium, magnesium and sodium concentration of white chuño are significantly dependent on E, G, P, and E × G × P interaction (predominantly at P < 0.01). In particular, the DM content and calcium concentration are influenced by all variables and possible interaction effects. The zinc and potassium concentration are not significantly dependent on E × G, G × P or E × G × P interaction effects, while the phosphorus concentration is not significantly affected by the G × P or E × G × P interaction effect. Zinc, phosphorus and magnesium concentrations decrease in the ranges of 48.3-81.5%, 61.2-73.0% and 62.0-89.7% respectively. The decrease in potassium is particularly severe, with 122- to 330-fold losses. Iron and calcium increase by 11.2-45.6% and 74.5-714.9% respectively.
E, G, P, and various interaction effects influence the mineral concentration of traditionally processed tubers. We speculate that mineral losses are caused by leaching, while increases of iron and calcium are a likely result of absorption.
... Landraces of potato are locally adapted genotypes that are conserved by farmers in heterogeneous Andean conditions (Arce et al. 2019;Parra-Rondinel et al. 2021). Under these conditions, landrace diversity is crucial to create resilient production systems that ensure farmers' food security (Bellon 1996;Brush 2004;Burgos et al. 2009;de Haan 2009;Jackson et al. 2012). However, over time, smallholder farming communities have lost some landraces due to susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses, climate change, terrorism (Ellis et al. 2020), changes in the marketability or cultivation system and personal preferences (de Haan, 2009). ...
Background: Potato landraces (Solanum spp.) are not only crucial for food security and sustenance in Andean communities but are also deeply rooted in the local culture. The crop originated in the Andes, and while a great diversity of potato persists, some landraces have been lost. Local communities and the genebank of the International Potato Center (CIP) partnered to re-establish some of these landraces in situ by supplying clean seed potatoes to farmers. Over time, the genebank formalized a repatriation program of potato landraces. Repatriation is the process of returning native germplasm back to its place of origin, allowing a dynamic exchange between ex situ and in situ conditions. So far, no comprehensive description of CIP’s repatriation program, the changes it induced, nor its benefits, has been carried out. Methods: We addressed this research gap by analyzing CIP genebank distribution data for repatriated accessions, conducting structured interviews with experts of the repatriation program, and applying duration and benefit analyses to a survey dataset of 301 households. Results: Between 1997 and 2020, 14,950 samples, representing 1519 accessions, were distributed to 135 communities in Peru. While most households (56%) abandoned the repatriated material by the fourth year after receiving it, the in situ survival probability of the remaining material stabilized between 36% in year 5 and 18% in year 15. Households where the plot manager was over 60 years old were more likely to grow the repatriated landraces for longer periods of times. While male plot management decreased survival times compared to female plot management, higher levels of education, labor force, wealth, food insecurity, and geographic location in the southern part of Peru were associated with greater survival times. Most farmers reported nutritional and cultural benefits as reasons for maintaining landrace material. Repatriated potatoes enabled farmers to conserve potato diversity, and hence, re-establish and broaden culinary diversity and traditions. Conclusions: Our study is the first to apply an economic model to analyze the duration of in situ landrace cultivation by custodian farmers. We provide an evidence base that describes the vast scope of the program and its benefits.
... Landraces of potato are locally adapted genotypes that are conserved by farmers in heterogeneous Andean conditions (Arce et al. 2019;Parra-Rondinel et al. 2021). Under these conditions, landrace diversity is crucial to create resilient production systems that ensure farmers' food security (Bellon 1996;Brush 2004;Burgos et al. 2009;de Haan 2009;Jackson et al. 2012). However, over time, smallholder farming communities have lost some landraces due to susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses, climate change, terrorism (Ellis et al. 2020), changes in the marketability or cultivation system and personal preferences (de Haan, 2009). ...
Background
Potato landraces (Solanum spp.) are not only crucial for food security and sustenance in Andean communities but are also deeply rooted in the local culture. The crop originated in the Andes, and while a great diversity of potato persists, some landraces have been lost. Local communities and the genebank of the International Potato Center (CIP) partnered to re-establish some of these landraces in situ by supplying clean seed potatoes to farmers. Over time, the genebank formalized a repatriation program of potato landraces. Repatriation is the process of returning native germplasm back to its place of origin, allowing a dynamic exchange between ex situ and in situ conditions. So far, no comprehensive description of CIP’s repatriation program, the changes it induced, nor its benefits, has been carried out.
