No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Characteristics of soybeans as affected by soaking conditions
Abstract
The water absorption of soybeans in soaking is directly related to the changes in textural characteristics and grinding properties of soybeans for processing. In this study, we determined the characteristics of water absorption, solid loss, and moisture content, textural characteristics and grinding properties of soybeans at four different soaking temperatures, 10°C, 20°C, 30°C, and 40°C, and various soaking times up to 8h. We found that the solid loss increased significantly when the soaking temperature increased from 30°C to 40°C. The measured moisture data of soaked soybeans fitted well with the data predicted using Peleg's equation. Rupture force and maximum tangent and secant modulus measured by the compression test decreased as the moisture increased, up to 122%. The grinding property of soaked soybeans was related only to the final moisture content and not to the soaking conditions. High soaking temperature could significantly reduce the required soaking time. Based on these results, we recommend that soybeans be soaked to minimal final moisture content of 120% before grinding.
... One of the principle steps in the production of soymilk is pre-soaking of soybeans [6]. Advantages of soybean pre-soaking have been well documented including increase in soymilk crude protein [7,8,9,10] and reduction in nutritional inhibitors and toxic substances thus improving dietary protein digestibility [11,12]. Abu-Ghannam and Mckenna [13] reported that bean soaking prior to cooking plays a role in defining the cooking time, appearance, and the extent of protein denaturation and starch gelatinization of legumes. ...
... Abu-Ghannam and Mckenna [13] reported that bean soaking prior to cooking plays a role in defining the cooking time, appearance, and the extent of protein denaturation and starch gelatinization of legumes. Other previous studies also revealed that water absorption during soaking affects bean textural properties and subsequently the grinding and soymilk extraction process [8,10,14,15]. Hydration of beans depends highly on soaking temperature and time. But high soaking temperatures above 40°C have been shown to reduce hygienic safety, decrease protein digestibility, and can lead to considerable loss of certain viable vitamins such as niacin and riboflavin [7,13,16,17,18,19]. ...
... Peleg [21] proposed a two-parameter non-exponential sorption empirical equation and tested its prediction accuracy using water vapor adsorption of milk powder and whole rice soaking of whole rice. Since then, the Peleg Equation has been used widely to model water uptake of different foods, grains, and cereals with reasonable accuracy [8,13,21,22,23]. Peleg [21] proposed that: ...
The effect of ambient temperature soaking time on soybean (Glycine max) was studied for cold extraction of soymilk. Changes of hydration rate, grinding time, crude protein, and solid recovery were parameters considered for seeds soaked for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 h. Soybean hydration at ambient temperature showed a good fit (r = 0.9982) with Peleg's model. Whole soybean seeds imbibed about 90% of water absorbable to reach equilibrium in the first six hours of hydration. The moisture content increased from 12% to maximum of 147% for a soaking time of 10 h. The water absorption reached to a maximum of 121% of the original weight of the soybeans after soaking for 10 h. The grinding time of the soybeans gradually decreased with soaking time for the first six hours, 214 s, and then increased gradually with each subsequent hour of soaking to reach 296 s after 39600 s of soaking. Both crude protein and total soluble solids generally increased gradually with soaking time from 0.91 to 1.48% and 0.867 to 1.67% Brix respectively for the soaking time studied. This study concludes that during preparations for traditional soymilk extraction, soybeans should be soaked for at least 7 h or at most 9 h.
... The toasted seed production evolved into the following final optimization: 20 g of dried seeds were soaked twice in warm tap water (30-35 • C) and once in cold tap water (15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20) • C) in a proportion of 1:3 (w/v) for ca. 16 h [19]. ...
... The toasted seed production evolved into the following final optimization: 20 g of dried seeds were soaked twice in warm tap water (30-35 • C) and once in cold tap water (15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20) • C) in a proportion of 1:3 (w/v) for ca. 16 h [19]. All soaking waters were discarded. ...
... (15-20 °C) in a proportion of 1:3 (w/v) for ca. 16 h [19]. All soaking waters were discarded. ...
Despite the fact Moringa oleifera (MO)-based foods present a very good and nutritionally well-balanced composition, they face some issues related to seed bitterness, which is the most challenging barrier to consumer acceptance. Different processing methods were tested to produce MO toasted seeds, MO-based beverage, and yoghurt-like products which were chemically and rheologically analyzed. The protein content ranged from 3.68% in the beverage, to 14.73% in the yoghurt and 40.21% in MO toasted seeds. A totally debittered beverage could not be accomplished, but the MO yoghurt-like showed a very nice flavor. Nutrition claims for minerals in toasted seeds could be considered for magnesium, phosphorus, iron, copper, zinc, and manganese, which confirms the M. oleifera seed richness in several minerals. The MO beverage presented less extended shear-thinning behavior (17.4 Pa·s) than commercial vegetable beverages and two pulse-based beverages developed in a previous study. The MO yoghurt-like product showed a gel structure similar to the dairy yoghurt, making it a promising new plant-based alternative. Further work must be performed in the future to debitter more efficiently the raw seeds to achieve a more pleasant MO-based beverage. The developed MO seed-based products may settle another font of high protein plant-based food.
... The semilogarithmic plot shown in Figure 2 confirmed this assumption for both the pulses examined. On the contrary, the estimated k 2 values appeared to be about constant (k 2 ) and temperature-independent, as also observed by other authors [39][40][41]. Table 2 also lists the least-squares estimated values of A and (E a /R), as well as k 2 . Finally, Figure 1 compares the experimental and calculated M values at the three temperatures examined for both pulses. ...
... The semilogarithmic plot shown in Figure 2 firmed this assumption for both the pulses examined. On the contrary, the estimat values appeared to be about constant ( ) and temperature-independent, as als served by other authors [39][40][41]. Table 2 also lists the least-squares estimated values and (Ea/R), as well as . Table 2, while the horizontal ones were plotted by averaging values shown in Table 2. ...
This study was aimed at minimizing the anti-nutrient content of the Gradoli Purgatory bean (GPB: Phaseolus vulgaris) and Solco Dritto chickpea (SDC: Cicer arietinum) seeds grown in the Latium region of Italy by defining the three steps of their malting process. The water steeping and germination phases were carried out in a 1.0-kg bench-top plant at 18, 25, or 32 °C. By soaking both seeds at 25 °C for 3 h, 95 to 100% of seeds sprouted. There was no need for prolonging their germination process after 72 h, the degradation degree of raffinose in germinated GPBs or SDCs being about 63%, while that of phytic acid being ~32% or 23%, respectively. The steeping and germination kinetics of both seeds were mathematically described via the Peleg and first-order reaction models, respectively. The third step (kilning) was carried out under fluent dry air at 50 °C for 24 h and at 75 °C for 3 h, and yielded cream-colored malted seeds, the cotyledons of which were cyclonically separated from the cuticles and finally milled. Owing to their composition, the decorticated malted pulse flours might be used in the formulation of specific gluten-free food products high in raw proteins and low in phytate, α-oligosaccharides and in vitro glycemic index (GI). Even if their low GI trait was preserved after malting, only the GPB malt flour having a resistant starch-to-total starch ratio ≥ 14% has the potential to be labeled with the health claim for improving postprandial glucose metabolism according to EU Regulation 432/2012.
... et al. (2019);Pan and Tangratanavalee (2003); Pagara (2011), that soaking at high temperatures can cause protein loss into water[9,19,20].IC-FSSAT 2021 IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 807 (2021) 022050 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/807/2/022050 ...
... et al. (2019);Pan and Tangratanavalee (2003); Pagara (2011), that soaking at high temperatures can cause protein loss into water[9,19,20].IC-FSSAT 2021 IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 807 (2021) 022050 IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1755-1315/807/2/022050 ...
The obstacle in the manufacture of soy milk is the beany flavour that derives from the soybean. Various soy milk processing technologies are used to eliminate the beany flavour, including soaking soybeans before grinding, peeling the soybean skin, heating, and giving them flavor. The objectives of this study were 1) to determine the protein content of soy milk by various processing methods; 2) to determine the level of consumer preference for soy milk by several processing methods and flavor variants. The results showed that the processing method using soybean skin and without hot water soaking had the highest soy milk protein content of 2.38%, while the lowest was in the processing method skinless soybean and hot water soaking of 1.73%. Organoleptic assays for color, aroma, viscosity, and taste parameters ranged from normal to liking for all treatments. For the parameter of beany flavor in soy milk, the control sample had the highest level. Organoleptically, giving coffee and chocolate flavor variants are proven to reduce the level of the beany flavor of soy milk.
... This process is considered to be a gentle and controllable processing step, necessary to change the morphological and physicochemical properties of the grain. Many studies have been conducted to characterize different soaking processes of rice and soybeans (Chiang and Yeh, 2002;de Lima et al., 2014;Leethanapanich et al., 2016;Pan and Tangratanavalee, 2003). Soaking can be described with two phenomena, first the water diffusion into the grain. ...
... The soaking process is influenced by the factors time and temperature. As Pan and Tangratanavalee (2003) reported high soaking temperatures for soybeans could reduce soaking time and recommended a moisture uptake of 120% before wet-milling. Chiang and Yeh (2002) investigated the soaking conditions of rice for wet-milling. ...
