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Horse-training techniques that may defy the principles of learning theory
Abstract
This review considers some contemporary training and restraining techniques that may lead to confusion or abuse in ridden and nonridden horses. As competitive equestrian sports boom, the welfare of the horse is under increasing scrutiny. The current focus on hyperflexion of the neck in dressage warm-up has exposed the problems with relying on subjective opinions when attempting to safeguard horse welfare. The discussion also highlights an opportunity for equestrian federations to evaluate practices within the various horse sports. Our review considers numerous examples of unorthodox practices that modify locomotion and posture. It offers a scientific framework for consideration of many contentious techniques in horse sports and emphasizes the role of Equitation Science in generating evidence-based enlightenment.
... For example, restrictive nosebands, martingales (standing and running), tie-downs, draw reins and side reins, are common forms of head control equipment ( Hockenhull and Creighton, 2013 ;Clayton and Williams, 2022 ). When horses do not respond appropriately to rider cues, riders may resort to the use of head control equipment ( McLean and McGreevy, 2010b ;Condon et al., 2021 ). These items can force horses into a "false frame" rather than progressively developing balance and rhythm, or prevent them from evading bit pressure. ...
... These items can force horses into a "false frame" rather than progressively developing balance and rhythm, or prevent them from evading bit pressure. Unrelenting pressure from these tools can motivate horses to trial counter-responses, such as rearing, that may pose a significant danger to human safety ( McLean and McGreevy, 2010b ). Alternatively, the horse's natural instinct to mask pain ( Rueß et al., 2019 ) may thwart the rider's ability to identify factors that cause their horse stress, anxiety, fear, or pain. ...
... Lower-level riders who may be unable to maintain correct riding position may activate equipment use unintentionally (e.g., riders who abduct their toes will be more likely to jab their mount with their spurs) ( Williams and Tabor, 2017 ) The International Society for Equitation Science (ISES) recommends that excessive use of aversive stimulus on any horse should be avoided ( ISES, 2018 ). From an equine welfare perspective, use of the least invasive and restrictive tack possible should be encouraged and rewarded as an indication that the horse has been trained to show optimal responsiveness to the lightest pressure cues possible ( McLean and McGreevy, 2010b ). As equitation science becomes more widely accepted and the principles of learning theory are supported through the proliferation of evidence-based research, a concomitant increase in welfare-enhancing riding and training practices and a decrease in problematic horse behaviors and rider injuries would be expected ( Luke et al., 2022 ). ...
Horse sale advertisements are expected to present horses at their best to entice buyers. In such adverts, the prevalence of severe bits, restrictive nosebands, spurs and whips merits scrutiny because such devices reflect need for strong physical cues and their prevalence may serve as an indicator of training approaches. To examine the occurrence of various types of tack (equestrian gear) 6,580 horse sale advertisements from Australia and North America were inspected for horse demographics, discipline, level, price, any tack and equipment apparent on the horse, rider age and whether the rider was wearing spurs or carrying a whip. Chi-squared analysis and a GLIMMIX procedure determined differences between countries, main factors and their relevant interactions (with significance at a p-value <0.05). The most commonly advertised horse was a bay performance gelding of stock breed working at basic level and priced under $5000. Most horses were depicted in a snaffle bit, dressage saddle and without extra equipment. Thoroughbreds, warmbloods and performance horses at advanced levels were more likely to be wearing more severe bits, restrictive nosebands, head control equipment and ridden with whips and spurs. Examining trends in the range and type of equipment being used on horses can provide insight to the uptake of ethical approaches to ridden horse welfare.
... The misunderstanding of equine needs and behaviours has been linked to welfare concerns [1,2]. Misunderstanding can lead to forceful or stressful training methods [3,4], and the provision of inadequate management and care regimes [5,6]. For example, Collins and colleagues find that social norms constitute one of the leading causes for compromised horse welfare in Ireland [7]. ...
... When this genre was employed, riders' concerns with bravery were often met through forceful riding-digging in the heels, pulling on the reins, using a whip or spurs for punishment and to assert the rider's authority. When these tools are used for punishment or force, rather than as part of incremental training regimes in line with learning systems, training is likely to be more painful and stressful for the horse, more dangerous for the rider, and less successful [3,62]. ...
... However, the opposite pattern was also notable, that riders' desire to overcome their own nerves would seemingly obscure their capacity to recognise a situation that really was unsafe or too much for horse and rider to handle. Researchers have commented on the importance of gradual, incremental training for welfare, safety, and success [3,4,62]. However, some of those struggling with managing their own nerves would rush into stressful situations in a bid counter their own nervousness with 'grit' rather than with systematic training and thorough preparation. ...
This article describes the virtue of bravery in British equestrian culture and suggests that riders’ tactics for bolstering bravery may have negative implications on equine welfare. These observations are based on 14 months of ethnographic research among amateur riders and the professionals who support them (n = 35), utilising participant observation and Dictaphone recordings. Riders suffering from ‘confidence issues’ could be belittled and excluded. Instructors’ approaches towards bolstering bravery involved encouraging riders to ‘get tough’—on both themselves and on their horses. Narrative theory is employed in this article to show that riders could demonstrate their own bravery through describing the horse as defiant. Alternate narrative possibilities existed, including describing the horse as needy patient and the rider as care provider. Riders were critically aware that veterinary diagnoses could be sought or avoided in line with riders’ own dispositions. ‘Diagnoses-seeking’ behaviours could be judged negatively by others and seen as evidence of unresolved fearfulness. In conclusion, the British equestrian cultural orientation towards bravery can be associated with stressful or painful training techniques, delayed or missed diagnoses of physiological pathologies, and poor training outcomes. Programs that aim to help riders to develop confidence without instilling a sense of ‘battle’ with the horse, and without ridiculing the rider, are likely to have positive implications on equine welfare and human safety.
... However, these advances have been slow to gain traction in equestrian communities that often value traditions and esoteric knowledge over science [2]. A lack of understanding of the equine learning process can lead to training or management practices that confuse horses [3] and can result in training deficits or the emergence of undesired behaviours [4]. There is substantial evidence to highlight the importance of clear and consistent training cues for the mental wellbeing of captive and domestic animals [5,6]. ...
... Undesirable behaviour in horses may emerge as a response to aversive experiences, such as pain, fear, or confusion [8]. Such behaviours can also compromise the welfare of horses when trainers rely on punishment based methods, suboptimal negative reinforcement or use of aversive equipment [3,7]. Such methods and equipment have the potential to compromise horse welfare [3] and could also cause an escalation of potentially dangerous behaviour if the horse's fight-or-flight response is triggered [14]. ...
... Such behaviours can also compromise the welfare of horses when trainers rely on punishment based methods, suboptimal negative reinforcement or use of aversive equipment [3,7]. Such methods and equipment have the potential to compromise horse welfare [3] and could also cause an escalation of potentially dangerous behaviour if the horse's fight-or-flight response is triggered [14]. Undesirable behaviour can also diminish the perceived value of the horse, causing the horse to be sold, auctioned, or euthanased [15]. ...
It is logical to assume that horses with multiple riders encounter variation in application of training cues. When training cues are inconsistent, we expect to see a decrease in trained responses or an increase in conflict behaviours. This study investigated the relationship between the number of people that regularly ride or handle a horse and the horse’s response to operant cues. Data on 1819 equids were obtained from the Equine Behavior Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ), an online global survey of horse owners and caregivers. Three mutually independent indices (acceleration, deceleration, and responsiveness) were derived from a parallel analysis of E-BARQ items related to acceleration and deceleration cues. These indices were then subjected
to multivariable modelling against a range of dependent variables including horse and human demographics, horse management, and the number of riders or handlers. The number of riders or handlers was a significant predictor for two out of three indices. As the number of riders or handlers increased, horses were more difficult to accelerate (regression coefficient = 0.0148; 0.0071; p = 0.0366) and less difficult to decelerate (regression coefficient = 0.017; 0.008; p = 0.030) than those with fewer riders or handlers. These findings suggest that horses’ responses to rein tension cues are more persistent than their responses to leg pressure or whip cues. Alternatively, horses with these responses may be actively selected for multiple rider roles. Longitudinal studies of this sort should reveal how the number of riders or handlers affects horse behaviour and could lead to safer and more humane equestrian practices.
... Inflammation of the airways as a result of dust or other respiratory irritants is associated with decreased performance in stabled racehorses [93]. Olave, et al. [94] found that dry hay increases the risk of inflammation of the horses' airways, which can be greatly reduced by using another fibre source, such as haylage [95]. Decisions in this domain may represent a trade-off between the welfare of the horse and the chances of winning. ...
... Decisions in this domain may represent a trade-off between the welfare of the horse and the chances of winning. McLean and McGreevy [95,96] discuss the issue of competitiveness. It can result in a trade-off between the welfare of the horse and the chances of winning. ...
Failure to meet the minimum forage requirement of 1.5% of the horse's bodyweight and the opportunity for foraging for a minimum of 8 h a day (not going without this opportunity longer than four to five consecutive hours) can have both physiological and behavioural consequences. To provide an energy source for horses, rations often include starch rather than fibre. This can result in health issues related to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in the horse. In the stomach, the main concern is equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) and, more specifically, equine squamous gastric disease (ESGD). Ulcerations are caused either by increasing acidity in the stomach (from starch ingestion and reduced saliva production) or splashing of acidic juices caused by a lack of a forage barrier prior to exercise or prolonged periods without fibrous feed intake, which allows the stomach to collapse and spread acidic gastric fluids into the upper squamous regions of the stomach. In the hindgut, starch that has escaped digestion in the small intestine causes microbial instability and increased production of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and lactic acid. This puts horses at great risk for acidosis and subsequent laminitis. Shifts in the hindgut microbiota will also affect a horse's behaviour via the gut-brain axis, as well as potentially compromise immune function. Reduced fluid intake caused by reduced saliva production can result in colic. Choosing a fibrous alternative for starch in a high-energy diet greatly reduces the risk of EGUS and acidosis and improves digestion, GIT pH, body condition, behaviour, immune functions, and performance. Providing hay can reduce crib-biting, wood-chewing, coprophagia, the consumption of bedding, aggression, and stress, and subsequently increase social bonding and affiliation with conspecifics. Adequate fibre intake is related to reduced clinical signs of EGUS, reduced reactivity, and better adaptation to weaning. Lignophagia (wood chewing) has also been observed in horses that are foraging, and this is thought to reflect low fibre content in the available forage (for example, early vegetative, lush pasture).
... The association of overcheck with oral lesions has not been investigated earlier. It has been suggested that head equipment, such as nosebands, tongue-ties, and overchecks, may restrict a horse's movements and expression of discomfort (McLean and McGreevy, 2010b;Casey et al., 2013;McGreevy, 2015). ...
... Society's views on what is ethical is constantly changing (Campbell, 2013;Bergmann, 2019). The social license to operate (SLO) refers to society 'giving' a certain activity or business the 'license to operate' if it thinks that the activity is morally 'acceptable' (McLean and McGreevy, 2010b;Campbell, 2016;Duncan et al., 2018;Heleski et al., 2020). Different ethical frameworks can be used as an analytical tool to identify important aspects of an ethical dilemma (Campbell, 2021). ...
Bit-related oral lesions are a common and painful welfare issue in horses. Even though horses have been ridden and driven with a bit and bridle for 6000 years and bit sores have been described already in the 19th century in the veterinary literature, scientific reports on bit-related lesions and their risk factors in horses remain scarce.
The aim of this thesis was to (i) determine the occurrence of oral lesions in the bit area in Finnish trotters and event horses after competitions, (ii) create a scoring system for oral lesions in the bit area and demonstrate different lesion types and locations with photographs, (iii) investigate risk factors for bit-related lesions in trotters and event horses, (iv) further investigate different stakeholders’ attitudes towards bit-related lesions in trotters.
The rostral part of the mouth of 469 horses (261 trotters, 208 event horses) was examined systematically after a competition. Trotters were examined in 10 racing events in 2017 and event horses in 8 competition events in 2018–2019. Many horses had multiple lesions, and therefore, a lesion scoring system was created in which points were given to each lesion depending on its size, type (bruise or wound), and depth (superficial or deep). Points for each lesion were summed such that each horse received a total lesion score that reflected the overall lesion status. No acute lesions were found in 42 trotters (16%), and lesion status was mild in 55 trotters (21%), moderate in 113 trotters (43%), and severe in 51 trotters (20%). In event horses, no lesions were found in 99 horses (48%), and lesion status was mild in 45 (22%), moderate in 55 (26%), and severe in 9 horses (4%).
The most common lesion location was the inner lip commissure. Lesions were also found in the bars of the mandible in front of the first lower cheek tooth, in the buccal area near the first upper cheek tooth, and in the outer lip commissures. Only a few horses had mild lesions involving the tongue and one horse in the hard palate. Although 109 event horses and 219 trotters had oral lesions in the bit area, none of the event horses and only six trotters showed external mouth bleeding. Additionally, one event horse and 26 trotters had blood inside the mouth or on the bit when it was removed from the mouth.