Methods
We addressed this research gap by analyzing CIP genebank distribution data for repatriated accessions, conducting structured interviews with experts of the repatriation program, and applying duration and benefit analyses to a survey dataset of 301 households.
Results
Between 1997 and 2020, 14,950 samples, representing 1519 accessions, were distributed to 135 communities in Peru. While most households (56%) abandoned the repatriated material by the fourth year after receiving it, the in situ survival probability of the remaining material stabilized between 36% in year 5 and 18% in year 15. Households where the plot manager was over 60 years old were more likely to grow the repatriated landraces for longer periods of times. While male plot management decreased survival times compared to female plot management, higher levels of education, labor force, wealth, food insecurity, and geographic location in the southern part of Peru were associated with greater survival times. Most farmers reported nutritional and cultural benefits as reasons for maintaining landrace material. Repatriated potatoes enabled farmers to conserve potato diversity, and hence, re-establish and broaden culinary diversity and traditions.
Conclusions
Our study is the first to apply an economic model to analyze the duration of in situ landrace cultivation by custodian farmers. We provide an evidence base that describes the vast scope of the program and its benefits.
... Bitter landraces, which are characterized by relatively low diversity, were assigned only minimal area and were generally absent from farmers' fields. Their apparent disappearance from the portfolios of most farmers may be the result of decreasing labor availability (needed to process them into chuño), changing consumer behavior, and less predictable frosts (in June) [91][92][93]. Clearly, bitter landraces are at risk of being lost. The conservation dynamics of this special cultivar group warrants closer attention as their genetic potential is key to future breeding strategies to cope with abiotic stressors [40]. ...
In the high Andes, environmental and socio-economic drivers are transforming agriculture and presumably affecting the in situ conservation of potato (Solanum spp.). To monitor the use and conservation of intraspecific diversity, systematic and comparative studies across agricultural land-use systems are needed. We investigated the spatial-temporal dynamics of potato in two landscapes of Peru’s central Andes: A highland plateau (Huancavelica) compared to an eastern slope (Pasco). We examined household-level areal allocations, altitudinal distribution, sectoral fallowing practices, and the conservation status for three main cultivar groups: (i) Bred varieties, (ii) floury landraces, and (iii) bitter landraces. Mixed methods were used to survey 323 households and the 1101 potato fields they managed in 2012–2013. We compared the contemporary altitudinal distribution of landraces with 1975–1985 altimeter data from the International Potato Center. Intensification is occurring in each landscape while maintaining high intraspecific diversity. Access to land and production for sale compared to consumption significantly affected smallholder management and differentiated landscapes. Most landraces were scarce across households: 45.4% in Huancavelica and 61.7% in Pasco. Potato cultivation has moved upward by an average of 306 m since 1975. Landrace diversity is versatile but unevenly distributed across landscapes. This requires adaptive ways to incentivize in situ conservation.
... Studies carried out by Burgos et al. (2009) showed that the protein content of several wide spread varieties in Peru was in the range of 2.07 and 3.51% fresh weight (FW), which was about 1.3 times higher than the data reported by this paper. However, the protein content (7.32% DW) from Latvian potato was lower than that of 14 potato cultivars studied in this paper (Murniece et al. 2011). ...
Chemical composition (moisture, protein, starch, ash, fiber, fat), vitamins (vitamin C, vitamin B1, vitamin B2), total polyphenol content, antioxidant capacity, minerals, and amino acid of 14 potato cultivars in China were evaluated. The results indicated that all parameters varied significantly among different potato cultivars. The total starch, crude protein and fat content ranged between 57.42–67.83%, 10.88–14.10% and 0.10–0.73% dry weight (DW), respectively. Moreover, the consumption of potato increased remarkably the dietary intake of vitamins, K, Mn and Cu. In addition, the chemical score of amino acid varied considerably between different cultivars, which ranged from 54 (Neida 3 and Neida 41) to 71 (Neida 34). Grey relational analysis (GRA) indicated that Neida 26 exhibited the most comprehensive nutritional values among potato cultivars, followed by Neida 42. Different potato flours had a significant effect on the quality parameters of potato steamed bread (PSB), Neida 26 and Neida 34 were more suitable for making PSB.