In recent years, the interest in alternative cereals as pseudocereals has increased. The pseudocereal amaranth should be heated thermally before consumption. The purpose of this study was to investigate the textural and morphological change of Amaranthus caudatus during heat soaking below boiling temperature. Therefore, the effects of heat soaking at different temperatures (20, 50, 60, 70, 80 °C) and times (1, 5, 24 h) of Amaranthus caudatus were researched. A significant textural and morphological change of amaranth grains samples was found for samples soaked at temperatures ≥ 60 °C, due to gelatinization of starch. Overall, with an increase in temperature moisture content and water absorption increased, while the firmness of grains decreased. A similar trend was observed for color changes, higher temperatures lead to a darker grain color. SEM images of hydrothermally treated amaranth samples displayed microstructural changes of the embryo and perisperm, which may explain the firmness decrease. The temperature had a higher influence on morphological and textural changes than soaking time. Especially higher temperatures significantly altered the texture and external appearance of the grains while soaking time had negligible effect.
... Soaking at higher temperature causes the loose of seed coat structure and thus the seed storage proteins (7S and 11S proteins) that are protected by the seed coat were released into the soaking medium by the force of concentration difference [19]. Other than proteins, the leaching of the seed component may include carbohydrates [20]. The release of soluble solids from the seed were found to increase at higher soaking temperature due to the extended seed wall rupture. ...
... Based on Figure 4, the solid content of kenaf seed milky extract increased with longer soaking time of kenaf seed at lower temperatures (28°C and 40°C), and decreased at higher temperature (50°C, 60°C, 80°C) of soaking. The increased of solid loss upon higher temperature of soaking were also reported by other researchers [18,20,21]. Figure 5 shows the procedures for the preparation of kenaf seed milk. ...
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) seed is rich in protein, fat, fiber, and other essential nutrients. Kenaf seed comprises of high protein (22–31%) and oil (22–25%) contents which suggested its high potential food application. This chapter discusses the potential and early development of kenaf-based plant-milk and tofu. The step-by-step processes involved in preparation of kenaf-based milk and kenaf-based tofu at laboratory-scale are illustrated. Soaking conditions (temperature and time) of kenaf seed as pretreatment in preparation of kenaf seed milk were highlighted. Hydration of kenaf seed were found to be faster at elevated temperature, however higher soaking temperature and prolonged soaking time causes some losses of protein (%) and solid content (%) which are unfavorable for production of highly nutritious plant-based milk. Furthermore, in preparation of kenaf-based tofu, soaking temperature of seed also affected the properties of the tofu. As the soaking temperature was increased from 25–65°C, the yield, hardness, and chewiness of kenaf tofu decreased. It was recommended that soaking of kenaf seed at 25°C and the use of aluminum potassium salt at 1.00 g% as coagulant produces kenaf-based tofu with optimum quality.
... The water absorption capacity was measured using the methodology developed [14]. Twenty grams of kenaf seeds was initially weighed and soaked accordingly. ...
Kenaf seeds are considered to be one of the underutilised biomaterials generates from kenaf industry. These kenaf seeds contain essential nutrients, including dietary fibre, protein, fat, carbohydrate and phytocompounds. Consequently, they have attracted the attention of many researchers. This study aims to determine the effect of soaking treatment on the physicochemical properties of kenaf seeds MH8234. The soaking treatment can give many benefits such as easing the blending process, maximising the yield production of kenaf extract (kenaf seeds milk), improving the kenaf extract’s nutritional values and decreasing the presence of anti-nutritional compounds in the seeds. Twenty grams of kenaf seeds were manually cleaned to eliminate foreign debris and soaked in excessive distilled water. Soaking was carried out for 3, 6 and 12 hours in ambient conditions. The kenaf seeds were soaked before being analysed for size distribution, proximate analysis, water absorption, colour difference and microscopic appearance. Results showed that 12-hour soaking significantly increased seed size, moisture content (16.09%) and crude protein (20.14%), while slightly decreasing crude fat, ash content and total carbohydrates. Water absorption capacity ranged from 46.57% to 81.79%. The colour difference between soaked and unsoaked seeds was notable, shifting from dark brown to light brown. Overall findings suggested that a 12-hour soaking treatment demonstrate the highest water absorption capacity that enhanced seed size, protein content, as well as pleasant colour development, making it suitable for domestic and commercial practice.
... Suhu dan waktu perendaman merupakan dua faktor utama yang mempengaruhi penyerapan air pada kedelai. Pada suhu perendaman yang tinggi sampel menyerap air jauh lebih cepat dibandingkan pada suhu rendah (Pan & Tangratanavalee, 2003). Semakin tinggi suhu perendaman, semakin banyak air yang diserap (da Silva et al., 2024). ...
Beans are an agricultural commodity that is widely used as raw material for making various types of food products. One of the pre-processing steps for these beans is by soaking. Soaking aims to soften the texture of the beans so that they are easier to process later. Red beans are usually used in making porridge because of their high carbohydrate content, while soybeans have a higher protein content and are usually used to make tofu and tempeh. Soaking results in the mass transfer of water into the material being soaked, resulting in an increase in its mass. This research aims to determine the effect of variations in soaking temperature on the water absorption of red beans and soybeans during soaking. Red beans and soybeans were soaked in water at three temperature variations, namely 10oC, 30oC and 50oC for 1 hour and the mass of the beans was measured every 10 minutes. From the research results it was found that there was an increase in the mass of red beans and soybeans during soaking. There are differences in the increase in mass of red beans and soybeans caused by the type of bean and variations in soaking temperature. The highest amount of water absorption of red beans and soybeans was found when soaked at a temperature of 500C: 42.99% for red beans and 74.67% for soybeans. Keywords: Red bean, Soy bean, Soaking, Temperature, Water absorption
... Among several typical adsorption curves, the non-exponential empirical model proposed by Peleg is more practical [21]. In recent years, the Peleg equation has been used to model the kinetic behavior of different grains and foods during the hydration process, such as oats [22], rice [16], soybeans [23], and peas [24]. Therefore, this study establishes a quinoa seed hydration dynamic model based on the Peleg model. ...
To improve the efficiency of harvested quinoa seed wash processing, this study comparatively evaluated the effects of ultrasound-assisted hydration (UH) and conventional hydration (CH) on hydration dynamics, saponin mass transfer kinetics, and pericarp structural changes in quinoa seeds. Moisture uptake was monitored using a gravimetric method, saponin content was determined through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and pericarp structural changes were observed via scanning electron microscopy. The results showed that UH significantly enhanced the water absorption rate of quinoa seeds, with the Peleg model effectively fitting all hydration stages (R² > 0.93). The saponin content in the seeds decreased rapidly at first and then stabilized, with the most significant reduction occurring within the first 30 min of soaking. UH reduced the saponin content by 52 %–73 %, outperforming CH, which reduced it by 42 %–53 %. Fick’s diffusion model indicated that UH significantly increased the effective diffusion coefficient (Deff) of saponins and reduced the activation energy (Ea from 21.83 to 18.15 kJ/mol). SEM images confirmed that UH accelerated the rupture and pore formation of the pericarp. All kinetic models showed good fitting performance, with the Weibull and two-term models providing the best fit under both CH and UH conditions, evidenced by the highest R² and lowest SSE, RMSE, and χ² values. These findings contribute to optimizing industrial quinoa processing, enhancing efficiency and sustainability, and provide valuable guidance for the application of ultrasound technology in grain-based food development.
... The terpenes that form saponins (glycosylated) have a relatively elevated polarity, which is why the choice of this grinding method is useful for recovering them. In addition, it has been observed that for some plant products, moistening the material favors grinding, and currently, ultrafine grinding systems allow the wet process to reach particle sizes smaller than 1 μm (Pan and Tangratanavalee 2003;Zhao et al. 2009;Karinkanta et al. 2018). One of the advantages of wet grinding methods is that the quality of the final product is preserved, which implies less loss of compounds (Tong et al. 2015;Jung et al. 2018). ...
Due to their various applications, terpenes and terpenoids are secondary metabolites of industrial interest. These compounds can be found in a wide variety of organisms from virtually all biological kingdoms. However, it has been identified that various factors in the production process, such as the place and time of harvest, pretreatments, extraction, and purification, generate differences in the profile of terpenes and terpenoids that can be obtained from organisms. The first factor that influences the extraction of compounds is drying since an inappropriate choice of the drying method can lead to the loss of the compounds of interest or the appearance of others that arise due to the decomposition of the original molecules. Similarly, Soxhlet extraction is the most used method in the recovery of terpenoids due to its high extraction efficiency. However, unconventional extraction methods have proven to be effective alternatives for terpenoid recovery, particularly the use of microwave and high-pressure extraction, as well as the use of unconventional solvents, achieving extraction efficiencies equal to or greater than Soxhlet in shorter times. This review will address the differences observed in the extraction of terpenoids and the main factors that cause them, as well as a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of the various methodolo-gies for drying, extraction, and separation of these compounds.
... This could be due to the increased resistance of the cell wall to fracturing after getting hydrated from boiling. This is corroborated by another study which observed that the rupture force did not correspond with the grinding characteristics at high moisture soybean seeds as at low moisture content seeds [20]. The cooking process increases the separation of cotyledon cells (Fig. 2d) due to partial solubilization of pectin that glued the adjacent cells together [17,18]. ...