Associations between a horse’s moderate-severe oral lesion status and potential risk factors were analyzed with multivariable logistic regression analysis. The association between bit type and lesion location was examined with Fisher’s exact test. Risk factors for moderate-severe oral lesion status in trotters were the use of a Crescendo bit, a mullen mouth regulator bit, or an unjointed plastic bit (model Happy Mouth) and female sex (mare). In event horses, the risk factors were thin (10–13 mm) and thick (18–22 mm) bits, female sex (mare), and other than pony breed. In both disciplines, unjointed bits were associated with lesions in the bars of the mandible. Single-jointed snaffle bits were the most common bit type in trotters and the least associated with moderate-severe lesions. In event horses, double-jointed 14–17 mm bits were most common. Bit thickness of 14–17 mm was the least associated with moderate-severe lesion status. However, these results may at least partly reflect driveability or rideability issues, and thus, rein tension differences because drivers/riders may change to distinctive bit designs if they have difficulty eliciting an appropriate response with rein cues.
In the pilot questionnaire study, imaginary scenarios and photographs of lesions from horses’ mouths were presented to different stakeholders (veterinarians and race veterinary assistants, trainers, and others). They were asked in multiple choice questionnaires whether they allow the horse to start in the race, stipulate a health certificate before the next race, or remove the horse from the race. The association between stakeholder groups and their answers was examined with the Pearson Chi-square test. The results of this study indicated differences in attitudes towards bit-related lesions between stakeholder groups but also within a stakeholder group. This might reflect differences in conflicts of interests, moral values, empathy, or over-exposure to oral lesions. Not removing horses with severe oral lesions from the race may compromise horse welfare and society’s trust in the surveillance system.
In this study, oral lesions in the bit area were common after a competition, although only few horses showed external bleeding. Oral examination and an oral lesion scoring system with an assistant recording the findings were suitable for field conditions and horses seemed to tolerate the examination well. Even though changing the bit to the bits least associated with lesions may be beneficial, horses with oral lesions might benefit from training modifications. Given the higher risk observed for mares in this study, mare oral health warrants special attention. Results of this thesis encourage adopting bit area monitoring as a new routine by horse handlers and as a welfare measure by competition organizers in order to minimize pain and negative experiences by early diagnosis and treatment of mouth lesions.
... The use of training aids, such as draw reins, side reins, Market Harborough, chambon or de Gogue, also have the potential to cause discomfort; pain (to the mouth, implicated muscles and any pressure points) or behavioural inhibition and thus risk creating fear and distress [192,197], particularly when used excessively, in inexperienced hands or by trainers without detailed knowledge of equitation science. Many of these training aids instigate changes to the animal's head carriage and neck position and the use of muscles during motion (e.g., in the back or hindquarters); therefore, muscle fatigue and pain can also be implicated [197]. ...
... The use of training aids, such as draw reins, side reins, Market Harborough, chambon or de Gogue, also have the potential to cause discomfort; pain (to the mouth, implicated muscles and any pressure points) or behavioural inhibition and thus risk creating fear and distress [192,197], particularly when used excessively, in inexperienced hands or by trainers without detailed knowledge of equitation science. Many of these training aids instigate changes to the animal's head carriage and neck position and the use of muscles during motion (e.g., in the back or hindquarters); therefore, muscle fatigue and pain can also be implicated [197]. Some training methods do not use restrictive training aids but may use aversive stimuli through intentionally causing pain or unpleasantness to the equids. ...
Equestrian sports, including racing (e.g., flat, steeple-chasing, harness or donkey derby); show-jumping; cross-country; dressage; polo; polocrosse; endurance; carriage driving; vaulting and hunting; are hugely popular in the UK, and they involve a significant number of people, both as participants and spectators, and tens of thousands of equids. In this paper, we discuss animal welfare as a complex and disputed issue, clarifying what the term means and how it can be measured. We review many aspects of welfare risk to equids used for sport, addressing issues encountered throughout their lives, including housing, feeding, veterinary intervention, shoeing, handling, training, breeding and equipment. This is followed by a unique exploration of the institutions and social processes influencing equine welfare. The institutional components comprise the rules of competition, the equids, attributes of the stakeholders and the space where participants strive to achieve a common purpose. We endeavour to untangle the most significant elements that create barriers or provide opportunities for equine welfare improvement. We expose the challenges faced by a broad range of stakeholders with differing ethics, attitudes and values. Evidently, there are many welfare risks to which equids used in sports continue to be exposed. It is also evident that significant improvements have occurred in recent times, but there remains a barrier to reducing the risks to an acceptable level. We conclude with recommendations regarding a process for change, involvement of stakeholders and management of knowledge to improve equine welfare that involves identifying and prioritising the risk factors and ultimately leading to interventions, further research and/or education.
... Our review of popular science resources indicated that con dence, cooperativity, and trainable traits are most wanted by horse trainers, breeders and riders. Other characteristics known to be of a great importance are fear of objects, sounds, and movements (20). The challenge can be even bigger for a horse, if these stimuli are combined: thus, the situation where a horse is faced with a moving unknown object that produces sound is considered highly challenging. ...
... Out of the nine mentioned characteristics, four related to all the horses tested, two on the head (i.e., distances between the roots of the ears and between the superior parts of the nostrils) and two on the body (cornet scope of front leg and chest length). When the chest was longer, horses showed more subordinated / distrustful emotional reaction in the fear reaction test situation that may, according to its speci cs (20), present most risk to riders and handlers of horses. This indicates that horse breeders may have di culties building trustworthy relationships with horses with longer backs since trust is essential during daily handling routines (3) in order to prevent injuries of both rider and a horse (28). ...
We tested 35 Lipizzan horses older than five years, ridden and healthy in three behavioural tests (handling, fear-reaction, and learning ability test). Physiological (heart rate and heart rate variability) and anatomical measurements (120 head and body distances and angles) were collected to validate parameters that reliably inform on fear/exploration and learning ability in horses. Utilizing a standard clustering methodology on the behavioural data, we identified four general types of responses and categorised an individual as intermediate, low fearful, hard to handle or with low learning ability. We additionally analysed the head morphology following Tellington-Jones and Taylor recommendations and correlated the measurements with data from a horse personality questionnaire. Although allocation to a particular personality group was not associated with these two methods, these groups differed in six anatomical characteristics of head and body. Regardless of the group, our results indicated that shorter horses (˂75.9 cm) with a wider muzzle (˃10.5 cm) are trustworthy, less fearful and easier to handle and train. We also demonstrated that horses with stronger legs and a wider base of the head have a lower heart rate when exposed to the second trial of the handling test.
... To cope with stressors, animals may attempt to remove themselves from discomfort, confront the stressors, or adapt to them ( Moberg and Mench,20 0 0 ). If unable to resolve conflicting or unrelenting stimuli, horses may exhibit behavior indicative of a state of conflict or ultimately habituate to the stimuli ( McLean and McGreevy, 2010b ). Mills and Marchant-Forde (2010) describe conflict behavior as "a category of stress-induced behavior changes that arise from conflicting motivations." ...
... That said, numerous behaviors exhibited by the horse under saddle are seldom observed outside the ridden context and should be valued among other potential animal-based indicators of poor welfare ( Randle and Waran, 2017 ). Increased interest in animal welfare has drawn attention to potentially questionable ethics around some aspects of horse use in sport and recreation McGreevy, 2010a , McLean andMcGreevy, 2010b ) and public scrutiny is intensifying with regard to social license to operate within racing ( McGreevy and McManus, 2017 ) and many other sectors of the equine industry. Within this context, many training methods and items of equipment, some of which have justifications based chiefly on tradition, are now being questioned more deeply than ever. ...
Equestrian equipment is often used to maintain control of horses while riding, training or handling them and therefore to optimize human and horse safety. However, equipment that has been incorrectly selected or inappropriately used may result in horses exhibiting conflict-related behavior. Characterising associations between apparatus use and unwelcome horse behavior could benefit both horse welfare and human safety by elucidating the ontogeny of undesirable equine responses and promoting the ethical use of equipment. The current study explored associations between commonly used apparatus and the reported behaviors of the ridden horse, using an online survey that attracted 1101 Australian respondents. Chi-square tests of association revealed thirteen (9.1%) significant relationships between any unwanted behavior and single items of apparatus used during riding. Analysis of combinations of apparatus that impose aversive stimuli (e.g. harsh bits for deceleration, and spurs for acceleration) revealed that 37.19% of combinations of such items were significantly related to unwanted/conflict equine behaviors. Additional analysis demonstrated no significant difference in the unwanted behavior of horses ridden in bitless versus bitted bridles. This study has demonstrated associations between unwanted ridden behaviors and type of apparatus used, particularly when multiple items are used to apply opposing aversive stimuli. Whilst these results do not imply causation, they may be used to better inform equestrians’ choice and ethical use of apparatus.
... A failure of students to correctly identify horses' behavioural cues and to give an appropriate response at an appropriate time may lead to confusion for the horse [23][24][25]. As a result, horses may develop conflict behaviours that may negatively influence their welfare [23,26]. ...
... If unable to correctly identify equine body signals, students are therefore unlikely to provide consistent cues and to apply appropriate signals, which may negatively reflect on their interactions with the horses. Mistimed and/or inconsistent signals can induce subsequent confusion and conflict behaviours and have been reported to increase arousal and reactivity levels in horses [3, 25,26,36]. ...
Horses are used in practical teaching classes in many equine and veterinary science degree programmes to develop and refine the handling and clinical skills of students. In this study, the activities of 24 teaching horses grouped in three herds were investigated over an entire calendar year. Although also used for research and general husbandry, teaching-related activities were the predominant use of the horses. Herd B was used for a greater number of teaching sessions (median = 28, IQR = 27–29.5 per year) than herds M (median = 21, IQR = 20–21 per year) and T (median = 19.5, IQR = 13.75–25.5 per year), which translates to a relatively low workload (one or two weekly sessions during the teaching semester). Sedation was used in dentistry classes (in alignment with national best practice standards) but was rarely required for other teaching activities. Mare reproductive rectal- and medical rectal examination practical classes (specific to 5th-year veterinary teaching and characterised by more restraint (in stocks)) were significantly shorter and had fewer students per horse than the other practical classes. Although the low workload reported suggests an opportunity to increase students’ exposure to horses without compromising the horses’ welfare, further investigation to determine specific stressors to the horses in the teaching environment may be required.
... Most of the interventions experienced by domestic horses would be novel to the feral horse and many are in direct contrast to the equid ethogram [58]. These experiences include transport [59], separation from familiar conspecifics [60], training processes [61] and the novelty of situation and location [62]. Williams and Tabor (2017) recognised that in the human-horse dyad, it was the responsibility of the human to ensure the health and welfare of the domestic horse were optimised through appropriate management and riding [63]. ...
Feral horses, also known as brumbies, are widely distributed across Australia with some populations being managed largely by human intervention. Rehoming of suitable feral horses following passive trapping has wide community acceptance as a management tool. However, there is little information about the number and relative economic value of feral horses compared with cohorts in the riding horse market. We examined 15,404 advertisements of horses for sale in 53 editions of Horse Deals, published from February 2017 to July 2022. Despite the considerable media attention and public scrutiny surrounding feral horse management, rehomed feral horses represented only a tiny fraction of the horse market in the current study. Of the 15,404 advertisements examined, only 128 (0.0083%) were for feral horses. We recorded phrases used to describe behavioural characteristics and other variables. The following variables were found to be not independent: Ridden Status, Height, Age, Sex, Colour, and Warning terms/more work. Using descriptive statistics to describe basic features of the data, the average price for feral horses ($1408) was lower than that for domestic horses ($1790) with the maximum price for a domestic horse being nearly twice the maximum for a feral horse. Univariate analysis showed feral horses were over represented among “Unbroken” horses and underrepresented among “Ridden”, “Broodmare” and “Harness” horses compared with domestic bred horses (p < 0.001). Feral horses appeared over-represented at shorter heights, among younger age groups (3 years or younger and 3.1 to 6 years) (p < 0.001) and in the dilute colour category (p = 0.008). The multivariable mixed model on price revealed that for domestic horses, the highest estimated marginal mean price averaged across the colour categories was for ridden horses aged 6.1–10-year-old at $1657.04 (95% CI $1320.56–$2074.66). In contrast, for feral horses, the multivariable mixed model demonstrated the similar highest estimated marginal mean averaged was for green broken 3–6-year-old horses that have undergone foundation training under saddle at $2526.97 (95% CI $1505.63–$4208.27). Australian feral horses were valued differently from similar domestic horses in the recreational riding horse market and further research is warranted to determine appropriate target markets and boost the sustainability of rehoming as a feral horse management tool.