... These so-called floury landraces are usually boiled prior to consumption; either as mixtures or single varieties. On the other hand, bitter landraces belonging to S. ajanhuiri, S. juzepczukii and S. curtilobum commonly contain high levels of glycolalkaloids and are almost exclusively used for traditional freeze-drying into so-called chuño prior to consumption (Burgos et al. 2009b;Christiansen 1977). Modern varieties from breeding programs have a wide altitudinal adaptation range and generally have shorter production cycles and higher year round availability compared to most of the landraces grown in the Andes (Devaux et al. 2010;Pradel et al. 2017). ...
Potato is the backbone of agriculture and diets in high-altitude food systems of Peru, where farmers grow diverse varietal portfolios. Here we report on the role of diverse landraces and modern potato varieties in the Andean diet. The dry matter, energy, protein, iron and zinc content of 12 floury and 9 bitter landraces was determined. The contribution of varietal diversity to the dietary intake of energy, protein, iron and zinc was established during two contrasting periods of overall food availability. Results show that the potato and intraspecific diversity make an important contribution to nutrition. Most floury landraces contain higher concentrations of protein and iron compared to the reference value reported in the 2009 Peruvian food composition table for a boiled and peeled floury landrace. Traditional freeze-drying of bitter landraces doesn’t affect energy or iron concentrations, but reduces protein and zinc content considerably. Protein and iron contents in boiled chuño derived from the bitter landraces are lower compared to the mean value reported in the food composition table. The contribution of varietal diversity ideally needs to be taken into account when conducting nutrition studies in diversity hotspots like the Andes where potato is a main staple. The potato adds positively to the nutritional balance and the recommended requirements for energy, protein, iron and zinc of women and children. Floury landraces and modern varieties complement each other in light of seasonality, providing valuable nutrients during contrasting periods of the year. The potato thus contributes positively to food security. However, the overall diversity of the diet was found to be poor, resulting in micronutrient deficiencies. Options to strengthen food based approaches to attend undernutrition are discussed.
... 'Pasja Pomorska' and ' l za' (Fig. 4). Our results support previous research conducted by Burgos et al. [2009], Stankiewicz et al. [2008, and Wierzbicka and Trawczy ski [2012] who determined higher protein con-Zeszyty Problemowe Post pów Nauk Rolniczych centrations in potato dry weight in medium-early varieties (80.6-86.3 g·kg -1 DW) than in late varieties (67.6-63.0 ...
Potato tubers accumulate non-starch polysaccharides. A higher level of carbophydrates
is correlated with a higher amount of potato pulp and high starch losses during
technological processing. During the extraction of starch from potato tubers, glycoalkaloids,
free amino acids and proteins are transferred to starch milk, which increases its foaminess
and hinders further processing. Another important goal is to prevent the darkening of
raw potato pulp. The scarcity of research reports on the effect of fertilization on the content
of soluble and insoluble non-starch polysaccharides has encouraged the authors to undertake
this study.
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of soil (280 and 420 kg NPK·ha-1) and foliar
(Basfoliar 12-4-6, ADOB Mn, Solubor DF) application of mineral fertilizers on nutrient concentrations
in potato varieties. The varieties had a significant effect on the dry matter content
of tubers and flesh darkening four hours after cutting. The levels of crude protein and nonstarch
polysaccharides were affected by the varieties and soil fertilizer doses. The late variety
had the highest dry matter content. The medium-early variety the highest content of crude
protein, the lowest content of non-starch polysaccharides and a low degree of flesh darkening.
Foliar fertilizers had no significant influence on the analyzed parameters.
The high level of soil fertilization (420 kg NPK·ha-1) contributed to an increased content of
protein and carbohydrates, which makes starch extraction from potato tubers more difficult.
... andigena are known to have elevated total glycoalkaloid values. In fact, Andean farmers have developed a freeze drying process which is commonly used not only for conservation but also for reducing the gycoalkaloid contents of bitter tubers (Burgos et al., 2008). Higher glycoalkaloid contents were mainly observed in accessions belonging to the native species S. tuberosum ssp. ...
Certain potato cultivars such as native potato species (NPS) from the Andes are known to have resistances to different pests and diseases. Some accessions are also interesting from a nutritional and culinary perspective. A collection of 35 NPS and 11 old Spanish accessions were analysed for Streptomyces scabies, Rhizoctonia solani and Globodera rostochiensis, as well as dry matter, reducing sugars, minerals, glycoalkaloid concentrations, and total antioxidant capacity. A wide variability was found between and also within the species. Most accessions showed favourable characteristics, while high concentrations values of glycoalkaloids were observed in certain accessions. The results suggest that some NPS and old Spanish accessions have a great potential for exploitation in potato breeding programmes as a source of resistances and nutritional variability.