Protein digestibility is a key indicator of dietary protein quality because the amino acids present in a protein food may not be available to an organism for nutrition and health unless they are digested. In spite of being a good source of protein, Soybean seed has limited digestibility mainly in their whole form. In this paper, we highlight the factors that affect the digestibility of soybean proteins like the quantity, structure, and distribution of the kinetically stable proteins plus the anti-nutritional compounds in soybean seeds. Furthermore, factors such as seed coat thickness and composition, cellular integrity, and seed hydration can also impact the protein digestibility of soybeans. It was found that wet thermal treatments like cooking along with operations such as fermentation, grinding and germination have a more favourable effect on hydrolysis of soybean proteins than dry-heat treatments such as roasting. Also, all processing operations have the ability to reduce the anti-nutritive compounds to varying degrees, ensuring the safety and increased digestibility of the soybean. The current review exhibits the potential processing methods for facilitating mechanical disintegration and protein hydrolysis of soybean seeds. Hence, the insights gained from this review can be used to understand the mechanism by which various processing methods enhance the protein digestibility of soybean seeds. The findings of this review indicate the necessity to carefully adjust processing conditions to preserve nutritional quality, reduce anti-nutritional components to safe levels, and optimize both protein digestibility and palatability of whole soybean seeds.
... Several studies reported exponential water absorption with increasing media temperature, which results in a drastic soaking time reduction. Wardhani et al. (2008) found that increasing the soaking temperature helped reduce the rehydration time of soybean, while Pan & Tangratanavalee (2003) concluded that longer soaking times and higher temperatures up to 40°C led to the loss of soluble proteins and isoflavones in soybeans. ...
Understanding the behaviour of legumes during soaking results of importance since this might affect subsequent processing steps and thus final product quality. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different ultrasound‐assisted soaking conditions (45.8–108.7 W cm⁻² for 10–30 min) on the hydration, physicochemical and nutritional properties of kabuli chickpeas. During sonication, the temperature of the soaking media was either controlled at 20 °C (treatment referred to as US) or allowed to rise (treatment referred to as US + T). Selected temperature treatments without sonication (treatment referred to as T) were also included to identify thermal effects. Results showed that higher sonication intensities enhanced water imbibition up to a moisture content of 74.5% (w/w), being more pronounced in treatments where a temperature rise was allowed. Hydration kinetics were well described by the Peleg model (R² = 0.961–0.998). Samples treated with temperature (US + T; T) showed high solid (0.8–5.1%), di‐ (13.2–59.7%) and α‐galactosyl‐sucrose oligosaccharide (5.4–58.7%) losses. In contrast, high US treatments enhanced oligosaccharides to up to 26.2% as well as pasting properties, while decreasing leaching losses (0.93–3.33%). Nutritional properties of sonicated chickpeas were only slightly affected after cooking following no clear trend. Overall, sonication was an effective pre‐treatment to reduce hydration time of up to 90% in chickpeas, especially when combined with temperature, and could be applied to drastically reduce the processing time of chickpea and chickpea flour in the food industry.
... After that, there was a slower growth up to reach a saturation moisture ratio. The experimental moisture ratio (M) was reconstructed using the empirical model developed by Peleg, 25 with this having been largely used to describe the rate of water uptake of several legumes undergoing hydration [26][27][28] : ...
BACKGROUND
To improve the current low per capita consumption of lentils, the present study first aimed to minimize the anti‐nutrient content of two yellow Moroccan and Italian lentil seeds by resorting to the malting process and then testing the resulting decorticated flours as ingredients in the formulation of gluten‐free fresh egg pastas.
RESULTS
The most proper operating conditions for the three malting process steps were identified in a bench‐top plant. The first (water steeping) and second (germination) steps were studied at 18, 25 or 32 °C. After 2 or 3 h of steeping at 25 °C and almost 24 h of germination, 95–98.8% of the lentil seeds sprouted. By prolonging the germination process to 72 h, the raffinose or phytic acid content was reduced by about 80% or 95% or 27% or 37%, respectively. The third step (kilning) was carried out under fluent dry air at 50 °C for 24 h and at 75 °C for 3 h. The cotyledons of the resulting yellow lentil malts were cyclonically recovered, milled and chemico‐physically characterized.
CONCLUSION
Both flours were used to prepare fresh egg‐pastas essentially devoid of oligosaccharides, and low in phytate (4.6–6.0 mg g⁻¹) and in vitro glycemic index (38–41%). However, the cooking quality of the fresh egg pasta made of malted Moroccan lentil flour was higher with respect to its crude protein content and lower with respect to its water solubility index. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
... Some researchers reported, while water absorption capacity does not vary with hydration temperatures, K 2 becomes independent with regard to hydration temperature. But, when variations are observed for water absorption capacity in the absorption process with temperature, K 2 becomes temperature-dependent and it commences to reduce with temperature rise (Calzetta Resio et al., 2003;Pan & Tangratanavalee, 2003). Meanwhile sesame seed varieties did nonsignificant (p ≤ 0.05) affect the Peleg's constant K 2 (Table 1). ...
Abstract The water absorption characteristics of sesame varieties (GT‐3, GT‐4, GJT‐5, GT‐6, and TKG‐22) were studied during hydration at temperatures ranging 35–55°C. The Peleg model adequately defined the hydration behavior of sesame seed varieties at the 35°C, 45°C, and 55°C soaking temperatures with the comparable coefficient of determination (R2) and mean relative percentage deviation modulus (P). The Peleg rate constant K1 and the capacity constant K2 reduced significantly with the rise in hydration temperatures, suggesting corresponding increases in the initial hydration rate as well as the equilibrium moisture content in all the varieties tested. The Arrhenius equation was used to calculate the activation energy (Ea) of GT‐3, GT‐4, GJT‐5, GT‐6, and TKG‐22 sesame varieties and was noted to be 38.74, 33.37, 30.68, 37.85, and 33.23 kJ/mol, respectively. The enthalpy (H) was raised significantly with hydration temperature while entropy (ΔS) and released energy (ΔG) were found nonsignificant (p > 0.05).
... Soaking of soybean can help in the acceleration of protein extraction from raw seeds that apparently leads to the higher protein content of tofu [100]. Consequently, soybean seeds and water ration, soaking time, soaking temperature affects the texture, yield, and tofu nutrient content [1,[101][102][103][104]. Along with the soaking effect, many researchers have also investigated the effect of soybean seeds sprouting on soybean products. ...
The soybean seed is used for the preparation of protein rich tofu. Along with protein, it is also rich in many other nutrients including carbohydrate, crude fibre, carbohydrate, fat, minerals, and isoflavones. Antinutrients are also present in tofu, although the concentration is less that the raw grains. The nutrient content is affected by the tofu preparation method used starting from selection of suitable soybean seed, seed soaking, sprouting, soymilk production and coagulation using different types of natural and artificial coagulants. These procedures also affect the textural properties of the tofu and their shelf life.
... In treating soymilk, the packs for non-fiber free milk must be removed and compared to fiber-free animal milk. (22). remaining okra is removed and a few minutes before serving is boiled (17). ...
Health Benefits milk (5).When properly formulated, soymilk closely sembles cow milk and is then used as an alternative to m i t traditional milk (6). Because of its non-steroidal has a protective effect against age-related bone loss and high in iso-flavonoids, it lowers the risk of many cancers, p h y t o e hvtoestrogen properties, it is confirmed that soymilk
... Major variations in production methods are the soaking and cooking steps. Soaking is critical for tempe production because it induces soybean size expansion [7] and promotes acidic fermentation [8,9]. 2 of 13 The microbial composition of tempe is determined by ecological factors, such as acidification by lactic acid bacteria during soaking [3]. Therefore, indigenous bacteria play a role in acidification, resulting in a pH decrease during natural soaking. ...
Tempe is a fermented soybean food that is globally renowned for its high protein content. Methods of preparing tempe vary worldwide, and include soaking in vinegar before fermentation. This study aimed to determine the effects of soaking in vinegar by metabolome analysis, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, and sensory attribute evaluation. Vinegar affected metabolism during tempe fermentation, which led to altered metabolite profiles in the final product. We validated the metabolite profiles of two types of tempe using triangle tests and rate-all-that-apply (RATA) tests, which revealed that the sensory attributes of a golden-brown color, ammonia smell, pleasant smell, salty flavor, and acceptance significantly differed (p < 0.05) between the two types of tempe. A high concentration of specific amino acids in the control tempe explained a strong ammonia smell, saltiness, and darker golden-brown sensory attributes. Tempe soaked in vinegar contained high concentrations of metabolites associated with a roasted aroma and cooked meat. In conclusion, most RATA panelists who were being introduced to tempe preferred that soaked in vinegar to the control that was not.
... max) (130%) reported by Li et al. (2019) [23]. Soybean hydration exhibited the same behavior reported by other authors [22,[24][25][26]. The water content of chickpea seeds used as a control exceeded 90% of the total water absorption after 6 h [10]. ...