... al., 2014). It is necessary to bear in mind that the implementation of the training techniques may suggest the conflict with the biological urges that are the predictors of survival throughout the evolution, which can lead to the confusion of the horse (McGreevy, & McLean, 2007;McLean, & McGreevy, 2010). Synchronization of the training with the biological base of the horse would significantly contribute to the reduction of the stress level and to the improvement of the wellbeing of the horse. ...
... Within the domestic setting, the actions of the horse will often not significantly influence the achievement of their goal, for example access to social interactions or to basic provisions (such as food and shelter), despite an ethological drive towards them; therefore, increasing the chances of the horse feeling thwarted in their aim. Many routines and training methods do allow the horse some control over the outcome but are highly susceptible to human error due to lack of understanding or poor application of learning theory (McLean and McGreevy, 2010). Horses are learning with every interaction they have with humans and developing a level of expectation surrounding routine activities (Berridge, 2001). ...
Frustration is a term often used to describe both a behavioural response to a situation and an emotional state experienced when goals or rewards are expected but not received. Literature on human and non-human animals provides an understanding into the mechanisms underlying frustration and the common behaviours expressed. Frustration is regarded as a negative affective state that could indicate a welfare concern. However, literature on horses lacks consistency regarding those behaviours believed to indicate frustration. The purpose of the current study was to ascertain expert opinion on the causes and behavioural indicators of frustration in horses via a Delphi Consultation process with 30 experts in the field of equine behaviour. Twenty-six statements were generated by experts in a two-round Delphi to describe potential causes of frustration, behavioural indicators of acute and chronic frustration and to enhance general understanding of the topic. The statements generated were agreed upon by >70% of participants. Mean level of agreement within demographic variables (researcher status (active or inactive), consultant status (active or inactive) and qualification level (<PhD or PhD holder)) was analysed using Welch’s t-Test with no significant difference seen between any of the variables (t(21.55) = 1.11, p>0.05; t(14.47) = -1.22, p>0.05; t(15.31) = 2.10, p>0.05 respectively). Consensus agreement suggests that horses are likely to exhibit frustration in similar ways to other species - in acute situations through increased locomotion, muscle tension, directed and redirected aggression, conflict or displacement behaviours; in chronic situations through the development of repetitive (stereotypic) behaviours and learned helplessness or shutdown behaviours. It was also suggested that certain management practices and human interactions are likely causes of most frustration-related behaviours. The majority of participants agreed (85.7%) that frustration may present similar behaviours to other affective states, indicating the need for caution when attributing the cause of observed behaviours solely to frustration.
The study highlights the need for further exploration and empirical studies to validate behavioural indicators of frustration and to clarify differentiation of them from other affective states.
... Rein tension can cause discomfort and stress for the horse since applying tension on the reins means that the bit is pressing on sensitive oral tissues ( McLean and McGreevy, 2010b ;Hall and Heleski, 2017 ;Mellor, 2020 ). One way to determine if the magnitude of rein tension applied is compromising the horse's welfare is to study rein tension in relation to behavioral parameters https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2022.11.009 1558-7878/© 2022 The Author(s). ...
Pressure from the bit in the horse's mouth, rein tension, likely feels unpleasant to the horse due to sensitive oral tissues. Through trial and error, the horse may learn how to adjust their behavior in order to avoid, diminish or cease uncomfortable sensations from the bit. We hypothesized that oral behaviors and head movements in response to rein tension have the function to avoid or escape the rein tension. The study objective was to assess in what way oral behaviors and head movements affect rein tension and determine the magnitude of rein tension at the onset and end of these behaviors. Twenty Warmblood horses were fitted with a bitted bridle and subjected to eight trials of backing up in response to a rein tension signal with the handler standing next to the horse's withers. The rein tension signal was gradually increased and then immediately released when the horse stepped back. A rein tension meter and video recordings were used for data collection. Linear mixed models were used for the statistical analysis. There was a decrease in mean rein tension (sum of left and right rein) from onset to end for open mouth (p<0.001, from 19 to 11 Newtons (N), biting on the bit (p=0.004, from 11 to 5 N), and head upward (p=0.024, from 16 to 12 N), while there was an increase in rein tension associated with head forward (p=0.015, from 27 to 37 N) and head downward (p<0.001, from 17 to 46 N). Our results suggest that horses will open their mouth, or bite on the bit, to alleviate the oral tissues from pressure; move the head upward to avoid rein tension and move the head forward or downward to increase rein tension, likely in a presumed attempt to break free from the pressure applied. The horse's oral behaviors and head movements during training can be used to gain a greater understanding of how the horse perceives the magnitude of rein tension.
... Even with this more modern classification, welfare concerns remain. Horse welfare has received less attention than farmed livestock [1], and their role as a ridden animal exposes them to specific welfare concerns that do not apply to other companion animals [1,3,4]. Perceptions regarding the impact of factors that affect horse welfare vary between nonhorse owners, horse owners, and competitors, and even vary depending on the discipline Attitudes toward animal welfare and the importance of considering the animal's experience during a human-animal interaction (HAI) have changed considerably over recent decades. ...
Husbandry and veterinary procedures have the potential to generate fear and stress in animals. In horses, the associated responses can pose a significant safety risk to the human personnel involved in the procedure, as well as to the animal itself. Traditionally, physical restraint, punishment, and/or threat of an aversive, have been the most common strategies used to achieve compliance from the horse. However, from a welfare perspective, this is less than ideal. This approach also has the potential for creating a more dangerous response from the horse in future similar situations. When caring for companion animals, and captive animals within zoological facilities, there has been a steady transition away from this approach, and toward strategies aimed at reducing fear and stress during veterinary visits and when undertaking routine husbandry procedures. This review discusses the current approaches to horse care and training, the strategies being used in other animal sectors, and potential strategies for improving human safety, as well as the horse’s experience, during husbandry and veterinary procedures.
... Common learning challenges horses experience include tasks that are antithetical to their ethology, such as approaching rather than avoiding aversive stimuli such as transport vehicles or tasks that require they forget previous habits and learn new ones, such as occurs when they are sent for 'retraining' of undesirable habits. Training failures, where horses either fail to acquire the ethologically challenging learning task, rapidly acquire unwanted habits, or experience difficulty undergoing extinction of an unwanted habit during retraining, are commonly reported in industry and a there is wide variation in the advice given to owners about how to resolve these issues [2]. Evidence from other species suggests that cognitive and ethological challenges during learning are influenced by complex neural processes that are vulnerable to impairment by chronic stress [3]. ...
Horse training exposes horses to an array of cognitive and ethological challenges. Horses are routinely required to perform behaviours that are not aligned to aspects of their ethology, which may delay learning. While horses readily form habits during training, not all of these responses are considered desirable, resulting in the horse being subject to retraining. This is a form of cognitive flexibility and is critical to the extinction of habits and the learning of new responses. It is underpinned by complex neural processes which can be impaired by chronic or repeated stress. Domestic horses may be repeatedly exposed to multiples stressors. The potential contribution of stress impairments of cognitive flexibility to apparent training failures is not well understood, however research from neuroscience can be used to understand horses’ responses to training. We trained horses to acquire habit-like responses in one of two industry-style aversive instrumental learning scenarios (moving away from the stimulus-instinctual or moving towards the stimulus-non-instinctual) and evaluated the effect of repeated stress exposures on their cognitive flexibility in a reversal task. We measured heart rate as a proxy for noradrenaline release, salivary cortisol and serum Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) to infer possible neural correlates of the learning outcomes. The instinctual task which aligned with innate equine escape responses to aversive stimuli was acquired significantly faster than the non-instinctual task during both learning phases, however contrary to expectations, the repeated stress exposure did not impair the reversal learning. We report a preliminary finding that serum BDNF and salivary cortisol concentrations in horses are positively correlated. The ethological salience of training tasks and cognitive flexibility learning can significantly affect learning in horses and trainers should adapt their practices where such tasks challenge innate equine behaviour.
... It might be that these horses with only one handler had more opportunities to develop a strong bond with one specific person and therefore generalise their behaviour and show trust with other humans as they already have a strong emotional base in their relationship with their handler. On the other hand, it is known that inappropriately applied training and handling methods can lead to negative emotional experiences for horses (McLean and McGreevy, 2010;McGreevy et al., 2011), and riding sessions may involve musculoskeletal injuries such as back or teeth pain due to badly fitted gear Dyson et al., 2020). Therefore, being handled/ridden by different humans who vary in their abilities to respond appropriately to horse behaviour increases the chances of having negative emotional experiences, especially if some handlers are only involved in riding/training sessions and not in everyday caregiving. ...
Despite numerous studies emerging on the human-horse relationship, significant gaps exist in the identification of the horse and handler factors that influence the quality of their relationship. Here, we explore key factors affecting human-animal relationships: the number of regular handlers an animal has, their Length of the relationship with the handler, number of owner changes, and the handler familiarity. A total of 76 horses participated in two novel object tasks to determine whether horses react differently to novel situations depending on whether they are handled by a familiar or an unfamiliar person. We observed that having multiple regular handlers negatively affected the horse reluctance toward the novel surfaces (estimate ± SE = 1.90 ± 0.64, Z= 2.98, P = 0.003) and novel object (estimate ± SE = 0.94 ± 0.47, Z= 2.01, P = 0.044). In horses used to be handled by only one person, 75% were non-reluctant toward the surfaces while 68% of the horses handled multiple persons showed reluctant behaviours. Similarly, only 13% of the horses with only one regular handler refused to be touched with a novel object while 26% of the horse with multiple regular handlers refused to be touched with the object. The relationship length between the horse and the familiar handler decreased the horse reluctance toward the novel surfaces (estimate ± SE = -0.27 ± 0.14. Z= -1.93. P = 0.054) and novel object (estimate ± SE = -0.15 ± 0.07, Z= -2.14, P = 0.033). The longer the relationship the less reluctant were the horses. Horses sold more than once were more reluctant to the object (estimate ± SE = -1.09 ± 0.49, Z= -2.20, P = 0.028). Those horses had higher chances to refuse to be touched with the novel object than the horses still owned by their breeder or their first buyer. Finally, older horses (> 18 yo) had higher success at walking on the surface when led by someone familiar (87%) compared to led by someone unfamiliar (15%) (estimate ± SE = 2.55 ± 1.05, t= 2.43, P = 0.016). Our findings suggest that the horse-human relationship may take time to develop as it is shaped by multiple factors involving the horse’s previous and current interactions with humans that affect their everyday life.
... This factor may have affected horses' memories of human actions either positively or negatively 29 . There are a number of other potential factors that could have some influence on horse behaviour, such as different training methods and equipment used 18 , fear or novelty of the environment or target 19,23 or curiosity/motivation 22 , housing conditions 1,27 , and more. To date, the most frequently mentioned categorisation of animal responses to a challenging situation are reactive, proactive (farm animals 30 ; horses 4,31 ) or intermediate (farm animals 32 ). ...
We tested 35 Lipizzan horses older than 5 years, ridden and healthy in three behavioural tests (handling, fear-reaction, and target training test). Physiological (heart rate and heart rate variability) and anatomical measurements (120 head and body distances and angles) were collected to validate parameters that reliably inform on handling/cooperation, fear/exploration and trainability in horses. Utilizing a standard clustering methodology on the behavioural data, we identified four general types of responses and categorised an individual as intermediate, low fearful, horses with low cooperation or low trainability. We additionally analysed the head morphology following Tellington-Jones and Taylor recommendations and correlated the measurements with data from a horse personality questionnaire. Although allocation to a particular personality group was not associated with these two methods, these groups differed in six anatomical characteristics of head and body. Regardless of the group, our results indicated that shorter horses (<75.9 cm) with a wider muzzle (>10.5 cm) are trustworthy, less fearful and easier to handle and train. We also demonstrated that horses with stronger legs and a wider base of the head have a lower heart rate when exposed to the second trial of the handling test.
... Young horses may experience considerable stress during training, as measured by changes in behavior and physiology (e.g., Schmidt et al., 2010a;Kędzierski et al., 2012). There is also concern that some training and restraint practices may cause physical injuries and discomfort (McLean and McGreevy, 2010). Therefore, increasing attention is being given to training practices and their effects on horses' emotional well-being (McGreevy and McLean, 2007;King et al., 2018;ISES, 2018). ...