... mg/100 g), but iron is approximately 2 times higher (increases from 1.50 to 2.14 mg/100 g) and calcium 3 times higher (increases from 37 to 120 mg/100 g) than the concentration in potatoes. These results are in agreement with those found by Burgos et al. (2009), reporting that during chuñ o processing there was a decrease in zinc concentration (from 2.15 to 0.45 mg/100 g), and an increase in iron concentration (from 2.37 to 2.80 mg/100 g) as well as in calcium (from 32.27 to 121.05 mg/100 g) in dry weight. The increase in mineral content may be due to soil contamination during the process. ...
... Éstos eran congelados por las frías temperaturas de la alta montaña (3000 a 4800 msnm) durante toda la noche, y descongelados en el día para extraer el agua por la baja presión atmosférica. El proceso se repetía hasta obtener un producto estable de baja humedad [3,4]. Una técnica similar fue empleada por los vikingos, quienes aprovecharon las bajas temperaturas del invierno para deshidratar pescado arenque [5]. ...
By applying the method known as Atmospheric Freeze–Drying (AFD) which uses low temperature and calcium chloride or silica gel as hygroscopic agents, two varieties of potatoe (Gabriela and Chaucha) were dehydrated. Three different pre–treatments were performed on the potatoes for the analyses. From the obtained data, following values were estimated: (i) the coefficients of surface mass transfer (from 61.77 to 148.55 kgּm–2s–1), (ii) the heat transfer (from 5.75 to11.22 Wּm–2ּ °C–1), (iii) the un–dimensionless number (from 1.03 to3.98), (iv) the drying time (from 200.00 to 303.26 h) and (v) the rehydration index (1.7 – 2.7). Furthermore, the mass transfer mechanism that controls the AFD was assessed. This process was assessed, and changes in the colour of the products at three different stages of the process using the Yellowness Index, and the microbiological properties of the atmospheric freeze–dried potatoes, were analysed. It was concluded that, the drying of potato slices by AFD can eliminate microbial growth and chemical reactions, and the pre– treatments step is necessary to prevent browning.
... Éstos eran congelados por las frías temperaturas de la alta montaña (3000 a 4800 msnm) durante toda la noche, y descongelados en el día para extraer el agua por la baja presión atmosférica. El proceso se repetía hasta obtener un producto estable de baja humedad [3,4]. Una técnica similar fue empleada por los vikingos, quienes aprovecharon las bajas temperaturas del invierno para deshidratar pescado arenque [5]. ...
Mediante la aplicación del proceso conocido como crio-desecación atmosférica (CDA) usando temperaturas bajas y cloruro de calcio o silicagel como agentes higroscópicos, se deshidrataron dos variedades de papa, Gabriela y Chaucha. A las papas se les realizó tres diferentes pretratamientos. Con los datos obtenidos se calcularon: (i) los valores de los coeficientes de
transferencia superficial de masa (de 61.77 a 148.55 kg·m-2·s-1), (ii) de calor (de 5.75 a 11.22 W·m-2·°C-1), (iii) el número adimensional (de 1.03 a 3.98), (iv) el tiempo de secado (de 200.00 a 303.26 h), y (v) el índice de rehidratación (de 1.7 a 2.7). Además, se evaluó qué mecanismo de transferencia de masa controla la CDA, se analizó los cambios de color del producto durante tres
etapas del proceso, empleando el índice de amarillez, y se evaluaron las propiedades microbiológicas de las papas crio-desecadas tmosféricamente. Se concluye que el secado de rodajas de papa por CDA permite eliminar el crecimiento microbiológico y las reacciones químicas, pero es necesario realizar pretratamientos para evitar el pardamiento.
... The mean concentration for moisture was in the range for potato moisture reported by other authors (Andre et al., 2007;Arvanitoyannis, Vaitsi, & Mavromatis, 2008;Burgos, Haan, Salas, & Bonierbale, 2009). The mean content of moisture ranged between 70.8% obtained in the Colorada de baga and 78.4% found for the Palmera lagarteada cultivar, with significant differences between them. ...