Aquafaba (AQ) emulsification properties are determined by genetics and seed processing conditions. The physicochemical properties and hydration rates of chickpea (CDC Leader) as a control with proven emulsifying properties were recently reported. Here, we identify correlations between soybean (Backtae, Seoritae, and Jwinunikong) physical, chemical, and hydration properties as well as AQ yield from seed and functional (emulsion and foaming) properties. In addition, a total of 20 compounds were identified by NMR including alcohols (isopropanol, ethanol, methanol), organic acids (lactic acid, acetic acid, succinic acid, citric acid, and malic acid), sugars (glucose, galactose, arabinose, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose), essential nutrients (choline, phosphocholine), amino acids (alanine, glutamine), and polyphenols (resveratrol, glycitin). The process used in this study utilizes a soaking step to hydrate the seed of the selected Korean soybean cultivars. The product, AQ, is an oil emulsifier and foaming agent, which is suitable for use as an egg substitute with improved emulsion/foam formation properties when compared with a chickpea-based AQ.
... The water absorption for each sample were determined according to technique applied by Pan & Tangratanavalee [8]. 30 g of sample was initially weighed and soaked accordingly. ...
In this study, the effect of soaking condition towards Mung bean Vigna radiata water absorption and Mung bean extracted crude protein were investigated. This research was conducted to fulfill the fundamental study on the development of Mung bean beverage. The factorial design was employed to investigate the effect of soaking condition by 3 factors, namely concentration of NaHCO3 (0.0%, 0.5% and 1.0%), temperature (30 o C, 60 o C and 90 o C) and time (30 minutes, 60 minutes and 90 minutes), under 19 runs and 2 responses: water absorption (%) and crude protein (%). The data were then statistically analysed using Design Expert 7.0 software and results were generated under Anova table (p < 0.05), interaction model graph and cube view, to predict the optimum soaking condition which best suits the required responses. It was found that the combination of 90 minutes soaking time, 30 o C of soaking temperature and 1.0% NaHCO3 concentration yielded the highest percentage of water absorption and crude protein.
... A study found a high temperature of 85 • C could reduce soaking time [6], but high levels of protein denaturation destroyed the solubility of soybean protein, and denaturation temperatures of β-conglycinin (7S) and glycinin (11S) started from 65 to 75 • C and 85-95 • C, respectively [7]. Thus, the long soaking time and high soaking temperature will result in a significant loss of solids, such as proteins and isoflavones, into the aqueous medium [8]. Therefore, it is necessary to control the soaking time and temperature of soybean to obtain as much soybean protein as possible. ...
Soybean soaking is important to the processing of bean products, however, restricted by the long soaking time. Herein, the soybean soaking was assisted by 60 kHz sweeping frequency ultrasound (SFU). Shortening mechanism of soaking time and physicochemical properties of soybeans were analyzed. Results showed that soaking temperature of 37℃, ultrasonic power of 60% (144 W), and soaking time of 214 min were optimum SFU-assisted parameters. The soaking time was reduced by 45.13%, and soluble protein content increased by 14.27% after SFU. Based on analysis of acoustic signals, the maximum voltage amplitude of SFU increased with the increment of oscillation periods of cavitation bubbles, which enlarged the intercellular space and size of soybean, and cell membrane permeability was enhanced by 4.37%. Unpleasant beany flavor compounds were reduced by 16.37%-47.6%. Therefore, SFU could significantly improve the soaking efficiency of soybeans and provide a theoretical basis for the processing enterprises of soybean products.
... Proses pengolahan yaitu perendaman, perebusan dan pengukusan terhadap kedelai dan jalijali menyebabkan terjadinya penyerapan air oleh kedelai (Pan & Tangratanavalee, 2003) dan jali-jali (Ding et al., 2020). Akibatnya kadar air pada tempe meningkat. ...
Tempeh is made from soybeans, but it can be made from a variety of food ingredients. In addition to reducing the demand for soybeans, whose availability in the country is insufficient, the use of other ingredients as raw materials can add to the nutritional value of tempeh to become more complete. This study aims to prove the effect of yeast concentration and the effect of the proportion of soybeans and jali on the nutritional and organoleptic content of soybean and jali mixed tempeh. The design of this study used a factorial randomized block design (RBD) with two factors, namely the concentration of yeast and the proportion of soybeans and jali. Each factor consists of three levels of treatment with three replications. Yeast concentration level (k) is k1 with yeast concentration added 0.1%, k2 (0.15%) and k3 (0.2%). As for the proportion of soybeans and jali (p), namely p1 the proportion of soybeans: jali-jali with a ratio of 60:40, p2 (50:50) and p3 (40:60). The results showed that yeast concentration did not affect (P> 0.05) moisture, protein content, fat, carbohydrate, and fiber content as well as organoleptic properties of tempeh. The proportion has an incredibly significant effect (P <0.05) on ash, protein, fat, carbohydrate, and fiber content in tempeh. However, the proportion does not affect (P> 0.05 on ash content and organoleptic properties of tempeh. There is an interaction between yeast concentration and the proportion of tempeh to color.
... The processing of fresh pepper berries into white pepper takes nearly a month. There are no many data available on the effect of soaking process on physical properties of white pepper, compare many reporting on other food material such as soybean, rice, cowpea, some types of beans, wheat kernel, chickpea, peanuts, maize and others (Kusota, 1979;Bakshi and Singh, 1980;Hsu, 1983;Singh and Kulshrestha, 1987;Sopade and Obekpa, 1990; eISSN: 2550-2166 Sopade et al., 1992;Hung et al.,1993;Taiwo et al., 1997;Abu-Ghannam and McKenna, 1997;Verma and Prasad, 1999;Pan and Tangratanavalee, 2003;Bayram et al., 2004;Yasmin et al., 2008;Fernandes et al., 2010;Lima et al., 2014;Ogunnigbo et al., 2018;Zhu et al., 2019). There is also a previous study that is well documented about the effects on physical properties caused by enzymatic rettings of green pepper berries for white pepper production (Rosnah and Chan, 2014). ...
This study was carried out to determine the effect of the soaking process on the physical properties of the mature pepper berries. The soaking process was conducted by immersing pepper berries in water. The results showed the dimensions of the pepper berries before soaking was 5.24 mm (minor axis), 5.57 mm (medium axis) and 5.61 mm (major axis). The weight of pepper berries increased from day 1 (13.58%) until day 3 (16.92%) and decreased after day 4 (0.77%) until day 7 of soaking (13.08%). The water uptake ratio of soaked pepper berries increased from 1.14% (day 1) until 1.17% (day 3) and then decreased from 1.01% (day 4) until 0.87% (day 7). The fracture force required to fracture the pericarp was decreased starting from 67.21 N (day 1) decreased until 21.40 N (day 7). The colour of mature pepper berries was changed into black-brown colour (L= 34.16, a= 1.38, b= 1.40).
... De acuerdo con Montanici y colaboradores (Montanuci et al., 2013) varios autores han verificado que 1 decrece con el aumento de la temperatura, en tanto 2 no manifiesta una única tendencia, pues en algunos estudios no se aprecia una dependencia significativa de 2 con la temperatura (Sopade & Obekpa, 1990;Sopade et al., 1992), mientras que en otros casos, también decrece al aumentar la temperatura (Resio et al., 2006;Pan & Tangratanavalee, 2003;Montanuci et al., 2013). ...
In this thesis, the moisture kinetics of grains with spherical geometry is described for two cases: when the moisture diffusion occurs with constant coefficient and for concentration dependent diffusion coefficient. In the second case, the exponential dependence of the diffusion coefficient on concentration was analyzed. In both cases, the modeling of the corresponding moisture absorption-desorption problem was carried out using the Classical Diffusion Theory and a finite difference method, namely: the Method of Lines (MOL). Using this method and Wolfram Mathematica 11.0 software, the numerical solution of the moisture diffusion problem in spherical grains for both cases was founded. Moisture absorption and desorption curves were simulated computationally, depending on the diffusion coefficient behavior whether it is constant or exponentially dependent on the concentration. The fundamental result of the present work is a numerical procedure that allows to describe theoretically the moisture kinetics of grains with spherical geometry, both for when the diffusion coefficient is constant, and for when it varies with concentration.
... High-quality water and suitable temperature and soaking time lead to a higher protein extraction rate and content in soymilk, increasing the gel strength and waterholding capacity of tofu [31][32][33]. Yang et al. [30] and Pan et al. [34] showed that the optimal soaking time decreases as the soaking temperature increases. However, as the temperature rises from 30 • C to 40 • C, protein and carbohydrates leak significantly and the solid content of the soaked soybean seeds decreases. ...
Tofu has a long history of use and is rich in high-quality plant protein; however, its production process is relatively complicated. The tofu production process includes soybean pretreatment, soaking, grinding, boiling, pulping, pressing, and packing. Every step in this process has an impact on the soy protein and, ultimately, affects the quality of the tofu. Furthermore, soy protein gel is the basis for the formation of soy curd. This review summarizes the series of changes in the composition and structure of soy protein that occur during the processing of tofu (specifically, during the pressing, preservation, and packaging steps) and the effects of soybean varieties, storage conditions, soybean milk pretreatment, and coagulant types on the structure of soybean protein and the quality of tofu. Finally, we highlight the advantages and limitations of current research and provide directions for future research in tofu production. This review is aimed at providing a reference for research into and improvement of the production of tofu.
... More leaching of solid matter from grains at the end of soaking process has been introduced as a negative factor during water absorption(Shafaei et al., 2016). Similar reports have been published for other foodstuffs such as sorghum, pasta, milled rice, chick peanuts, and barley seeds(Cunningham et al., 2007;Pan & Tangratanavalee, 2003;Shafaei et al., 2016).The driving force of water absorption is decreased over time and reached to minimum after 24 h. Due to the differences in the values of driving force during the soaking, two straight lines were fitted on experimental data at the beginning and the end of the process. ...