Ensuring horse welfare is a central aim in equestrian activities. Training is an important context for welfare, as horses form long-lasting representations of people and actions at a young age. However, only a few studies have addressed horses’ emotional responses during early training with humans. In this study, we followed N = 19 young horses, including naïve yearlings and more experienced two- to three-year-olds, through five foundation training sessions over nine months. Our goal was to combine physiological and behavioral measures to assess emotional responses to early foundation training. Specifically, we measured salivary oxytocin (sOXT) in N = 100 samples and salivary cortisol (sCORT) in N = 96 samples before and after training sessions. We also recoded behavioral responses during training. Changes in sOXT during training predicted individual variation in behavioral responses: Horses who showed more affiliative human-directed behaviors during training had increases in sOXT, while horses who showed more behavioral indicators of discomfort during training had decreases in sOXT. Salivary cortisol was not related to individual behavioral responses, but experienced horses had lower sCORT concentrations both before and after training, and all horses showed decreases in sCORT and in behaviors indicative of fear or discomfort as training progressed. In addition, sCORT increased during longer training sessions, consistent with the established role of cortisol in responding to physical stressors. We conclude that individual variation in positive or negative behavioral responses to foundation training corresponds with acute changes in sOXT concentrations in young horses, suggesting that sOXT may be useful as a non-invasive indicator of emotional responses in young horses.
... Nevertheless, a positive image of equine tourism is far to be a generalized situation in this sector considered of public concern ( Ollenburg, 2005 ). Some social networks still demand to banish carriages from cities, neglecting the effort s and evidence generated in a scientific base on horse welfare ( McLean and McGreevy, 2010 ;Hill et al., 2015 ), that seems insufficient for reassuring to mass public that when horses are properly used for recreational purposes they can be maintained in good animal welfare. Concepts related to the animal welfare assessment still need to be explained because for mass public it could be easy to use stress, discomfort, or distress as the same subject. ...
The aim was to quantify the frequency of distress and discomfort related behaviors displayed by horses during their carriage pulling activity. The study lasted three months during the 2018 rainy season in Merida, México, using 24 light-morphology (400 ± 50 kg liveweight) horses randomly selected to be observed. All animals were in good body condition and health status. Horses served for tourism tours of five kilometers, being theoretically used for a maximum of six tours per day and having one resting day every three working days. Behavior observations were performed at three points of the carriage tour: at the start point with horses stopped, at the middle during carriage pulling activity, at the end with horses stopped. Behaviors chosen corresponded to measurable criteria, for the welfare of working equids according to the World Organization for Animal Health and easy to be observed on field conditions: aberrant vocalization as related to distress or high-level stressors exposure, and nodding, nibbling, limp and hit the floor as related to discomfort or mid to low-level stressors. Frequencies of behaviors were compared between the three points of the tour using a Fisher Exact Test in R Studio software. Horses were tracked from one to six tours performed in different days totaling 66 observed tours. None of the horses had aberrant vocalizations. Seven horses (62.5%) showed zero or one concerning behavior (8 horses), and only a 4.2% (one horse) demonstrated six behaviors. No discomfort behaviors were observed in 60.6% of the tours, with one discomfort behavior noted in 25.7% of the tours, and 1.5% of the tours where five discomfort behaviors were noted. Similar frequencies of behaviors (P>0.05) were found at the start, middle and final points of the tour. Although it wasdisplayed at a low frequency, nodding at the start point was the main behavior observed (19.6% of the 66 tours). This frequency could have been lower if drivers had avoided staying more than 90 minutes in the waiting zones with the animals stopped.
... One essential aim of the driver and grooms is therefore to decrease the number of interactions between horses. This factor is the responsibility of the driver and groom to remain consistent in their demands, by punishing interactions right after they occur, and/or rewarding the absence of interactions, according to learning theory [20]. However, despite their training, interactions between horses may still happen. ...
In order to improve the housing conditions of stallions in individual boxes, we tested a so-called "social box" allowing increased physical contact between neighbouring horses. This study investigated whether housing stallions in social boxes changes the number of social interactions during carriage driving. We hypothesised that the stay in social boxes would decrease the number of unwanted social interactions between stallions when driven in pairs. Eight Franches-Montagnes breeding stallions were observed when driven in pairs with a "neutral" stallion housed in a so-called "conventional box," strongly limiting physical contact. They were driven on a standardised route over the course of four days before, during, and after being housed in social boxes. The type and frequency of behaviours of the pairs and the interventions of the groom and the driver during the test drives were assessed live and using video recordings. Results from linear mixed-effect models show that unwanted social interactions decreased during and after the stallions were housed in the social box (p < 0.001). Stallions' interactions also decreased over the four days (p < 0.01), suggesting a habituation to the test conditions by learning not to interact, or by subtly settling dominance. The social box tended to decrease unwanted social behaviours of stallions driven in pairs and could therefore be used as an environmental enrichment for horses.
... There are, however, knowledge gaps regarding the correct application of the learning principles among riders and horse trainers (Warren-Smith and McGreevy, 2008;Brown and Connor, 2017), e.g. the importance of the timing of the release of pressure and of always starting with a light signal (McLean and Christensen, 2017). Relentless pressure or unpredictable pressure signals can cause stress and discomfort for the horse (McLean and McGreevy, 2010) and therefore further education of equestrians in the principles of operant and classical conditioning is needed (Telatin et al., 2016). Moreover, it has been found that training horses through negative reinforcement can lead to a negative perception of humans (Sankey et al., 2010) and stress related behaviors (Hendriksen et al., 2011;Freymond et al., 2014). ...
Rein tension signals are, in essence, pressures applied on the horse’s mouth or nose, via the bit/noseband, by a rider or trainer. These pressures may feel uncomfortable or even painful to the horse and therefore it is important to reduce rein tension magnitude to a minimum. The aim of this study was to investigate the magnitude of a rein tension signal for backing up, using negative reinforcement. We wanted to assess how much the magnitude of rein tension could be reduced over eight trials and if the learning process would differ depending on headstall (bridle/halter). Twenty Warmblood horses were trained to step back from a rein tension signal with the handler standing next to the horse, holding the hands above the horse’s withers. As soon as the horses stepped back, rein tension was released. The horses were either trained with a bridle first (first treatment, eight trials) and then with a halter (second treatment, eight trials), or vice versa in a cross-over design. All horses wore a rein tension meter and behavior was recorded from video. The sum of left and right maximum rein tension from onset of the rein tension signal to onset of backing (signaling rein tension) was determined for each trial. Mixed linear and logistic regression models were used for the data analysis. In both treatments, signaling rein tension was significantly lower in trial 7–8 than the first trial (p < 0.02). Likewise, signaling rein tension was significantly lower (p < 0.01), and the horses responded significantly faster, (p < 0.001) in the second treatment compared to the first, regardless of headstall. The maximum rein tension was reduced from 35 N to 17 N for bridle (sum of left and right rein) and from 25 N to 15 N for halter in the first eight trials. Rein tension was then further reduced to 10 N for both bridle and halter over the eight additional trials in the second treatment, i.e. to approximately 5 N in each rein. There was no significant difference in learning performance depending on headstall, but the bitted bridle was associated with significantly more head/neck/mouth behaviors. These results suggest that it is possible to reduce maximum rein tension by half in just eight trials. The findings demonstrate how quickly the horse can be taught to respond to progressively lower magnitudes of rein tension through the correct application of negative reinforcement, suggesting possibilities for substantial improvement of equine welfare during training.
... They found that negative reinforcement was effective in improving some, but not all, behaviors needed for EAS, while punishment was not; the findings that are in line with training studies outside of therapy practices [9,[40][41][42]. Previous research has also indicated that positive reinforcement training has a positive effect on equine welfare and the human-horse bond [37,[43][44][45][46][47][48]; however, the use of positive reinforcement training in therapeutic practice and its effect on equine welfare and therapy performance has not yet been examined. The results of the current study may suggest that differences between sites exist, and a lack of power may be responsible for no significant findings; however, strong trends were found in some tests. ...
While human benefits of animal-assisted therapy programs have been documented, relatively little research has been conducted on behavioral factors that predict a successful equine-assisted services (EAS) horse. This study compares the behavior of experienced and non-experienced EAS horses as well as horses selected for future EAS work in a series of sociability and temperament tests. No significant differences were found between experienced and non-experienced horses in the sociability measures or for most of the temperament tests; however, significant differences were found between groups in the brushing test, with non-experienced horses showing more affiliative behaviors towards the familiar handler and unfamiliar persons. No significant differences were found between selected and non-selected horses in the temperament tests. However, non-selected horses were found to show significantly more affiliative behaviors towards a familiar person during a sociability test compared with selected horses. These findings suggest that the social behavior and temperament of EAS horses may not be significantly different from other available horses not selected for EAS work. Instead, these decisions may primarily reflect subjective impressions of fit. Interestingly, on measures where significant differences were identified, the horses not actively engaged in or selected for therapy were the ones that showed greater affiliative responses to familiar and unfamiliar humans. Reasons for why this may be, as well as future directions in EAS selection, are discussed.
... al., 2014). It is necessary to bear in mind that the implementation of the training techniques may suggest the conflict with the biological urges that are the predictors of survival throughout the evolution, which can lead to the confusion of the horse (McGreevy, & McLean, 2007;McLean, & McGreevy, 2010). Synchronization of the training with the biological base of the horse would significantly contribute to the reduction of the stress level and to the improvement of the wellbeing of the horse. ...
The research aims to obtain the results of the impact of an application of microbial fertilizers in combination with mineral fertilizers on the health and chemical composition of tomatoes. The study was conducted in 2013 and 2014 on the basic experimental plots in two variants (1. inorganic fertilizer and chemical crop protection + microbial fertilizer Slavol, 2. inorganic fertilizer and chemical crop protection-control). In the year 2013, there was no significant presence of diseases and pests, except for the occurrence of Tetranychus urticae. In early June 2014, the symptoms of Phytophthora infestans appeared only in the control variant. In both years of the study, the average total soluble solids, total acidity, and content of N, Mg, K, Cu were higher in the variant with applied microbial fertilizer. Content of nitrates, lycopene, P, Fe and Zn varied depending on the year and treatment. The application of microbial fertilizer has contributed to better health, and the contents of some tomato fruit quality parameters were increased.
Key words: tomato, Slavol, diseases, pests, quality
... Horse welfare in competitive equestrian sports is under increasing scrutiny (1,2), with attention being directed among others to bit-related lesions, which affect horse welfare by potentially causing anxiety, fear, and pain (3). Oral tissues have a strong somatosensory innervation (4,5). ...
Bit-related oral lesions are common and may impair horse welfare. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of oral lesions and their risk factors in a sample of Finnish event horses.
The rostral part of the oral cavity (the bit area) of 208 event horses (127 warmbloods, 52 coldbloods, and 29 ponies) was examined in a voluntary inspection after the last competition phase, i.e., the cross-country test.
Acute lesions were observed in 52% (109/208) of the horses. The lesion status was graded as no acute lesions for 48% (99/208), mild for 22% (45/208), moderate for 26% (55/208) and severe for 4% (9/208) of the horses. The inner lip commissure was the most common lesion location observed in 39% (81/208) of the horses. A multivariable logistic regression model with data of 174 horses was applied to risk factor analysis. Horses wearing thin (10–13 mm) (OR 3.5, CI 1.4–8.7) or thick (18–22 mm) (OR 3.4, CI 1.4–8.0) bits had a higher risk of moderate/severe lesion status than horses wearing middle-sized (14–17 mm) bits (P = 0.003). Breed was associated with moderate/severe lesion status (P = 0.02). The risk was higher for warmbloods (reference group) and coldbloods (OR 2.0, CI 0.88–4.7) compared with ponies (OR 0.2, CI 0.04–0.87). Mares were at higher risk of moderate/severe lesion status (OR 2.2, CI 1.1–4.5) than geldings (reference group) (P = 0.03). Bar lesions were more common in horses with unjointed bits (40%, 8/20) than with basic double-jointed (10%, 5/52), formed double-jointed (8%, 6/78) or single-jointed bits (5%, 2/40) (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.002).
The results of this study suggest that thin and thick bits and mare sex should be considered risk factors for mouth lesions. In addition, in this sample ponies had smaller risk for lesions than other horse breeds. We encourage adopting bit area monitoring as a new routine by horse handlers and as a welfare measure by competition organizers for randomly drawn horses.
... Horse welfare in competitive equestrian sports is under increasing scrutiny (1,2), with attention being directed among others to bit-related lesions, which affect horse welfare by potentially causing anxiety, fear, and pain (3). Oral tissues have a strong somatosensory innervation (4,5). ...