Moisture, starch, amylose, fibre, proteins, ascorbic acid, total phenol compounds, acidity, pH, ash and mineral and trace elements were determined in 10 potato cultivars from Canary Islands experimentally cultivated. Six of the cultivars were also cultivated in two locations, to ascertain the impact of different soil types on the parameters measured. There were differences between cultivars in both, physicochemical parameters and mineral and trace elements analysed. There were significant differences in the mean values obtained for all the parameters considered, except for ascorbic acid, between both locations. Application of linear discriminant analysis allowed to classify the potato samples according to the cultivar, and according to growing location.
... The companion paper by Bonierbale et al. (2009) presents a new method to estimate total and individual carotenoid concentrations by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS), and shows that this method is useful for characterizing a large germplasm collection at low cost and in reduced time compared to HPLC. Burgos et al. (2009a) look at how the ascorbic acid concentration of native Andean potato varieties is affected by environment, cooking and storage; in another paper by a slightly different team of researchers, Burgos et al. (2009c) study the protein, iron, zinc and calcium concentrations of potatoes following traditional processing as ''chuñ o'', and they conclude that the addition of water used in the preparation of this traditionally freeze-dried potato in the Peruvian highlands contributes to higher calcium levels. ...
Globally, potatoes account for only about 2% of the food energy supply, yet they are the predominant staple for many countries. In developed countries, potatoes account for 540 kJ (130 kcal) per person per day, while in developing countries, it is only 170 kJ (42 kcal) per person per day. In addition to energy, which is derived almost entirely from their carbohydrate content, many varieties of potatoes contribute nutritionally important amounts of dietary fibre (up to 3.3%), ascorbic acid (up to 42 mg/100 g), potassium (up to 693.8 mg/100 g), total carotenoids (up to 2700 mcg/100 g), and antioxidant phenols such as chlorogenic acid (up to 1570 mcg/100 g) and its polymers, and anti-nutrients such as α-solanine (0.001-47.2 mg/100 g); and lesser amounts of protein (0.85-4.2%), amino acids, other minerals and vitamins, and other beneficial and harmful bioactive components. Nutrient content depends on a number of factors, with variety being among the most important. Potato biodiversity is vast, with more than 4000 known varieties. Most belong to the species Solanum tuberosum, but another 10 species are cultivated and 200 wild species have been identified. Modern agricultural practices and climate change are contributing to the loss of potato biodiversity, and thus the loss of the genes coding for nutrient biosynthetic pathways. Knowledge of differences in nutrient composition of potatoes related to their genetic diversity will help guide strategies that may contribute to reducing biodiversity loss and improving food and nutrition security. © 2009.
... They frequently contain high levels of dry matter and are considered to be of high culinary quality by Andean farmers. Native-bitter cultivars are freeze-dried into a traditional product called chuño (Towle 1961;Burgos et al 2009). Improved cultivars are the product of formal breeding programs that have combined Andean native potatoes, modern European or North American varieties, and few tuber-bearing wild species. ...
Botanical species and morphological and genetic diversity represent different yet linked units of conservation. These features, and their spatial distribution in the central Peruvian Andean highlands of Huancavelica, were used as a basis for characterizing and quantifying potato agrobiodiversity at different scales. Results show that individual farm households maintain high levels of cultivar, morphological, and genetic diversity. At the regional level, all cultivated species, with the exception of Solanum ajanhuiri, were found to be present. Tetraploid native potatoes were most abundant, followed by diploids, triploids, and pentaploids. Morphological characterization of 2481 samples belonging to 38 in situ collections resulted in the identification of 557 unique cultivars. Genetic fingerprinting of 989 samples belonging to 8 in situ collections resulted in the identification of 406 unique cultivars. The principal source of genetic variation is found within rather than between geographically distanced subpopulations. High levels of cultivar diversity are found, particularly at elevations between 3850 and 4150 m.
... Moreover, the process itself is not clearly described in the scientific literature. For instance, it has been shown that chuñ o has higher calcium content than fresh potatoes after cooking; whereas iron levels were not altered and others such as zinc and protein decreased (Burgos et al., 2008). ...
Total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total phenolic compounds (TPH), total flavonoids (TF) and the amounts of individual phenolic compounds were assessed in Bolivian potato cultivars (various Solanum species) before, during and after the traditional freezing and sun-drying of potatoes known as chuños. The TAC of chuños ranged from 0.4 to 2.7 μmol Trolox equivalents/g dry matter using 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) and from 0.7 to 3.0 according to the ferric reduction antioxidant power (FRAP). The values of TAC obtained using FRAP were about 70% lower after freeze-drying while they remained essentially constant when measured using ABTS. High-performance liquid chromatography showed the presence of epicatechin, chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, syringaldehyde and protocatechuic acid in both potato and chuño samples although the values were lower in the chuño samples. The results suggest that the antioxidant capacity and the content of individual phenolics are somewhat decreased but far from eliminated during the process. Chuño can therefore still be considered an important source of antioxidants in the diet.