The chickpea soaking and cooking processes were empirically studied in terms of water absorption. The effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) and the convective mass transfer coefficient (K) were determined by developing a mathematical model in spherical coordinates. According to the evaluation of mass transfer parameters, the values of Deff and K ranged from 0.91 × 10−12 to 1.49 × 10−10 m2/s, and 2.02 × 10−10 to 7.25 × 10−10 m/s, respectively. Also, the kinetic behavior of chickpea during soaking and cooking was successfully modeled by the commonly used predictive models such as Peleg, Page, two‐term, and Vega–Lemus. The statistical parameters including the coefficient of determination (R2) and sum of square error (SSE) were applied for comparison of mathematical models. The two‐term model was found to be the best predictive equation for describing the soaking behavior of chickpea. In the case of cooking, a proposed model in this study was introduced as the best equation in predicting the moisture content of chickpea against time. The approach that was applied in this work can support the development of diffusion and kinetic modeling in different types of legumes during soaking, cooking, and the other processes related to moisture absorption or removal.
... The hydration kinetics of several seeds is generally described using either empirical or theoretical models. The empirical model developed by Peleg (1988) has been largely used to describe the rate of water uptake of several cereals (Montanuci et al., 2013;Sopade et al., 1992) and legumes (Abu-Ghannam and McKenna, 1997;Hung et al., 2006, Pan andTangratanavalee, 2003) undergoing hydration. Thus, the instantaneous moisture ratio M(t) can be predicted as follows: ...
Within the final goal of reducing the anti-nutritional factors in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) and yellow soybean (Glycine max) by means of their malting process, the main aim of this work was to study the kinetics of water hydration of such seeds at different temperatures in the range of 12-36 °C for as long as 24 h. The kinetics of such a process was reconstructed using the well-known Peleg model. The Peleg rate constant (k 1) decreased with increasing temperature and was described by an Arrhenius type relationship. The estimated activation energy was equal to 36±6 or 60±3 kJ mol-1 for chickpea or yellow soybean, respectively. The Peleg capacity parameter (k 2) was approximately constant and led to an equilibrium moisture ratio of 1.4 or 1.8 g of water per g dry matter for the above seeds. A 5-h soaking at T≥24 °C rehydrated both seeds up to a moisture content of ~50% (w/w), this being preliminarily assessed as sufficient for activating the metabolic processes of germination.
... Soaking facilitates the inactivation of enzyme inhibitors, improves digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients [49]. In case of pulses and grains, soaking step reduces the polyphenols and eliminates the alkaloids (e.g., in lupin) present in some of them; decreases the cooking time; improves the protein bioavailability and assists in peeling or dehulling [50,51]. Soaking in acidic or basic solution is done to facilitate peeling of walnuts, almonds, tiger nuts, Brazilian nuts etc. ...
In recent years, plant-based milk products, commonly called as non-dairy milk alternatives have gained high popularity due to concerns associated with bovine milk like lactose intolerance, allergies, hypercholesterolemia, and pesticide and antibiotic residues. Important strategies for manufacture of non-dairy milk alternatives involve disintegration of plant materials in aqueous medium; its homogenization and addition of some additives to attain a consistency and appearance similar to that of bovine milk. Different range of ingredients are added to non-dairy milk alternatives such as oils, emulsifiers, thickeners, antioxidants, minerals etc. The main problem associated with non-dairy milk alternatives is generally linked with its stability. Stability is a crucial factor that governs the sensory properties and overall acceptance of non-dairy milk alternatives. Differences in processing parameters and molecular interaction mechanisms affect the stability of emulsions as well as the stability of non-dairy milk manufactured thereof. Various treatments like thermal treatment, non-thermal processing (ultra high pressure homogenization, pulsed electric field, ultrasonication), addition of emulsifiers are effective in achieving the stability of non-dairy milks. The present chapter aims to summarize the various factors contributing to the physical stability of non-dairy milk alternatives like appearance, consistency, emulsion stability, and the approaches required to maintain it.
... In the realm of soaking process of soybean grains, there are many works conducted by researchers for studying of water absorption kinetics of the process. Some of these works can be chronologically addressed herein Bayram, Kaya, & Oner, 2004a;Borges, Jorge, & Jorge, 2017;Borges, Jorge, & Jorge, 2019;Deshpande, Bal, & Ojha, 1994;Fracasso, Perussello, Haminiuk, Jorge, & Jorge, 2014;Gowen, Abu-Ghannam, Frias, & Oliveira, 2007;Hsu, 1983;Lima, Kurozawa, & Ida, 2014;Mukherjee, Chakraborty, & Dutta, 2019;Nicolin, Coutinho, Andrade, & Jorge, 2012;Nicolin, Neto, Paraiso, Jorge, & Jorge, 2015;Nicolin, Rossoni, & Jorge, 2016;Nicolin, Silva, Jorge, & Jorge, 2018;Pan & Tangratanavalee, 2003;Singh & Kulshrestha, 1987;Sopade & Obekpa, 1990;Vasudeva & Vishwanathan, 2010;Wang, Swain, Hesseltine, & Heath, 1979;Wardhani, Vazquez, & Pandiella, 2008). The researchers who carried out the works employed major nonlinear mathematical models to investigate water absorption kinetics of soybean grains. ...
Neuro‐fuzzy simulation of food engineering phenomena can be a supportive manner for integrated realization of compound trends of involved parameters. This article is aimed to manifest neuro‐fuzzy simulation environment for prognostication of water absorption kinetics of soybean grains in thermo‐ultrasonication‐assisted soaking process. The simulation environment was developed based on various types and numbers of input membership functions, defuzzification methods, types of output membership functions, and numbers of training cycles. Promising performance of the prominent environment guaranteed its reliability for prognostication of water absorption kinetics on the basis of numeral variables of soaking time and temperature (20, 30, 40, 50 and 60°C), and nominal variable of soaking strategy (thermic and ultrasonication [25 kHz and 360 W]). The simulation results divulged that applying both strategies of thermic and ultrasonication (thermo‐ultrasonication strategy) was more effective than individual strategy of thermic and ultrasonication in order to proliferate water absorption into the grains. However, contributory influence of the ultrasonication on water absorption was less apparent at higher soaking temperatures and it was more dominant, when soaking time augmented.
Practical Applications
It can be asserted that the neuro‐fuzzy simulation environment manifested and verified in this study can be practically utilized in oil extraction and seed priming process, and industrial production of some popular soybean food products (Soymilk, Okara, Tofu, Shoyu, Miso, and Natto).
... Kacang kedelai yang berkecambah dengan metode ini juga sedikit dan pendek serta terdapat banyak biji kacang kedelai yang pecah. Hal ini dapat disebabkan oleh terjadinya perubahan tekstur dari biji kedelai akibat penyerapan air saat direndam dalam jangka waktu yang lama (Pan & Tangratanavalee, 2003). Maka dari itu, metode ini dimodifikasi lagi untuk mendapatkan metode perkecambahan yang lebih efektif. ...
Kedelai adalah produk pangan bernilai gizi tinggi yang banyak dikonsumsi oleh masyarakat Indonesia. Pada penelitian ini, kedelai dimodifikasi dengan cara perkecambahan. Komponen zat gizi akan berubah menjadi senyawa-senyawa yang lebih sederhana selama proses perkecambahan sehingga menjadi lebih mudah dicerna bagi tubuh manusia. Selain itu, perkecambahan juga dapat meningkatkan kapasitas antioksidan. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah menentukan kondisi perkecambahan untuk mengoptimalkan kapasitas antioksidan dari biji kedelai varietas Wilis. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kondisi terbaik untuk mengoptimalkan kapasitas antioksidan adalah dengan cara perkecambahan pada suhu 25°C selama 15 jam dengan rasio biji kedelai dan air 1:3 tanpa adanya penambahan garam. Kapasitas antioksidan kecambah kedelai var. Wilis pada 100 ppm memiliki radical scavenging activity sebesar 9,69% dengan scavenging ternormalisasi 0,65% dengan total fenol 2,1 mg GAE/g pada biji dan 2,9 mg GAE/g pada kecambah. Dari hasil identifikasi GC-MS ditemukan senyawa-senyawa antioksidan yang terdapat pada biji kedelai dan kecambah kedelai berupa benzoic acid, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, 2,5-dihydroxytoluene, pyrogallol 1,3-dimethyl ether, 2,5-dihydroxytoluene, pyrogallol 1,3-dimethyl ether, hexadecanoic acid methyl ester dan methyl oleate serta terdapat juga senyawa-senyawa antioksidan baru yang muncul setelah proses perkecambahan yaitu neophytadiene, campesterol, stigmasterol, delta-tocopherol dan gamma-tocopherol. ABSTRACT: Soybean is a high nutrition food product that is largely consumed by Indonesians. In this research, the soybean will be modified by going through the germination process. Complex nutrition would be changed into substances that were more simple during the germination process. Therefore, it would be easier for human to digest it. Moreover, this process might also increase the antioxidant capacity of the soybean itself. The aim of this research is to find out the most suitable germination condition in order to acquire the optimum antioxidant capacity of Wilis variety soybean. The result shows that the best condition to optimize the antioxidant capacity is by performing the germination process at 25°C for 15 hours with soybean to water ratio being 1:3 without any salt addition. The antioxidant capacity of Wilis soybean at 100 ppm has 9,69% of radical scavenging activity, with 0,65% being normalized. The total phenolic compound found in the beans was 2,1 mg GAE/g, whereas 2,9 mg GAE/g were found in the sprout. Based on the GC-MS identification, the antioxidant compounds that are found in both the soybean and sprout are known to be benzoic acid, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, 2,5-dihydroxytoluene, pyrogallol 1,3-dimethyl ether, 2,5-dihydroxytoluene, pyrogallol 1,3-dimethyl ether, hexadecanoic acid methyl ester, and methyl oleate. In addition, there are also several new antioxidant compounds that emerge after the germination process, which are neophytadiene, campesterol, stigmasterol, delta-tocopherol, and gamma-tocopherol. Keywords: Soybean var. Wilis, Sprout, Antioxidant, Water Ratio
... The beverage's production evolved into the following final optimization (Figure 1a): 150 g of dried seeds was soaked twice in warm tap water (30-35 • C) and once in cold tap water (15-20 • C) for ca. 16 h [26]. All soaking waters were discarded. ...