Bit-related oral lesions are common and may impair horse welfare. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of oral lesions and their risk factors in a sample of Finnish event horses. The rostral part of the oral cavity (the bit area) of 208 event horses (127 warmbloods, 52 coldbloods, and 29 ponies) was examined in a voluntary inspection after the last competition phase, i.e., the crosscountry test. Acute lesions were observed in 52% (109/208) of the horses. The lesion status was graded as no acute lesions for 48% (99/208), mild for 22% (45/208), moderate for 26% (55/208) and severe for 4% (9/208) of the horses. The inner lip commissure was the most common lesion location observed in 39% (81/208) of the horses. A multivariable logistic regression model with data of 174 horses was applied to risk factor analysis. Horses wearing thin (10-13 mm) (OR 3.5, CI 1.4-8.7) or thick (18-22 mm) (OR 3.4, CI 1.4-8.0) bits had a higher risk of moderate/severe lesion status than horses wearing middle-sized (14-17 mm) bits (P = 0.003). Breed was associated with moderate/severe lesion status (P = 0.02). The risk was higher for warmbloods (reference group) and coldbloods (OR 2.0, CI 0.88-4.7) compared with ponies (OR 0.2, CI 0.04-0.87). Mares were at higher risk of moderate/severe lesion status (OR 2.2, CI 1.1-4.5) than geldings (reference group) (P = 0.03). Bar lesions were more common in horses with unjointed bits (40%, 8/20) than with basic double-jointed (10%, 5/52), formed double-jointed (8%, 6/78) or single-jointed bits (5%, 2/40) (Fisher's exact test, P = 0.002). The results of this study suggest that thin and thick bits and mare sex should be considered risk factors for mouth lesions. In addition, in this sample ponies had smaller risk for lesions than other horse breeds. We encourage adopting bit area monitoring as a new routine by horse handlers and as a welfare measure by competition organizers for randomly drawn horses.
... This may lead the horse to demonstrate increased resistance to the action of the bit, with some horses moving the head into 'above the bit' positions. Alternatively, uncomfortable bit pressure, combined with nasal pressure and poll pressure via the bridle, may be confusing for the horse or painful, resulting in the horse moving the head behind the vertical to release pressure (McLean and McGreevy 2010;Kienapfel et al. 2014). The effect of rider technique and tack on these behaviours needs further investigation in view of the interaction seen between head position, gait scores and rider skill scores (Fig 5). ...
Background
The Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) was developed to facilitate identification of musculoskeletal pain.
Objectives
To determine the influence of rider skill on ridden horse performance and behaviour, the latter using the RHpE. It was hypothesised that gait quality at trot and canter would improve with a more skilled rider compared with a less skilled rider, but the RHpE scores would be similar.
Study design
Repeated measures investigation.
Methods
Forty horses, in regular work and presumed by their riders to be nonlame, were ridden by their normal rider (N) and a skilled professional rider (P), performing a dressage‐type test over 8.5 min. Twenty horses were ridden first by rider P, and 20 were ridden first by rider N. The presence of lameness or gait abnormalities in canter was recorded. Standardised video recordings were acquired. All videos were anonymised and presented in random order to the assessors. Rider skill and horse gait quality were graded (Fédération Equestre Internationale scale, 1–10), and the RHpE was applied to each horse using the video recordings.
Results
Rider P had a higher median skill score (6/10) compared with the N riders (4.5/10) (P<0.001). There was a correlation between rider skill scores and gait quality scores (P<0.001). The presence of lameness or gait abnormalities in canter, when ridden by riders N and P, varied among horses. The median RHpE score for all horses was 9/24 (range 3–14). There was no difference in mean or median RHpE scores between the N riders and rider P. There was some variance in the frequency of occurrence of specific behaviours between the N riders and rider P.
Main limitations
The identity of rider P could not be concealed.
Conclusions
There was no direct relationship between rider skill level and the RHpE score, but riders did alter the manifestations of some behaviours.
... al., 2014). It is necessary to bear in mind that the implementation of the training techniques may suggest the conflict with the biological urges that are the predictors of survival throughout the evolution, which can lead to the confusion of the horse (McGreevy, & McLean, 2007;McLean, & McGreevy, 2010). Synchronization of the training with the biological base of the horse would significantly contribute to the reduction of the stress level and to the improvement of the wellbeing of the horse. ...
Persimmon is beloved fruit of warmer southern European areas. It is edible when it softens and astringency is naturally removed but many consumers want to eat hard fruits with astringency removed artificially. Astringency from the hard fruits can be removed by several methods of which exposure to extreme concentrations of CO2 (>90%) seem to be the most user friendly. In this study, we investigated the effect of extreme CO2 concentrations on astringency removal, taste, soluble solids and fruit flesh firmness. Our results show astringency removal can be sufficiently initiated by 24-hour exposure to extreme CO2 concentrations and process is finished within the next three days. Lower CO2 concentrations (70%) need some longer exposure but may have benefit in taste. We observed temporal decrease of soluble solids in the CO2 exposed persimmon fruits probably due to fixation of the astringent soluble tannins. Following changes in fruits flesh firmness during and after exposure to extreme CO2 concentrations reveal a temporal increase in exposed fruits followed by a slower softening process.
... The role of pain in horse sports is part of the growing debate about what constitutes ethical equitation [7,47]. In a flight animal, such as the horse, being unable to resolve aversive cutaneous stimulation causes distress. ...
The current project aims to build on knowledge of the nociceptive capability of equine skin to detect superficial acute pain, particularly in comparison to human skin. Post-mortem samples of gluteal skin were taken from men (n = 5) and women (n = 5), thoroughbreds and thoroughbred types (mares, n = 11; geldings, n = 9). Only sections that contained epidermis and dermis through to the hypodermis were analysed. Epidermal depth, dermal depth and epidermal nerve counts were conducted by a veterinary pathologist. The results revealed no significant difference between the epidermal nerve counts of humans and horses (t = 0.051, p = 0.960). There were no significant differences between epidermal thickness of humans (26.8 µm) and horses (31.6 µm) for reference (left side) samples (t = 0.117, p = 0.908). The human dermis was significantly thinner than the horse dermis (t = −2.946, p = 0.007). Epidermal samples were thicker on the right than on the left, but only significantly so for horses (t = 2.291, p = 0.023), not for humans (t = 0.694, p = 0.489). The thicker collagenous dermis of horse skin may afford some resilience versus external mechanical trauma, though as this is below the pain-detecting nerve endings, it is not considered protective from external 2 of 15 cutaneous pain. The superficial pain-sensitive epidermal layer of horse skin is as richly innervated and is of equivalent thickness as human skin, demonstrating that humans and horses have the equivalent basic anatomic structures to detect cutaneous pain. This finding challenges assumptions about the physical capacity of horses to feel pain particularly in comparison to humans, and presents physical evidence to inform the discussion and debate regarding the ethics of whipping horses.
... Understanding how and why problem behaviours develop will advance safety and welfare. Horse owners and riders have an ethical obligation to be aware of how their training affects their horse because equitation largely relies on the appropriate use of pressure during negative reinforcement [7], the application of aversive stimuli (usually pressure applied via the rider's hands and legs) until the horse offers the desired response, at which point the pressure must be removed to reinforce conditioning of the correct response [8]. The use of prolonged or excessive pressure is contraindicated because it leads to habituation (an outcome which horses are especially prone to) and the consequent need for more pressure in future [9]. ...
The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was developed to obtain quantitative data on the domestic equine triad: training, management and behaviour. It can be taken repeatedly, thus collecting longitudinal data to enable evaluation of how changes in a horse's training and management are reflected in that horse's behaviour over time and how these changes can impact horse welfare in the longer term. Questionnaire validation and reliability were tested by determining (a) whether an owner's subjective ratings of their horse's problematic behaviours or undesirable temperament traits were reflected in the questionnaire scores obtained for that horse (construct validity), (b) whether two respondents, equally familiar with a particular horse, reported comparable scores for that horse through the questionnaire (inter-rater reliability), and (c) whether the same respondent, scoring the same horse after a known interval of time, recorded similar responses (intra-rater reliability). Construct validity testing of 1923 responses showed significant alignment between owners' reported experience of focal horses' behaviour and those horses' E-BARQ scores, with scores varying from 1.13 to 1.34 for ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001) and from 1.06 to 1.43 for non-ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001). Inter-rater reliability testing of ten horse-rider pairs revealed that 203 of the 215 question items were significantly aligned (p < 0.001) when tested by two independent raters. Of the remaining 19 items, four had fair Animals 2020, 10, 1982 2 of 14 alignment (ĸ = 0.174-0.316; p = 0.281) and ten items, largely related to whether the horse shows behavioural signs related to anxiety when taken away from home, did not align (ĸ = 0; p = 1). Intra-rater reliability tests showed that the responses significantly aligned on all 215 question items tested (p < 0.001). The results of these tests confirmed the construct validity and reliability of E-BARQ as a standardised behavioural assessment tool for horses.
... Horses have the unique position of being the only animal used in Olympic sports, yet it could be argued that the rules protecting their welfare [5] in such sports are insufficient, inadequately defined, and patchily enforced [4,6]. Even at the elite levels of sport and competition, horses may be subjected to questionable practices, including the use of cervical hyperflexion (also known as Rolkur) [7], restrictive nosebands [8], and the over-application of artificial aids [9] that are proving difficult to justify and that, in many jurisdictions, would bring about prosecution if imposed on other species, such as dogs [10]. ...
The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) is a questionnaire instrument developed to obtain quantitative data on the domestic equine triad of training, management, and behaviour of horses. The E-BARQ was developed to identify how changes in training and management impact behaviour over time, to define normal behaviour in horses, and to discover how to improve rider safety and horse welfare, leading to ethical equitation. During the development of the E-BARQ, we also investigated how best to motivate stakeholders to engage with this citizen science project. The pilot version of the E-BARQ collected qualitative data on respondents' experience of the questionnaire. The pilot questionnaire was developed with the assistance of an international panel (with professional expertise in horse training, equitation science, veterinary science, equestrian coaching, welfare, animal behaviour, and elite-level riding), and was used to collect data on 1320 horses from approximately 1194 owner/caregiver respondents, with an option for respondents to provide free-text feedback. A Rotated Principal Component Analysis of the 218 behavioural, management, and training questionnaire items extracted a total of 65 rotated components. Thirty-six of the 65 rotated components demonstrated high internal reliability. Of the 218 questionnaire items, 43 items failed to reach the Rotated Principal Component Analysis criteria and were not included in the final version of the E-BARQ. Survey items that failed the Rotated Principal Component Analysis inclusion criteria were discarded if found to have a less than 85% response rate, or a variance of less than 1.3. Of those that survived the Rotated Principal Component Analysis, items were further assigned to horse temperament (17 rotated components), equitation (11 rotated components), and management and equipment (8 rotated components) groups. The feedback from respondents indicated the need for further items to be added to the questionnaire, resulting in a total of 214 items for the final E-BARQ survey. Many of these items were further grouped into question matrices, and the demographic items for horse and handler included, giving a final total of 97 questions on the E-BARQ questionnaire. These results provided content validity, showing that the questionnaire items were an acceptable representation of the entire horse training, management, and behavioural domain for the development of the final E-BARQ questionnaire.
... At the same time, traditional and contemporary training and management practices regularly compromise horse welfare across each of the Five Domains [5]. Shortfalls in horse welfare, and associated behavioural manifestations, can go unnoticed and lead to poor welfare outcomes for horses and increase hazards for riders, who are often unaware of the horse's emotional state [4,6]. ...
Owner-reported behavioural observations form an essential part of the veterinarians' diagnosis and treatment plan. The way we train and manage horses affects their behaviour and, in turn, their health and welfare. Current horse training and management practices are largely driven by traditional techniques and longstanding methodologies. These approaches generally lack an evidence base for evaluation purposes. The absence of evidence and evaluation contributes to the persistent use of risky practices and this, in turn, increases risk of potential harms for both horse and rider, and fuels questioning of the equine industry's current social license to operate. Objective evidence is required to make training and management decisions based on demonstrable best practice. Large-scale experimental or intervention studies using horses are generally not practical because of the associated costs and logistics of gaining ethical approval. Small studies generally lack statistical power and are subject to the effects of many forms of bias that demand caution in the interpretation of any observed effects. An alternative to collecting large amounts of empirical data is the use of owner-reported observations via online survey. Horse owners are ideally placed to report on the domestic equine triad of training, management, and behaviour. The current article highlights three sources of potential bias in a systematic review of literature on large-scale online studies of horse owners' observational reports that met the following selection criteria: English-language, published, peer-reviewed articles reporting on studies with over 1000 respondents and open access to the survey instrument. The online surveys were evaluated for three common forms of bias: recall, confirmation, and sampling bias. This review reveals that online surveys are useful for gathering data on the triad of horse training, management, and behaviour. However, current use of online surveys to collect data on equitation science (including horse training, management, and behaviour) could be improved by using a standardised and validated tool. Such a tool would facilitate comparisons among equine and equitation science studies, thus advancing our understanding of the impacts of training and management on horse behaviour. The authors of the current review suggest the use of a standardised behavioural and management assessment tool for horses. Such a tool would help define what constitutes normal behaviour within geographically disparate populations of horses, leading to improvements in rider safety and horse welfare.
... Nosebands may be used in horse-riding for an aesthetic effect (so-called framing of the horse's face) and to keep the horse's mouth closed [1]. By doing so, they may stabilise the bit in a preferred position and prevent the horse attempting to avoid bit pressure by putting the tongue out of the mouth or over the bit [2]. These behaviours are sometimes called evasions because they reduce the rider's control of the horse and even attract penalties in some disciplines, notably dressage. ...