The ancestral method of preparing chuño (freeze‐dried potato) involves three steps: freezing, soaking, and drying. The objective of this study is to identify the changes in microstructure, in physicochemical properties, and rheology of gels and suspensions of Andean potato starches caused by the procedure used to obtain chuño. A laboratory simulation of the procedure is performed using the potato variety “Rosadita” ( Solanum tuberosum ssp. Andigenum). From the tests carried out on the starches extracted from the chuño obtained in the field and in the laboratory, differences phosphate content and gelatinization temperature are found. Marked differences are observed with respect to the control starch in the soluble amylose content, RVA profiles, textural attributes, and dynamic and viscous rheological properties. The chuño starches present greater resistance to granular breakdown. These observations suggest a different hydration, swelling, and gelation mechanism for the Rosadita and chuño starch samples compared to conventional potato starch and at the same time a modification due to the effect of freezing, which is more noticeable in the chuño obtained at −5 °C.
Celem badań była ocena zmian w zawartości białka ogółem (i jego plonu) w bulwach ziemniaka w zależności od nawożenia azotem, odmiany, warunków pogodowych oraz zawartości suchej masy i skrobi w bulwach. Nawożenie azotem istotnie podwyższało zarówno zawartość jak i plon białka. W zakresie dawek azotu zalecanych w uprawie ziemniaka (100–140 kg∙ha-1) zawartość białka kształtowała się w granicach 1,85–1,95; 1,72–1,80; 1,61–1,68 odpowiednio dla odmian wczesnych, średnio wczesnych i późniejszych oraz skrobiowych. Plon białka zależał przede wszystkim od plonu suchej masy bulw. Największy plon białka (powyżej 900 kg∙ha-1) osiągnięty został przez odmianę jadalną Marlen i dwie skrobiowe: Kuras i Pokusa. Stwierdzono istotną odwrotnie proporcjonalną zależność liniową miedzy zawartością: białka i skrobi, białka i suchej masy oraz wprost proporcjonalną zależność między plonem białka a plonem suchej masy bulw. Okres wegetacji o dużej ilości opadów (2010) zmniejszał zawartość białka ogółem w porównaniu do okresów bardziej suchych (lata 2006, 2008).
An ancient folk technology of freeze-thaw processing had been simulated by studying the dehydration efficiency of potatoes using different freezing rates (0.02, 0.06, 0.08, 0.11, 0.20 and 0.40°C/min). The results showed that the dehydration rate was negatively correlated to freezing rates at a range of 35.66% to 53.85%. Better dehydration efficiency (41.71%) with relatively more protein (83.66%) and mineral retention was obtained at the medium freezing rate of 0.11°C/min. On this condition, the internal and external pressures of potato cells were balanced and the reduction of immobilized water (T22) was significantly higher compared to that at other conditions. The untargeted metabolomic results showed that some lipids, organic acids and amino acids in potatoes were affected by freezing treatment. The dynamic changes of potato characteristics during freeze-thaw processing gained in this research could be employed as a foundation for diversified applications of dehydrated potatoes.
Reduction of plant height was one of the main ideas of cereal cultivation in
recent decades [Griffiths et al. 2012]. The identification of these genes is possible by the
use of specific DNA markers. Shortening the stem prevents logging of plants, and thus
consequently increasing the yield. Genetic control of plant height is the best way to prevent
breaking of stems. The
Rht-D1b
gene is one of the most effective genes limiting the stems
height. The aim of the study was to identify markers of two allelic forms
Rht-D1a
and
Rht-D1b
of dwarfs gene in winter wheat genotypes differing in origin. The first stage
of the experiment was validation of the method described by Ellis et al. [2002] and the
introduction of its modifications. This step was carried out on plants of a known genotype.
The second stage was screening of 20 wheat varieties for the presence of markers of
Rht-
-D1a
and
Rht-D1b
gene. Eventually the marker of
Rht-D1b
gene was detected in 4 out of
20 tested wheat varieties: Atlas, Rosario, Muszelka, Genou and the presence of this marker
was again confirmed in the genotype CWW 90/3, which also functions as a positive control
for the PCR reaction.