Recently, milk consumption has been declining and there is a high demand for non-dairy beverages. However, market offers are mainly cereal and nut-based beverages, which are essentially poor in protein (typically, less than 1.5% against the 3.5% in milk) and are not true milk replacers in that sense. In this work, new beverages from different pulses (i.e., pea, chickpea and lupin) were developed using technologies that enable the incorporation of a high level of seed components, with low or no discharge of by-products. Different processing steps were sequentially tested and discussed for the optimization of the sensorial features and stability of the beverage, considering the current commercial non-dairy beverages trends. The lupin beverage protein contents ranged from 1.8% to 2.4% (w/v) and the chickpea beverage varied between 1.0% and 1.5% (w/v). The “milk” yield obtained for the optimized procedure B was 1221 g/100 g of dry seed and 1247 g/100 g of dry seed, for chickpea beverage and lupin beverage, respectively. Sensory results show that chickpea beverage with cooking water has the best taste. All pulses-based beverages are typical non-Newtonian fluids, similarly to current non-dairy alternative beverages. In this respect, the sprouted chickpea beverage, without the cooking water, presents the most pronounced shear-thinning behavior of all formulations.
... Thus, the soaking temperature(s) and soaking time(s) should be controlled. An analysis of the effect of different soaking temperatures (10, 20, 30, and 40 • C) and soaking times (0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 hr) on soybean characteristics has been done (Pan & Tangratanavalee, 2003). The results showed that, as the temperature increased in the range of 30 to 40 • C, the solid loss of the soybean samples increased significantly. ...
Tofu is a traditional product made mainly from soybeans, which has become globally popular because of its inclusion in vegetarian, vegan, and hypocaloric diets. However, with both commercial production of tofu and scientific research, it remains a challenge to produce tofu with high quality, high nutrition, and excellent flavor. This is because tofu production involves multiple complicated steps, such as soybean selection, utilization of appropriate coagulants, and tofu packaging. To make high‐quality tofu product, it is important to systematically understand critical factors that influence tofu quality. This article reviews the current research status of tofu production. The diversity of soybean seeds (the raw material), protein composition, structural properties, and nutritional values are reviewed. Then, selection of tofu coagulants is reviewed to provide insights on its role in tofu quality, where the focus is on the usage of mix coagulants and recent developments with new coagulants. Moreover, a comprehensive summary is provided on recent development in making high‐fiber tofu using Okara (the major by‐product during tofu production), which has a number of potential applications in the food industry. To help encourage automatic, environmental friendly, and high‐efficient tofu production, new developments and applications in production technology, such as ultrasound and high‐pressure process, are reviewed. Tofu packaging, including packaging materials and techniques, is evaluated as it has been found to have a positive impact on extending the shelf life and improving the quality of tofu products. Finally, the future research directions and potential areas for new developments are discussed.
... Les cinétiques d'absorption d'eau des grains des huit légumineuses locales étudiées sont illustrées à la Figure.3 (Pan et Tangratanavalee, 2003 ;Cunningham et al., 2007 ;Kashiri et al., 2012 ;Yadav and Jindal, 2007 ;Shafaei et al., 2014). (Nicolin et al., 2017 ;Borges et al., 2017). ...
Starches from cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata), Bambara groundnut (Vigna Subterranea), and six variety of common beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris) cultivated in the Far North, Adamaoua and Western regions of Cameroon, were study. We determined the physical properties and the water absorption kinetics of the seeds, isolated the starches and determine their physicochemical properties and finally evaluate their functional properties. The starches were isolated according to the alkaline method. The physical properties (granule shape and size), chemical composition (moisture content, starch and amylose content) and functional properties (solubility index, swelling power, viscosity, gelation and syneresis) of the isolated starches were determined. Important results have been obtained, highlighting interesting physicochemical properties of these starches. Indeed, there are significant differences (p < 0,05) between the physical properties of seeds both between varieties of the same species and between the different seed species used. The proposed Peleg model provided water absorption capacity values approximately equal to those obtained experimentally. The soaking temperature significantly influenced the Peleg kinetic water absorption constants. The purity of the obtained starches was highly satisfactory. However, the extraction yields were relatively low. In addition, the average size of the native granules varied with multiple and irregular shapes. Their values were closed to those of legume starches from other regions in the world. Theirs sizes were approximately twice as larger as that of maize and cassava starches. The legume starches analyzed were higher amylose contain. Temperatures of gelatinization were high. Stacking behavior analysis showed a low peak viscosity demonstrating the resistance of these starches to shear and swelling. The evaluation of the conservation of starch gels studied showed that these starches have a low retrogradation and an average syneresis. The study demonstrated the potential of local legume starches for outstanding successfully bioprocessing. These legume starches have approximately the same characteristics than modified starches.
Keywords: Common bean, Cowpea, Bambara groundnut, starch, physicochemical properties, pasting properties.
This study investigates the effects of soaking method (ultrasound‐assisted soaking (UAS) and conventional soaking (CS)), soaking solutions with varying pH (distilled water (W), citric acid (CA), and sodium bicarbonate (SB)), and soaking times (4, 8, and 12 h) on anti‐nutritional factors (phytic acid (PA) and trypsin inhibitor (TI) contents), moisture absorption, and hardness of chickpeas, beans, and soybeans. Additionally, the study examined changes in soluble solids content (SSC), pH, turbidity, and color of the soaking solutions. While the soaking method and solution significantly (p < 0.05) affected TI content in seeds, they had no notable impact on PA content. The most notable reductions in PA were observed following 12 h of CS: 27.0% in chickpeas and 38.9% in soybeans soaked in water, and 30.5% in beans soaked in sodium bicarbonate. Sodium bicarbonate was more effective than citric acid and water in reducing TI. UAS generally led to greater TI reductions compared to CS, although its effectiveness was reduced in sodium bicarbonate. UAS resulted in higher hydration rates across all solutions. Chickpeas and beans soaked in citric acid for 4 h and soybeans soaked in citric acid for 12 h exhibited the lowest hardness values. UAS notably increased SSC, turbidity, and pH changes in the soaking solutions compared to CS.
Soybean has been recognized as so versatile that can be processed into a wide variety of food products the soybean can be dried and wet processed. Soybean is also a valuable source of edible oil and excellent source of protein useful for both human and animal feeding. Protein is very important and is required for growth, repair of muscles and nutritional balance. The intake of soybean that is gaining acceptability both by the rural and urban dwellers calls for development of de-hulling machine to reduce the drudgery that involved in traditional method of de-hulling the beans. The de-hulling of soybean machine was based on abrasion between the beans and the wall of the de-hulling chamber and between the beans. The machine consists of the inlet hopper, the de-hulling chamber which included the barrel and the auger specially designed to create abrasion on the beans as it is carrying them towards the outlet end, 1HP geared motor with pulley and belt to make up the transmission unit. The overall dimensions of the machine are 460mm x 750mm x 250mm. The machine has de-hulling capacity of 40.00 to 54.55 Kg/hr and efficiency of 87% to 93% with the highest efficiency gotten when 2Kg of the samples were soaked for five hours before dehulling. The output result falls within economic range, therefore it is recommended for small soybeans processors.
Paddy was soaked with up to 30% moisture, and hot water soaking (35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60 °C) was compared to cold soaking (CS) and submerged aerated soaking (SAS) in terms of the parameters of the paddy grain and the effluent. The investigation demonstrated that hot water soaking yielded the highest total solids (TS) (1.946 ± 0.045 g/L), total dissolved solids (TDS) (1.724 ± 0.013 g/L), and electrical conductivity (EC) (2.651 ± 0.039 mS/cm) values. Elevated dissolved oxygen (DO) (3.72 ± 0.04 mg/L) was observed in the hot water soaking (60 °C) due to the reduction of soaking duration of up to 2 h. By contrast, the SAS maintained a nearly neutral pH (7.35 ± 0.01) and lower turbidity (510.0 ± 1.4 NTU) level compared to the hot water soaking process. The leaching rates and moisture absorption were computed using pseudo-second-order leaching kinetics and Peleg model absorption kinetics, and a higher leaching rate (0.081 g/L min) was detected at 60 °C. The SAS produced higher efficiency with less resource consumption and an environmentally advantageous approach by reducing effluent strength and maintaining total solids in paddy grains. The new knowledge created by the comprehensive evaluation CS, SAS, and hot water soaking of paddy parboiling using leaching models and paddy hydration adds new insights to the development of efficient paddy parboiling methods.