Restrictive nosebands are used in equestrian sports to hold the bit in place and reduce mouth-opening, a response that can attract penalties in some sports and is thought to reduce the rider's control of the horse. Sustained pressure from such tightly fitted (restrictive) nosebands denies normal behaviour and thus, causes frustration and distress that can jeopardise horse welfare. It also may push the cheek against the molar teeth, compress soft tissues including blood vessels and nerves, and possibly induce chronic changes to underlying bone. This study of mature cavalry horses (n = 144) was designed to explore relationships between visual and palpable damage to structures that underlie the nosebands of horses and any related bony changes in those horses as evidenced by radiography. Working independently of each other, two researchers inspected the horses for visual changes and palpable changes before the horses were radiographed. The radiographs were assessed by a separate pair of veterinary radiologists, again working independently of each other. Among the current population of horses, 37.5% had one or more radiographic changes to the nasal bones according to both radiologists, and 13.8% had one or more radiographic changes to the mandible. For nasal bones, the two radiologists reported bone deposition in 6.9% and 8.3% of the horses and bone thinning in 33.3% and 56.9% of the horses, respectively. By palpation, they found that 82% and 84% of the horses had palpable bone deposition of the nasal bones and 32% and 33.4% had palpable bone thinning. For the mandibles, the radiologists reported increased bone deposition in 18.8% and 32.6% of the horses but no bone thinning. By palpation, the two examiners reported 30.6% and 32.7% of the horses had palpable bone deposition and 10.4% and 11.1% had palpable bone thinning. This is the first report of lesions to the mandible at this site and this article presents the first confirmation of bony lesions at the site typically subjected to pressure from restrictive nosebands. These results suggest that radiographic bone thinning is more apparent in the nasal bones of riding horses than in the mandible and that both palpable and radiographic bone deposition are more likely in the mandible than in the nasal bones. That said, we note that the current study provides no evidence of a causal link between any piece of gear or its putative tightness and the lesions in these anatomical locations. Further studies are needed to identify risk factors for these clusters of lesions. The inadvertent deformation of bones in the horse's head for competitive advantage is difficult to justify on ethical grounds.
More than ever the welfare of horses in equestrian sport is in the spotlight. In response to this scrutiny, one peak body, the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) has created an Equine Ethics and Wellbeing Commission to protect their sport's longevity. However, for welfare-based strategies to be successful, the conceptualisation of horse welfare must align across various stakeholders, including the general public. The value-laden nature of welfare makes agreement on its definition, even among scientists, difficult. Given little is known about how equestrians conceptualise horse welfare, we interviewed 19 Australian amateur equestrians using a semi-structured format. Systems thinking and the Five Domains Model provided the theoretical framework and informed our methods. Using reflexive thematic analysis, three themes were identified: (1) good horse welfare is tangible; (2) owners misinterpret unwanted horse behaviour; and (3) equestrians publicly minimise horse welfare issues but are privately concerned. Our results highlight participants' conceptualisations of horse welfare do not align with the Five Domains Model; participants' ideal of prioritising horse welfare does not align with their practice; and there is inconsistency between what participants share publicly and what they think privately about horse welfare. These findings can inform the development of programmes to improve ridden horse welfare throughout the horse industry. As a starting point, programmes that provide a safe space for equestrians to explore their private horse welfare concerns, and programmes that build a partnership mindset to facilitate knowledge exchange between all stakeholders are needed.
Success in each sport is made up of certain factors. Therefore, it is necessary to be acutely aware of the factors and criteria that influence performance in a particular sport. Horse riding is a very unique sport as it is a sport where two different organisms cooperate in terms of mass, size, thinking, and physical, psychological, tactical abilities and skills, as well as characteristics. It is a sport where there is practically no age limit, and where women compete alongside men. Therefore, it is difficult to find literature where several authors come to an agreement. There are often several different opinions, including on the performance-enhancing factors in the equestrian show-jumping discipline. It is quite important to evaluate the possible factors and reach a consensus in order to crystallize a possible unified system. The aim of the research is to determine the factors contributing to the performance of the rider and the horse in the show jumping discipline in different age groups. Research methods: Scientific literature review and analysis. Main results and conclusions. By theoretically researching and analysing the literature, it should be concluded that there are no concrete factors contributing to the attributed performance in the specific age stages, which can basically create uncertainty as well as consensus of opinions in future studies due to the influence of the generalization of these factors. From the context of the studied materials, it should be concluded that there is an insufficient theoretical basis, which is evidenced by a relatively narrow spectrum of topical issues. Therefore, the obtained theoretical information allows to create a basis for further practical research, thus expanding the theoretical base in the context of the current issue.
Physical activity, especially high-intensity exercise, leads to physiological and behavioural changes. The objectives of this study were to investigate i) the effects of physical exercise on weight, behaviours, and head and ear positions on the days after low-intensity training (LIT) or high-intensity training (HIT) and ii) if behaviours, facial expressions, and/or physiological parameters (sweat, salivation and blood lactate levels) during training predict post-training behaviours. A total of 19 French trotter horses housed in four different training centers were studied the day before (D pre ) and after LIT or HIT (afternoon after training (D training ) and 2 days after training (D1 Post and D2 Post )). The results showed that horses exhibited i) longer durations of resting and head below the withers (HBW) on D training and D1 Post than on D pre and ii) shorter eating durations on D1 Post and D2 Post than on D pre after HIT. This was associated with significant weight loss on D2 Post . Several behaviours and facial expressions associated with discomfort ( e.g ., head conflict behaviours, nose behind the vertical, and opened mouth), as well as amount of sweat, predicted the durations of resting, HBW and eating on D1 Post . Thus, behaviours are impacted by training, and a combination of behaviours, facial expressions and visible physiological parameters exhibited during training could predict physical tiredness in harness racing horses.
Dog rose (Rosa canina L.) is a wild fruit species widely distributed in Croatia in forest edges and agricultural areas. This research discusses the morphological variability of the dog rose fruits in the Mediterranean part of Croatia. Fruits were collected in situ, in four different ecological areas: the coastal region (Split and Klis) and the hinterland (Neorić and Kamešnica). Morphological characterisation of the fruits (fruit weight, fruit length, fruit width, fruit shape index) was performed. The results howed
that the highest average weight (1.59 g) and fruit width (1.59 mm) was measured in the population Kamešnica, and the highest average height (20.13 mm) and fruit index (shape index; 1.74) was determined in the population Klis. The greatest variability was determined for the trait fruit weight with a coefficient of variation of 41.58% (Klis); 41.03% (Split); 37.61% (Neorić) and 34.55% (Kamešnica). The obtained results indicate the need to expand the phenotype research on more populations in the Mediterranean part of Croatia, and to determine the influence of habitat, population size and climatic conditions on populations variability.
The welfare of working equines is born of the relationship co-created with humans and the relational practices humans bring to this work. Our understanding of this relationship remains elusive, however, for it involves attending to that which arises both within and between the equine and the human. Attempts to study such relationships have, arguably, been confounded by the liminalities of relational practices, power literacy and the limitations of language, propositional knowing and the dualistic thinking that characterises many scientific disciplines. This paper presents the theoretical framework that underpins an experiential awareness-based Action Research approach to transforming human-equine relations within the international mountain tourism industry. This approach privileges curiosity, compassion and primary or contemplative knowing and the development of self-awareness. Drawing on the work of Martin Buber on genuine dialogue and of Otto Scharmer on generative dialogue, this paper provides insights into what can arise in the between when attitudinal shifts are encouraged and facilitated that allow humans and equines to meet genuinely and be fully present to each other. This ultimately involves surrendering control, letting go, the dissolution of subject-object awareness and access to non-dualistic ways of knowing. An awareness of the importance of such shifts and of the source from which we operate is of fundamental importance to the realisation of the co-creative project that humans and equines can engage in. Failure to appreciate this distinction, arguably, leads and gives rise to relationships, whether human-to-human or human-to-horse, characterised by domination rather than partnering, absencing rather than presencing, by monologue rather than dialogue. The ethical and practical implications of this awareness are profound, with implications felt at the level of the individual, for whom the I deepens the more you pay attention, and at the level of the relationship, but also at the level of communities, whether these be constituted locally, nationally, internationally or indeed globally.
Equine personality tests enable the selection of horses for roles based on their habitual behavioural responses to challenges, aiming to maximise performance and safeguard equine welfare. However, existing research has identified that behavioural responses to acute challenges do not correlate well with stress physiology in the horse. The aim of this study was to investigate whether chronic stress physiology is related to habitual compliance in horses. Hair cortisol concentration (HCC), a long-term biomarker of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity and stress, was assayed in mane hair from the withers, midpoint of the neck and poll of 24 riding school horses (66% male, mean age 13±4 years). Three caregivers provided scores for Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Extroversion, Gregariousness Towards People and Gregariousness Towards Horses for all subjects using a validated equine personality questionnaire. A gamma GLMM was used to model HCC as a function of personality scores and potential confounders of HCC (age, sex, hair colour and sampling location). Individual horses were fitted as random intercepts in the model. Manual backward selection was used to identify the best-fitting plausible model. Mean HCC was 3.8±1.2 pg/mg. The final model only retained Agreeableness and sampling location as explanatory variables of HCC. A positive association was found between Agreeableness (reflecting habitual compliance) and hair cortisol concentration (t=2.7, p=0.01). Basal cortisol levels are known to drive sensitivity to punishment in humans. Therefore, horses with higher basal cortisol may be more sensitive to the aversive cues associated with negative reinforcement and consequently be more compliant. However, it is also possible that habitually compliant behaviour leads to higher chronic stress levels through increased exposure to stressors, as more subtle expressions of discomfort are not recognised by handlers. This result has important implications for welfare in the context of horse-human interaction and warrants further investigation to clarify whether a causal link exists between habitual compliance and higher levels of chronic stress. There was also a weaker but significant impact of sampling location (t=2.1, p=0.03; higher HCC at the poll), highlighting the importance of carefully standardizing sampling location for HCC analysis.
Bucking behaviour in horses is potentially dangerous to riders. There is limited information about how bucking behaviour should be investigated by veterinarians. The objectives of this article are to define bucking behaviour, to review the literature relating to bucking and allied behaviours in horses and describe personal observations and to describe an approach to clinical investigation and management strategies. A literature review from 2000 to 2020 was performed via search engines and additional free searches. A buck is an upward leap, usually in addition to forward propulsion, when either both hindlimbs or all four limbs are off the ground with the thoracolumbosacral region raised. Bucking often occurs as a series of such leaps and different manifestations include ‘pronking’, ‘bronking’ and ‘fly bucking’. Causes include excitement, exuberance, defensive behaviour associated with fear, learned behaviour through negative reinforcement or a reaction to musculoskeletal pain. Specific causes of pain include an ill‐fitting saddle or girth, thoracolumbar pain, girth region pain, sternal or rib injury, neuropathic pain, sacroiliac joint region pain, referred pain and primary hindlimb lameness. Any of these may be compounded by a rider who is fearful, poorly balanced or crooked. Determination of the underlying cause requires a comprehensive clinical assessment, including assessment of saddle fit for horse and rider and suitability of the horse–rider combination. In some horses, identification of a primary source of pain allows targeted treatment and resolution of pain, but careful retraining is crucial. An understanding of learning behaviour is required for successful rehabilitation. It was concluded that identification of the cause of bucking may enable treatment of primary pain which, when combined with retraining, results in management of bucking behaviour. However, in a minority of horses, dangerous bucking behaviour cannot be reliably resolved, requiring retirement or euthanasia of the horse.
https://journals.openedition.org/tourisme/3273
Goat-pulling (kôkpar in Kazakh, kôkbôrù in Kyrgyz), otherwise named Afghan buzkashi, is a game practiced by several Turkic peoples in Central Asia. It is a kind of rugby on horseback played with a dead goat instead of a ball. In Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, it is supposedly part of the nomadic heritage, whose exoticism could attract tourists. This allegation is nevertheless caused by several misinterpretations, due to unfamiliarity. This violent game presently exists in various forms. As a ritual game organized for life-cycle feasts, it takes part in the ritual and festive economy and gives prestige to the host organizer rather than to the winner. In parallel, it is also played as a sport competition, emerging from a sportification process which had consisted in the formalisation and the transformation of its rules since the middle of the 20th century. Which of these two main forms of goat-pulling (ritual game or emerging sport) will better suit to tourists seeking authenticity, eager to see spectacular performances and at the same time more sensitive to animal welfare than their Central-Asian hosts?