Beyond providing energy through its high starch content, the potato tuber can make a significant contribution to the dietary intake of certain minerals including potassium, phosphorous, magnesium and iron, as well as of vitamin C, dietary fibres and phenolic compounds. While some animal and human studies have shown beneficial associations between the consumption of potato, or some of its components, and health, some other studies could not confirm these positive effects. Numerous factors may indeed influence (i) the composition of the potato tuber itself, i.e. genotype, environmental conditions during growth, post-harvest storage conditions, cooking and processing, and (ii) the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of its components, affecting the final bioactivity. The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief overview of potato composition variability followed by an analysis of potential health-promoting effects and bioavailability of specific components including iron and phenolic compounds. It appeared that the various components of the potato matrix might interact with each other at the intestinal level, leading to favourable or detrimental effects on their bioavailability. The consumption of a potato cultivar with a high level of phenolic compounds may improve the health status of an individual regarding its risk of developing chronic diseases on the one hand, but may reduce iron absorption on the other hand, putting an individual at risk of micronutrient deficiency. Tailoring potato varieties or products to match the population nutritional needs appears therefore of major importance.
Traditional Processing of Black and White Chuño in the Peruvian Andes: Regional Variants and Effect on the Mineral Content of Native Potato Cultivars. Farmers in the high Andes of central to southern Peru and Bolivia typically freeze-dry potatoes to obtain chuño. Processing of so-called black chuño follows tending, treading, freezing, and drying. The making of white chuño is generally more complex and involves exposure of tubers to water. Regional variants exist for each of these processes, yet their influence on the nutritional composition of native potato cultivars is little known. Tubers belonging to four distinct cultivars and produced in a replicated trial under uniform conditions were processed into four types of chuño following standard traditional procedures (farmer-managed). These regional variants were documented, and the dry matter, iron, zinc, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sodium content of the four resulting different types of boiled chuño determined at the International Potato Center's Quality and Nutrition Laboratory (Lima, Peru). Content values were compared with those of boiled (unprocessed) tubers from the same experiment. Regional variants of processing are to a large extent determined by tradition, environmental condition, and market demand. The zinc, potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium content of all types of chuño decreases in comparison with unprocessed tubers. Concentrations of these same minerals decrease more drastically for white as compared to black chuño. The effect of the four regional variants of freeze-drying on the dry matter, iron, calcium, and sodium content of chuño differs by process and/or cultivar.
To give a quantitative guide to sample size allocation for developing sampling designs for a food composition survey, we discuss sampling strategies that consider the importance of each food; namely, consumption or production, variability of composition, and the restrictions within the available resources for sample collection and analysis are considered., Here we consider two strategies: 'proportional' and 'Neyman' are discussed. Both of these incorporate consumed quantity of foods, and we review some available statistics for allocation issues. The Neyman optimal strategy allocates less sample size for starch than proportional, because the former incorporates variability in the composition. Those strategies improved accuracy in dietary nutrient intake more than equal sample size allocation. Those strategies will be useful as we often face sample size allocation problems, wherein we decide whether to sample 'five white potatoes and five taros or nine white and one taros'. Allocating sufficient sample size for important foodstuffs is essential in assuring data quality. Nevertheless, the food composition table should be as comprehensive as possible.
Within the scientific agricultural community it is widely known that the total micronutrient content of soils is not a useful measure of the amount of `available' micronutrients to plants. Thus, soil tests have been developed to determine the amounts of micronutrients in soils available to plants for growth. This same concept applies to plant foods eaten by humans because not all of the micronutrients in plant foods are available (i.e. bioavailable) for absorption and or utilization. Antinutrients and promoter substances within plant foods that can either inhibit or enhance the absorption and/or utilization of micronutrients when eaten. As a result, numerous techniques have been developed to determine the amounts of bioavailable micronutrients present in plant foods when consumed in mixed diets with other dietary constituents that can interact and affect the micronutrient bioavailability. Unfortunately, micronutrient bioavailability to humans fed mixed diets is still a confusing and complex issue for the human nutrition community. Our understanding of the processes that control micronutrient bioavailability from mixed diets containing plant foods is relatively limited and still evolving. It remains the subject of extensive research in many human nutrition laboratories globally. This article reviews some of the numerous methodologies that have arisen to account for the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant foods when eaten by humans.
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(CIP).
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