Thalipeeth is Maharashtrian ethnic food which is usually consumed during snack with curd or ghee. It is made by combination of pulses and cereals which provide nutritionally balance amount of nutrient and protein. Malting is process which improves the minerals and vitamins such as B 1 , B 2 B 6 , folic acid and vitamin C and reduces anti nutritional factors like phytate, tannins and oxalates. In this study flours of wheat, rice, Bengal gram dhal, black gram dhal sorghum, soybean and ragi (malted) was taken in equal proportion(i.e. 1:1:1:1:1:1:1) , thalipeeth was made with the traditional method and packed in to standy pouches and kept under ambient condition i.e. at 25 °C+/-2 and at frozen condition i.e.-4°C+/-2. The storage study was conducted for 60 days. From the study, it is concluded that the quality of ready to eat thalipeeth at ambient as well as at frozen condition were found to be remained in good condition till the last day of analysis (60 h day) with respect to the quality characteristics like sensory, microbial and proximate parameters. However, the frozen product was highly superior in terms of high moisture retention and other quality parameters as compared to ambient stored sample. There were no significant difference observed during 60 days of storage study and therefore, this can be serving as good RTE product for people and it can be consumed at any time either after heating or as such after opening the packet.
Cookies are one of the most popular bakery products. It is a rich source of protein, fat and carbohydrates but limiting in minerals and dietary fibers. A malted ragi flour cookie is rich in iodine, minerals like iron, calcium, phosphorus, fiber and vitamin contents. It was prepared with per 100gm of malted ragi flour and other minor ingredients added based on sensory trials like Vanaspati oil(50gm), Butter (10gm), Sugar(25gm), cumin(4gm), salt(2gm) etc. we take three trials like T 1, T 2 and T 3 for preparation of malted ragi cookies by using different proportion of flour. From above three trials T 3 was selected according to ten panelist members by using five point hedonic scale. Then we start storage study up to 60 days after interval of 10 days. The values of nutrients were increase significantly while the values of protein content, fat content and sensory score decreases significantly during 60 days of storage at ambient temperature. From above storage study we observe shelf life of malted ragi cookies are 60 days. After storage study the Physicochemical, Microbial and Sensory quality attributes of the product were evaluated. Malted ragi cookies contain Energy (357.00 kcal), Carbohydrate (74.09 gm), Protein(10.40gm), Fat(3.04 gm), Crude fiber(3.05gm).Those cookies beneficial for growing children decrease malnutrition problem, teenagers , pregnant and lactating women due to its high nutritive value.
Global demand for plant proteins is increasing and expected to grow in coming years due to consumer interest in sustainability, health, and animal welfare. Several extraction methods can currently produce high-protein-purity isolates, but these vary in their environmental impact and the functionality of the proteins isolated, although alternative approaches are also emerging. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the protein extraction processes and plant sources studied to date, with particular emphasis on sustainability. Preprocessing steps together with conventional and novel dry, wet, and hybrid protein extraction methods are also considered. Dry and hybrid fractionation methods, as well as novel wet extraction techniques, could potentially reduce the future environmental impact of protein extraction. Further research is needed, however, to optimize and upscale these processes and assess their effect on protein structure, functionality, and the application of protein extracts in food products.
Despite the excellent nutritive potential, millets remained underutilized due to different factors including the presence of anti‐nutritional factors, lack of optimized processing technologies and compromised techno‐functionality of the raw flours. Bioprocessing techniques such as soaking, germination, enzymatic hydrolysis, and fermentation are the natural methods for enhancing the compositional and functional characteristics of the millets. They lead to synthesis and release of components from the wall of polysaccharides and unfolding of proteins due to the action of degrading enzymes that are produced during the bioprocessing of millets. The objective of the present article is to comprehensively review the recent investigations focusing on modulations in the compositional parameters, bio‐ and techno‐functional attributes of millets due to different biological processing treatments. Available literature suggested these treatments caused significant changes in the protein starch matrix, phytochemical constituents, rheological properties, hydration profile, anti‐nutritional factors, in vitro starch and protein digestibility, structural and molecular modification.
About 65% of the global adult population experience some degree of lactose intolerance and experienced adverse effects resulting from the consumption of traditional dairy-based products. The current paradigm shift towards plant protein foods has necessitated the development of vegan alternatives including yogurt. Pulses are rich in protein and are grown in many countries in the world. Consumption of pulse-based yogurt is an innovative way to achieve the health benefits of yogurt. Although several research studies on the feasibility of using pulses as raw materials for yogurt production have been carried out, these products are still commercially available. This chapter discusses the nutritional, microbial, rheological, and sensory qualities of 16 types of pulses (based on FAO classification) and compares them with their dairy counterparts. Currently, heat treated fermented pulse yogurts have been shown to produce acceptable sensory profiles but lack the stability of dairy yogurt.
Soybeans (Glycine max (L) Merr.) are legumes that contain high vegetable protein, fat source, vitamins, and minerals. One of the products is soy milk. Soy milk has a strong beany flavour and a chalky mouthfeel. The flavour of soybeans in soy milk can be reduced by applying the appropriate processing techniques. One of the important steps in processing soybeans into soy milk is to soak soybeans. Studies related to soaking soybeans to soy milk are rarely found. This research was intended to find out the long-lasting influence of soybean to the organoleptic characteristics of soy milk so that the soy milk is produced by its acceptance (good acceptance). A completely randomized design was used with three treatments of soybean soaking long as follows, 6 hours, 12 hours, and 24 hours. The organoleptic data was carried out with ANOVA method at α=5% and followed by DMRT. The results showed that long soaking the soybean only affected the level of taste and overall acceptance of soy milk. In addition, the best soaking time of soybean was 12 hours because it was able to influence the taste level of flavor with the highest acceptance and the most distinct acceptance compared to other treatment with a preferred assessment score and gave the highest value of the favorite level on all parameters.
According to BPOM (2006), soymilk is an emulsion product that is extracted from boiled and ground soybeans with the addition of water. Soymilk is a food product that has several advantages including being cheaper than cow's milk and high nutritional value. The process of making soymilk will affect the quality produced. Soaking soybeans aims to soften the cellular structure of soybeans so that they are easy to grind, provide better dispersion and suspension of soybean solids at the time of extraction and make it easier to peel the soybean skin and result in mold that can ferment soybeans without skin. The research design used was factorial completely randomized design (RALF) with two treatment factors and three replications. The first factor is the immersion temperature (A) consisting of A1 = 30 ° C, A2 = 50 ° C. The second factor is the immersion time (B) consisting of B1 = 9 hours, B2 = 12 hours and B3 = 15 hours. The data obtained were analyzed using the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) statistical test at a 5% level of confidence using version 9 of the SAS (Statistical Analysis System) program. The treatment that had a significant effect was followed by the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) difference test. The laboratory examination results showed that the average value of total dissolved solids of soymilk 10.33-15.67% (SNI TPT min 11.50%); the average pH value of soymilk is 6.03-7.02 (SNI pH 6.5-7.0); and soymilk total protein average value 1.07-1.50% (SNI protein min 1.0%). A1B1 treatment (30 ° C, 9 hours) is the best treatment because it meets SNI standards for soybean juice (pH 7.02; TPT 15.67%; protein 1.27%)
Background and objectives
Soaking is a processing treatment used in different grain. The objective of the present work is to study the water absorption of bulgur (precooked, dried, debranned durum wheat), at various temperatures (35°C, 50°C, 60°C and 65°C) by measuring the moisture content with respect to time. The effect of soaking time and temperature on three dimensions was examined (length: “a (mm)”, crease side width: “b (mm)”; secondary width: “c (mm)”). Weight, volume, sphericity and density of the precooked, dried, debranned wheat kernel were also measured.
Findings
The results indicated higher water absorption capacity at higher temperature. Peleg’s model was successfully used to evaluate water absorption during soaking. Peleg’s model constants were investigated relative to temperature and confirmed a higher absorption capacity of water. Moreover, during soaking, all the dimensions as well as weight and volume percentages increased with time and temperature. The percent change of secondary width “c” was affected by both temperature and time soaked, indicating that it was the most important parameter controlling the deformation and shape of the kernel.
Conclusion
Bulgur kernel had higher water absorption due to the absence of the outer bran layer, which acts as a barrier for water absorption
Significance and novetly
Modelling the water absorption of bulgur during soaking and measuring its size, is important since it help industries to control the soaking operation and further cooking operation and then to optimise industrial process dishes based with bulgur.
Soybean soaking water whey (SWW) is obtained as the waste of soy milk production and mostly represents an environmental problem. The aim of this study was to assess the content of proteins and content and activity of trypsin inhibitors of fresh SWW, obtained during soy milk production. Two zones of Bowman-Birk trypsin inhibitors (BBI) were detected. One was identified as a monomeric form of BBI (0.61-2.93%) and the other one was identified as a polymeric form of BBI (0.45-3.33%). The degree of BBI extraction (1.88-5.49%) was influenced by the soybean genotype and the grain size, i.e. it increased with increasing grain size. Kunitz trypsin inhibitor was not detected. Total proteins were found in traces in SWW (0.03-0.06%). Low residual trypsin inhibitor activity (0.32-0.55%) suggested that SWW can potentially be applied for preparing food or feed. In that case it will not be waste but a cheap functional supplement with BBI as a biologically active component.