This article focuses on interspecies communication between rider and jumper horse (show jumpers), as well as its effect on equine sport performance, on the basis of individual differences of riding style and skill. Its primary goal was to discover the consequences of the possible differences in horse performance due to the number of riders who have changed over the course of the horse performing career. Unfortunately, the data used do not allow to determine whether the change of rider also meant a change in the social environment with all contexts (moving the horse to other stable, among other horses, and the use of other training methods). Nevertheless, the change of rider represents a number of individual deviations in the rider's effect on the horse. Riders communicate in the same language, but each rider has a different “handwriting.”
The secondary goal of this study is to identify the age at which a competitive jumping horse reaches its maximum competitive performance. A total of 3,097 horse competitive result histories were used in the study, covering participation in 277,198 jumping competitions.
The database was divided into three groups as per the competitive success of horses. The data were collected by the Czech Association of Horse Breeders Warmblood on the basis of all horse starts in horse jumping competitions during the years 1997-2009.
Within these groups, horses were compared depending on whether they were ridden by one to two riders, three to four riders, and five or more riders over the course of their careers. The results show that among most horse groups their peak performance, represented by the highest level of competition difficulty, was reached in their tenth year of age. In all groups of horses, divided as per their competitive success rates, the best performance was achieved by those with a maximum of two riders over the course of their career. The results clearly speak in favor of both the social stability of horses and performance success of those horses affected by a less frequent change of the rider. It could be stated in accordance with achieved sports results that fewer riders over the course of a horse's career are for jumping horse’s better variant.
The use of training aids within equine training programmes is well established with professional, amateur and recreational riders, and horse owners. However, the claims of training aid manufacturers that the aids promote equine muscle development, gait characteristics, proprioception and the horse's biomechanics have not been evaluated scientifically. Evidence of the impact of training aids on equine behaviour and welfare is also limited. As a result, there is a limited amount of resources available to horse owners, trainers and veterinary professionals wishing to take an evidence-informed approach to the use of training aids. This review considers factors that operators should evaluate when using training aids and explores the evidence base available to help support an ethical approach to equine training and rehabilitation.
Throughout history animals have been used to assist humans in work and play or simply to satisfy our curiosity. Several paintings from Ancient Egypt demonstrate that we have been charming, cajoling and exploiting animals for many thousands of years. One example depicts men hand-feeding hyenas that are shown lying on their backs, a feature that strongly suggests that they were tame. There is evidence from the same source that gazelles, ibex and oryx were equally relaxed in human company. In view of the enormous investment of time required for the gentling of non-domesticated species, it is fascinating to speculate about the jobs these animals performed in Ancient Egypt. Some of the uses to which animals have been put in the past may seem unacceptable by modern ethical standards. For example, the Romans tied songbirds to bushes in their gardens and even used animals to torture and execute their enemies.
Animals have long been used to keep vermin such as rats away from human households or grain stores and to act as guards warning of possible intruders. Across different cultures such guards have included geese, guinea fowl and pigs, as well as dogs. Large species such as horses, donkeys and cattle have for many millennia been used as sources of power. In its crudest form this means traction, as in pulling ploughs, sleds or carts. Later, animals were also used to provide power for primitive machines designed, for example, for milling grain or for raising water from deep wells. Similarly, dogs were forced to run in large wall-mounted wheels to turn roasting-spits.
None of the forms of work mentioned so far required large changes in the animals’ behaviour. In contrast to these relatively simple uses of animals, in the domains of hunting and herding humans since pre-history have sought to increase their efficiency by investing considerable time in training animals. Training means changing the frequency with which animals show certain behaviours. Unwelcome behaviours become less likely, while desirable ones become more likely. Ancient Egyptians even tamed cheetahs for hunting and the work that these big cats performed may have been seen as the most sophisticated and effective hunting tool then available. However, this is a very unusual example. More generally, hunting and herding were the domains in which the dog truly came to the fore as the most trainable of all species.
The role of animals in warfare and in the relative success of different human cultures is often under-estimated. The cultures that have prevailed from ancient origins are those that most fully exploited a variety of animals in combat, especially horses. Chief among the peoples that owed their success to the horse were the Mongol hordes. These excellent equestrians used their horses as sources of milk and meat when they were not exploiting their fleetness of foot for lightning raids on unmounted victims. The training of horses to perform specific behaviours useful in warfare eventually gave rise to the emergence of military riding academies. The haute-ecole dressage movements that the Lippizaner stallions of Vienna now perform in their displays were first developed some four hundred years ago to vanquish enemies in face-to-face combat. Training and riding skills contributed to the success of armies and the survival of individuals.
Horses are not the only species to have been conscripted into human conflicts. Dogs and pigeons were used to carry messages during the trench warfare of the World War I. In World War II the Russians used carefully selected dogs as anti-tank operatives, while the U.S. Navy trained dolphins to place explosive devices on the hulls of ships. The same war prompted research into the deployment of pigeons to guide what was intended as the world's first smart missile. Three pigeons were strapped into position and trained to peck a spot on recognition of approximations to their target, this peck being transmitted to the guidance system of a missile that was actually never used.
This long tradition of involving animals in human conflict still continues. Dolphins were used to search for mines in the second Gulf War and dogs are used to detect landmines and are trained to search buildings for terrorists with tiny cameras strapped to their foreheads. Explosive detection is becoming ever more sophisticated these days with techniques that concentrate volatile substances from a single site and seal them in small air-tight capsules so that these can be sent to the dog for his opinion.
Although the behaviour of intensively trained animals can fascinate us, the animals with which most of us have frequent contact are those that have come into our homes as companions. We may be using animals less in the workplace, but we are not necessarily spending less time with them. Even highly domesticated companion animals need to be trained, although the level of dedication and expertise needed is far below that required to train a Lippizaner stallion or mine-detecting dolphin to perform at a high level.
Over the very long history of training animals, a variety of expert traditions have developed. The language used to describe them is just as varied. For example, the way a shepherd describes how to train his dog is very different from the accounts of how they train their animals that might be given by a falconer or by an elephant trainer. The ways in which these different animals are trained also appears to differ enormously and in turn seems quite different from the advice given in a booklet on ‘How to train your pet’. However, the basic idea behind Carrots and Sticks is that these differences are superficial ones and that the same general principles apply to any kind of animal training. We reached this conclusion by different routes. One of us (PMcG) trained as a veterinarian and specialized in animal behaviour, with a particular interest in and love of dogs and horses. The other (RAB) trained as a research psychologist, with a particular interest in comparative psychology and learning theory. This book is a result of our collaboration in trying to make clear what we believe these general principles to be.
One set of principles has to do with behaviour that is largely determined by what kind of animal it is. We refer to this as instinctive behaviour. Although this is an old fashioned and ambiguous term, nevertheless it is better than any other label for denoting behaviour more strongly determined by an animal’s genes – its nature - than by its experience – its nurture. Chapter One discusses those aspects of instinctive behaviour that are important from the perspective of an animal trainer, and also the way that instinctive behavior changes as a result of experience; hence the title Instincts and their modification. One of the core principles of training is that based on positive reward; the ‘carrot’. The properties of such learning have been extensively studied by psychologists using various kinds of conditioning methods. This research had led to the principles of importance to animal training that are described in Chapter Two. A related set of principles, described in Chapter Three, have been derived from conditioning studies that have employed aversive events – ‘sticks’ – to find out how punishment works (and sometimes doesn’t work) and how avoidance behaviour is learned. Many attempts at training fail because the trainer assumes that animals have very human-like ways of perceiving and thinking about the world. The limitations of this assumption and the realities of animal intelligence are the main topics in Chapter Four.
You are invited to approach the two parts of the book in different ways. The first part can be read in the conventional way from beginning to end, while the second part has a quite different format. It contains a range of case histories to illustrate how the basic principles have been put into practice by trainers. The cases are intended for browsing in no particular order. Since the overall goal of this book is to take the mystery out of training, in the case studies we have unpicked the various processes by which the animals acquired their sometimes amazing behaviours. The accounts of their training are offered as illustrations of training practices. They are not intended as models for readers to emulate. The performances you see represent the end-points of a long process of behavioural modification that may have begun when the animals were very young. Having considered various approaches, you will be better able to decide for yourself whether it is right or wrong that animals are used in these ways. Are certain behaviours undignified? How can animal welfare be ensured when animals are required to work for a living? Should zoos require their animals to perform? Can this enrich their lives? It is possible that your informed response to these questions may then be at odds, say, with your views on riding horses. Regardless of these dilemmas, the information in this book should add to your fascination with the non-human animals with whom we share the world.
The main theme of this book is that, despite huge diversity in the aims of different kinds of training and in the way that trainers explain their methods, all successful training depends largely on the principles we discuss in the four chapters of Part One.
Fluoroscopy was used to visualize the position and movements of different types of bits within the horse's oral cavity. The jointed eggbutt snaffle normally lay between the tongue and palate with the joint hanging down toward the incisor teeth. By arching and elevating the tongue the horse was able to raise the mouthpiece between the cheekteeth. The jointed mouthpiece was suspended in a more horizontal position when keepers were used with a cheek snaffle to fix the position of the bit rings relative to the cheekpieces of the bridle. In addition, the mobility of the bit within the oral cavity was reduced by using keepers. Similarly less intra-oral movement was observed in bits with an unjointed mouthpiece.
The Dr. Bristol bit, which has two joints connected by an angled plate, could be attached to the bridle in two ways so that the plate lay either parallel to the tongue and palate or perpendicular to them. This would be expected to have a marked effect on the severity of action of the bit. The high tongue port of the Hannoverian pelham pressed against the palate when the reins were used, causing considerable discomfort.
Routinely performed painful procedures are of increasing interest and, in 2001 (Royal Order, May 17), Belgium prohibited docking in several vertebrates including horses. In 2004, opponents to this decision submitted a Bill (Doc51 0969/001) to Parliament, intending to obtain derogation for Belgian draught horses, which were traditionally docked. The Animal Welfare Council of Belgium, an official body advising the Minister of Public Health, was asked to evaluate this complex question, including biological, ethical and socio-economic aspects, on the basis of the available peer-reviewed studies. In this context, this study reviews legal aspects (overview of the European legislation), zootechnic aspects (uses of the Belgian draught horse) and biological aspects (pain potentially related to docking; horses' welfare linked to insect harassment and hygiene, communication and reproduction) of tail docking in draught horses. We conclude that (1) there is no benefit for horses in tail docking, including Belgian draught horses, (2) potential advantages of docking are essentially in favour of humans and these advantages could be scrupulously re-evaluated, taking into account practices of other countries. Therefore, there is no need to dock any horse other than for veterinary reasons.
In traditional random testing, samples are taken from the set of all possible values for the input types. However, for many programs testing effectiveness can be improved by focusing on a relevant subdomain defined implicitly by the program behavior. This paper presents an algorithm for identifying and randomly selecting inputs from implicitly defined subdomains. The algorithm dynamically constructs and refines a model of the input domain and is biased toward sparsely covered regions in order to accelerate boundary identification and uniform coverage. This method has several desirable qualities: (1) it requires no knowledge of the source code of the software being tested, (2) inputs are selected from an approximately uniform distribution across the subdomain, and (3) algorithmic running time overhead is negligible. We present the requirements for a solution and our algorithm. We also evaluate our solution for both an artificial model and a real-world aircraft collision-avoidance program.
Humans and animals react with distinct emotional coping strategies to pain of different durations or different tissue origins. Active coping strategies (fight or flight) are evoked if pain is cutaneous and of short duration (i.e., escapable). In contrast, acute pain of deep origin (muscle, joint, viscera) or any persistent pain evokes usually a passive emotional coping reaction (conservation-withdrawal). Distinct longitudinal neuronal columns within the periaqueductal gray (PAG) mediate active versus passive emotional coping. Anatomical tracing studies reveal that each PAG column receives a distinct set of ascending (spinal cord, medulla) and descending (prefrontal cortical, hypothalamus) afferents. Functional studies, using immediate early gene expression as a marker of neuronal activation indicate further that each PAG neuronal column is activated in a manner which reflects (1) the tissue origin and or duration of pain; (2) the escapability of the stimulus; and (3) the emotional coping reaction engaged.
Behavioural effects of the use of a shock collar during guard dog training of German shepherd dogs were studied. Direct reactions of 32 dogs to 107 shocks showed reactions (lowering of body posture, high pitched yelps, barks and squeals, avoidance, redirection aggression, tongue flicking) that suggest stress or fear and pain. Most of these immediate reactions lasted only a fraction of a second. The behaviour of 16 dogs that had received shocks in the recent past (S-dogs) was compared with the behaviour of 15 control dogs that had received similar training but never had received shocks (C-dogs) in order to investigate possible effects of a longer duration. Only training sessions were used in which no shocks were delivered and the behaviour of the dogs (position of body, tail and ears, and stress-, pain- and aggression-related behaviours) was recorded in a way that enabled comparison between the groups. During free walking on the training grounds S-dogs showed a lower ear posture and more stress-related behaviours than C-dogs. During obedience training and during manwork (i.e. excercises with a would-be criminal) the same differences were found. Even a comparison between the behaviour of C-dogs with that of S-dogs during free walking and obedience exercises in a park showed similar differences. Differences between the two groups of dogs existed in spite of the fact that C-dogs also were trained in a fairly harsh way. A comparison between the behaviour during free walking with that during obedience exercises and manwork, showed that during training more stress signals were shown and ear positions were lower. The conclusions, therefore are, that being trained is stressful, that receiving shocks is a painful experience to dogs, and that the S-dogs evidently have learned that the presence of their owner (or his commands) announces reception of shocks, even outside of the normal training context. This suggests that the welfare of these shocked dogs is at stake, at least in the presence of their owner.
Olympic dressage involves “an intimate unity between a human and a non-human” and is scored by a subjective judging process, under the auspices of the Fédération Equestre Internationale whose Code of Conduct declares the welfare of the horse as paramount. Dressage is of particular interest to equitation scientists and equine ethologists because it embodies the full range of the stimulus-response contingencies that operate in all of the Olympic disciplines. In Fédération Equestre Internationale dressage competition, collective marks are awarded across four domains immediately after each performance. Collective marks are designed to summarize the performance of horse and rider and must reflect the qualities of the entire performance. They are derived from the observation of the judges of the separate test movements. The 4 collective marks include: (1) paces; (2) impulsion; (3) submission; and (4) the rider's position and seat; correctness and effect of the aids (rider signals). The definition of submission in this context makes reference to lightness and other qualities that align with optimal ridden horse welfare. We assessed the characteristics of these marks in horses competing in the 2008 Olympic Games Grand Prix (GP; n=46) and Grand Prix Special (GPS; n=25) dressage competitions. We also examined the effect of judge location and used Pearson correlation coefficients to explore relationships between collective marks and test-movement scores. All 4 collective marks correlated with each other significantly (P
By definition, ethology is primarily the scientific study of animal behavior, especially as it occurs in a natural environment; applied ethology being the study of animal behavior in the human domain. The terms equine ethology and ethological training are becoming commonplace in the equestrian domain, yet they seem to be used with a conspicuous lack of clarity and with no mention of learning theory. Most of what we do to train horses runs counter to their innate preferences. This article summarizes the ethological challenges encountered by working horses and considers the merits and limitations of ethological solutions. It also questions the use of terms such as “alpha” and “leader” and examines aspects of learning theory, equine cognition, and ethology as applied to horse training and clinical behavior modification. We propose 7 training principles that optimally account for the horse’s ethological and learning abilities and maintain maximal responsivity in the trained horse. These principles can be summarized as: (1) use learning theory appropriately; (2) train easy-to-discriminate signals; (3) train and subsequently elicit responses singularly; (4) train only one response per signal; (5) train all responses to be initiated and subsequently completed within a consistent structure; (6) train persistence of current operantly conditioned responses; and (7) avoid and disassociate flight responses. Adherence to these principles and incorporating them into all horse training methodologies should accelerate training success, reduce behavioral wastage of horses, and improve safety for both humans and horses.
To explore the range of tensions used in reins to elicit specific movements from a range of horses, 22 horses of mixed age, sex, breed and training history were long-reined and ridden through a standard course. The reins contained embedded load cells so that tensions used to elicit specific movements could be measured and logged. These movements were categorised into ‘left turn’, ‘right turn’, ‘going straight’ and ‘halt’ and were separated for left and right rein tensions. The data were analysed using two-sample non-parametric Kolmogorov–Smirnoff tests and the differences between categories of horse and equipment were analysed with one-way analysis of variance. The tensions recorded in the reins were greater for long-reining than riding (median 5.76, Q25 3.9, Q75 13.3N and median 5.29, Q25 9.3, Q75 2.9N, respectively, P=0.025), irrespective of whether the horses were ridden with a halter or a bridle or whether the test was completed at a walk or a trot. The tensions did not differ between the left and right reins (P>0.05) when the horses were being driven or ridden in a straight line, providing evidence that an ‘even contact’ was maintained. The rein tension required for going straight was less than for any other responses, showing that a lighter contact on the reins can be maintained between the application of specific stimuli. The rein tension required to elicit the halt response was greater than for any other response (P0.05). Clearly, a range of rein tensions is required for horses to elicit specific responses. In the interests of horse welfare and avoidance of habituation, those involved in equitation need to become aware of the tensions used in training horses and seek to keep them to a minimum. When rein tension can be measured objectively, this process can be easily implemented and monitored.
By definition, punishment makes a response less likely in the future. Because horses are largely trained by negative reinforcement, they are susceptible to inadvertent punishment. Delays in the release of pressure can make desirable responses less likely and thus punish them. This study examines the correct use of negative reinforcement and identifies a continuum between poorly timed negative reinforcement and punishment. It explores some of the problems of non-contingent punishment and the prospect of learned helplessness and experimental neurosis. It concludes by introducing the concept of ethical equitation.
The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of head and neck position on upper airway flow mechanics in exercising horses. Five Standardbred horses (452 ± 16.5 kg bwt; 4.7 ± 0.9 years [mean ± s.e.]) were exercised at 75% (Period A) and at 100% of maximal heart rate (Period B) with head and neck unrestrained, extended, or flexed. Airflow was measured using a facemask mounted pneumotachograph, while tracheal pressure during inhalation and exhalation (PUI and PUE) was measured using a nasotracheal catheter. With head and neck unrestrained, PUI, PUE, inspiratory and expiratory impedance (ZI, ZE), respiratory frequency (f) and indices describing the tidal breathing flow-volume loops (TBFVLs) were similar to those previously reported. There were no significant changes in the extended position, except that expiratory time (Te) and ratio of peak expiratory flow and peak inspiratory flow (PEF/PIF) were significantly increased in Periods A and B, respectively. In contrast, in the flexed position, ZI was significantly increased in Period B. Also, inspiratory flow at 50% of tidal volume (IF50) was significantly decreased, and PEF/PIF and EF50/IF50 were significantly increased. At period A, PUI was increased and Te was prolonged. We conclude that during strenuous exercise head and neck extension has little effect on upper airway flow mechanics, but that head and neck flexion causes upper airway obstruction.
Many saddle horses are slaughtered at a young age which could be indicative of a welfare problem. Bad riding is probably an underestimated source of poor welfare. Widespread knowledge of ‘academic’ riding should be encouraged and should be beneficial to all horses, at all schooling levels, for all purposes. In particular, 18th century principles tend to be forgotten and in this article the authors illustrate some differences to modern dressage. Various suggestions are made in order to improve welfare.
Discusses the resistance to extinction of avoidance responding, and describes a treatment for hastening extinction. The treatment, known as response prevention (flooding), consists of thwarting the avoidance response while forcing the S to remain in the situation which it fears. Behavior therapy analogues to response prevention are reviewed, and the various factors which determine the efficacy of response prevention with animals are described. Pharmacological and behavioral techniques for enhancing the effectiveness of response prevention are noted. 3 theories (2-process theory, competing response theory, and a relaxation analysis), which attempt to explain why and how response prevention works, are discussed, and it is concluded that no 1 theory provides an adequate account of all the results obtained. (49 ref.)
SUMMARY Twenty four normal, confined mares were unable to lower their heads for 24 or 48 h. In 21 mares this resulted in increases in the proportion of neutrophils and/or numbers of bacteria in transtracheal aspirates. In eight mares the changes in tracheal washes were accompanied by clinical evidence of mild respiratory disease. In three additional cases respiratory signs were accompanied by systemic illness. These changes reversed once the mares were able to lower their heads. Haematological changes (absolute neutrophilia and/or hyperfibrinogenaemia) were mild and occurred more commonly in horses restrained for 48 h.
The results suggest that keeping the heads of healthy horses raised leads to an increased bacterial burden in their tracheobronchial secretions. These changes appeared to be related to head posture effects and not simply confinement in stocks. These findings give further weight to the theory that postural drainage may facilitate clearance of bacteria from the tracheobronchial tree. The possible relevance of such findings to post-transportation pneumonia in horses is discussed.
Magnification of cervical radiographs prevents accurate interpretation of vertebral canal absolute minimum sagittal diameter (MSD) values and application of the established MSD values for diagnosis of cervical stenotic myelopathy (CSM). Variability in MSD determination in human beings, owing to radiographic magnification, is minimized by assessing a ratio of the vertebral canal diameter to the sagittal width of the vertebral body. This relative measurement technique improves the accuracy of diagnosis of cervical spinal stenosis in human beings. The MSD of the vertebral canal was determined in 50 horses with CSM and 50 control horses, using a radiopaque marker method for correction of magnification. In addition, a ratio of the absolute MSD to the sagittal width of the vertebral body and a ratio of the absolute MSD to the length of the vertebral body were determined in 100 CSM-affected and 100 control horses. Response operating characteristic curve analysis of each method determined that the sagittal ratio method of canal diameter assessment provided the most accurate interpretation of cervical radiographs for diagnosis of CSM, with sensitivity and specificity of > or = 89% at each vertebral site. The accuracy of the ratio method, without consideration of bony malformation, supports the importance, and perhaps prerequisite, of generalized vertebral canal stenosis in the pathogenesis of CSM. Subjective evaluation of bony malformations from cervical radiographs of 100 CSM-affected horses and 100 control horses indicated that CSM-affected horses have more severe bony malformation than do control horses. However, moderate to marked degenerative joint disease of the articular processes was frequently observed in control horses.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
The results of an experimental study of the motivational consequences of short-term prevention of crib-biting are reported here. Eight test horses wore a cribbing collar for 24 h. This was effective in preventing crib-biting in 6 subjects. Using analysis of co-variance that accounted for baseline differences in crib-biting rate, test horses showed significantly more crib-biting than control horses on the first day after prevention (P < 0.05). There was also a highly significant increase in the crib-biting rate of test horses on the first day after prevention in comparison with their baseline rate (P < 0.01). This defines the increase as a post inhibitory rebound. An increase in the novelty of the cribbing bar and an increase in feeding motivation during the period of prevention are rejected as explanations of the rebound in this study. Instead, it is suggested that the rebound reflected a rise in internal motivation to crib-bite during the period of prevention. Behaviours that exhibit this pattern of motivation are generally considered functional; and it has been argued that their prevention may compromise welfare.
Here we provide confirmation that the 'ramp retina' of the horse, once thought to result in head rotating visual behaviour, does not exist. We found a 9% variation in axial length of the eye between the streak region and the dorsal periphery. However, the difference was in the opposite direction to that proposed for the 'ramp retina'. Furthermore, acuity in the narrow, intense visual streak in the inferior retina is 16.5 cycles per degree compared with 2.7 cycles per degree in the periphery. Therefore, it is improbable that the horse rotates its head to focus onto the peripheral retina. Rather, the horse rotates the nose up high to observe distant objects because binocular overlap is oriented down the nose, with a blind area directly in front of the forehead.
Overshadowing is a process known in behavioral science that occurs when two stimuli of different strengths are applied simultaneously to a nonhuman animal. Typically, the stronger stimulus overshadows the weaker one, resulting in attenuation of the weaker stimulus. This phenomenon explains ways in which the decreased responsiveness and consequent conflict behaviors (and possibly learned helplessness and wastage) in some performance horses can result from the application of two concurrent aversive stimuli. Despite some adverse consequences in the context of ridden horses, overshadowing can have serendipitous benefits because it offers an efficient method of desensitization for certain stimuli that are sometimes highly aversive: the saddle/girth pressure, clippers, aerosols, and needles. Desensitization with concurrent overshadowing appears to be comparatively rapid, particularly with highly aversive stimuli, possibly because attentional mechanisms are diverted to the more salient stimulus. It is important to note that, following the overshadowing procedure, the effects appear to be retained when assessed on subsequent days. Using 4 examples, this article presents a preliminary exploration of the beneficial use of a poorly understood, underutilized--yet promising--phenomenon that warrants further investigation.
An innovative approach to equitation foundation training (backing the horse) within an automated horse walker may reduce conflict behavior in the horse
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A preliminary study on the relation between subjectively assessing dressage performances and objective welfare parameters
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The effect of different head and neck positions on the thoracolumbar kinematics in the unridden horse
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Waring, G.H., 1983. Horse behavior: the behavioral traits and adaptations
of domestic and wild horses, including ponies. Noyes, Park Ridge, NJ.
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movements. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 108, 157-169.
Report of the FEI Veterinary and Dressage Committee's Workshop. The use of over-bending (‘Rollkur') in FEI Competition. FEI Veterinary Committee meeting at the Olympic Museum
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Report of the FEI Veterinary and Dressage Committee's Workshop. The use of over-bending (‘Rollkur') in FEI Competition. FEI Veterinary Committee meeting at the Olympic Museum
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Assessment of vertebral canal diameter and bony malformations of the cervical part of the spine in horses with cervical stenotic myelopathy
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