In this study, the water absorption and physical characteristics of maize varieties were studied. The physical dimensions determined. Water absorption and the moisture gains of the maize seed during immersion in water were determined at 50,70 and 90C by recording the weight increase of the seed with respect to soaking time. A nonlinear moisture diffusion equations was used to modelling of the water absorption curves of the maize varieties at studied temperatures. Page equation and exponential rise equation were chosen for modeling the water absorption of maize in this study. R2 values ranged between 0.9793-0.9934 for the predictions of Page's equation and between 0.9728-0.9899 for the predictions of exponential rise equation. The values of RMSE ranged 0.0453-0.1291 and the values of and MBE ranged-0.0017 /-0.0071. All these indicators showed that both model made predictions close to perfect fit. However, Page's equation was recommended for representing the water absorption of maize because of its simplicity. Farklı Mısır (Zea mays L.) Çeşitlerinin Nem Alma ve Fiziksel Özelliklerinin Belirlenmesi Öz: Bu çalışmada, mısır çeşitlerinin fiziksel ve nem alma özellikleri incelenmiştir. Fiziksel boyutlar ölçülmüştür. Suya daldırma işlemi 50, 70 ve 90°C'e sıcaklıklarda mısır tohumunun nem alması, tohumun ağırlık artışı kaydedilerek belirlenmiştir. Lineer olmayan nem alma oranları belirlenen sıcaklılar ve her çeşit için ayrı ayrı matematiksel olarak modellenmiştir. Nem alma işlemini modellemek için Page ve Exponential rise eşitlikleri kullanılmıştır. Modelleme işlemi sırasında belirlenen R² değerleri Page eşitliği için 0.9793-0.9934 arasında, Exponential rise eşitliği için 0.9728-0.9899 arasında bulunmuştur. RMSE değerleri 0.0453-0.1291 ve MBE değerleri-0.0017 /-0.0071 arasında değişmektedir. Tüm bu göstergeler her iki modelin de mükemmel uyuma yakın tahminler yaptığını göstermiştir. Bununla birlikte, basitliği nedeniyle mısırın nem alma işlemini en iyi Page eşitliği tahmin etmiştir.
Soaking of soybean seeds is prerequisite for the production of soy foods and it has been shown that the extent of water absorbed during different imbibition conditions directly affects the quality of the subsequent soybean seed products by yet unknown mechanisms. In order to elucidate the molecular changes in soybean seeds during different soaking temperatures, we performed an integrated proteomics and metabolomics analysis of seeds soaked at 4, 25, and 55°C. Proteomics analysis revealed that various enzymes related to carbohydrate and protein hydrolysis were activated in soybean seeds during water soaking at 55°C. Interestingly, results obtained from this integrated proteomics and metabolomics study showed changes in various metabolites, including isoflavones, amino acids, and sugars, that were positively correlated with proteome changes occurring upon soaking at 55°C. Furthermore, soaking of soybean seeds at 55°C resulted in degradation of indigestible anti-nutrients such as raffinose oligosaccharides. Taken together, our results suggest that the seed soaking at high temperature (55°C) increases the nutritional value of soybean seeds by decreasing the contents of some of the common anti-nutrients.
Before their introduction to the Western world, soybeans had been cultivated in China for more than 5000 years. During the course of soybean cultivation, the Chinese had gradually transformed soybeans into various forms of soyfoods, including soymilk, tofu, soy paste, soy sauce, and soy sprouts. This transformation makes soybeans as a food more versatile, more tasteful, and more digestible. Because of their high contents of protein and oil as well as of lysine and essential fatty acids, the traditional soyfoods have nourished Chinese peoples from their creation to the present. They have played an important role in creating Chinese culture and civilization.
The fracture resistance of whole soybeans was measured in terms of average compressive force, deformation, and toughness at seedcoat rupture. Force required to initiate seedcoat rupture decreased as soybean moisture content increased from 8 to 17 percent. Maximum toughness occurred in the 11 to 14 percent moisture range.
Nine varieties of soya beans from two harvest dates were tested at two compression speeds, three orientations and four moisture contents. Force–deformation data during compression were evaluated by elastic parameters identified by a new generalized cubic model that fit all data to a very high coefficient of determination. Increased moisture content resulted in decreased force and toughness at failure. The force to rupture when compressed perpendicular to the cotyledon division was higher than other orientations of compression but there was less deformation. Higher speeds of compression required greater force to rupture but with a lower deformation. Early harvest required less force with greater deformation. Generally, toughness did not appear to be a strong indicator of differences among treatments. Maximum tangent modulus and maximum secant modulus reduced with increase in moisture content and showed excellent separation of values for orientation, speed of compression and harvest date, especially at moisture contents in the range that soya beans will be harvested and handled. Since these values represent the elasticity in the region of compression prior to failure, they may be a better indication of the true ability to resist compression.
Peleg's equation was used to model moisture sorption in soybean, cowpea and peanuts at 2°C, 25°C and 40°C. Peleg K1 varied with temperature while Peleg K2 was not relatively affected. Peleg K2 could be used as a water absorption parameter. The lower the K2 value, the more water was absorbed. Values of K1 and K2 were predicted for each of the cultivars of the legumes studied. There was no significant (P > 0.05) difference in either K1 or K2 value for both the dehulled and undehulled peanuts. Peleg equation with the predicted constants gave fairly good fit for water absorption in the legumes.
Whole soybeans and dehulled soybean cotyledons were soaked in water at ambient temperature for 0, 8 and 12h then cooked in boiling water at atmospheric pressure for up to 6h. In every case there was an initial rapid rate of softening followed by progressively slower softening until, after about 3h, there was little change in firmness. The kinetics of softening of every sample was consistent with the two substrate theory of thermal softening. The firmness ranking in descending order after 15 min cooking was no soak, whole beans > 12h, soak cotyledons > no soak, cotyledons > 8h soak, whole beans > 12h soak, whole beans. This ranking was maintained for the entire cooking period. For whole beans the soaked samples were less firm than the unsoaked samples while for the cotyledons the soaked samples were more firm than the unsoaked. This reversal in behaviour may be caused by the seed coat (skin) retarding the imbibition of water in the whole beans thus delaying the onset of enzyme activity in the bean tissue.
Published sorption curves in the form of moisture vs time relationships of milk powder and rice, exposed to moist atmosphere or soaked In water, were fitted by a two parameter, nonexponential empirical model. The model enabled prediction of moisture contents after long exposure from experimental data obtained in relatively short time, i.e., well before the moisture level appeared to reach a plateau. The model implied that the moisture equilibrium was somewhat higher than that determined on the assumption that the sample reached a constant weight, but there was no conclusive evidence that this was really the case.
Water absorption during soaking of maize, millet and sorghum at 10°C, 30°C and 50°C was studied using Peleg's equation. The equation gave a reasonable fit to experimental data. Peleg constants were obtained for the cereals. The constant K2 was unaffected by temperature of soaking. Temperature dependence of the reciprocal of the Peleg constant K1 was determined using an Arrhenius equation. Activation energy was in the range 13·99–16·23 MJ mol−1 compared to 19·02–19·56 MJ mol−1 obtained for soybean, cowpea and undehulled groundnut. An exponential relationship was proposed to describe the relationship between the rate of absorbed water per unit change in temperature and the activation energy.
Using the ‘G.A.B.’ model to construct sorption isotherms
- Bizot
Bizot, H. (1983). Using the 'G.A.B.' model to construct sorption
isotherms. In R. Jowitt, F. Escher, B. Hallstr.
om, H. F. Th. Meffert,
W. E. L. Spiess, & G. Vos (Eds.), Physical properties of foods
(pp. 43-54). London: Applied Science Publishers.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists Damage resistance of grains
- Washington
- Dc
- W K Bilanski
Washington, DC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Bilanski, W. K. (1966). Damage resistance of grains. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 9, 360–363.
Soaking soybeans before extraction as it affects chemical composition and yield of soymilk
- Lo
Lo, W. Y-L., Steinkraus, K. H., Hand, D. B., Hackler, L. R., &
Wilkens, W. F. (1968). Soaking soybeans before extraction as it
affects chemical composition and yield of soymilk. Food Technology, 22, 1188.
Standardization of soaking conditions for soybean seeds/cotyledons for improved quality of soymilk
- Chopra
Chopra, R., & Prasad, D. N. (1994). Standardization of soaking
conditions for soybean seeds/cotyledons for improved quality of
soymilk. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 64, 405-410.
Generalized model of resistance to strain of cellular material. Paper No. 96-6023
- Z A Henry
- H Zhang
- D Onks
Henry, Z. A., Zhang, H., Onks, D., 1996. Generalized model of
resistance to strain of cellular material. Paper No. 96-6023. St.
Joseph, MI, USA: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
Official methods of analysis
AOAC (1995). Official methods of analysis (16th ed.) (pp. 27-29).
DC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists
- Washington
Washington, DC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists.