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Opportunities for improving Nguni cattle production in the smallholder farming systems of South Africa
Abstract
A total of 218 structured questionnaires were administered to determine the influence of production and socioeconomic factors on Nguni cattle farmers' constraints in the smallholder areas of South Africa. Cattle were mainly used for cash, milk and ceremonies. Cattle herd sizes were higher (P<0.05) in the small-scale (23 +/- 5.2) compared to the communal (9 +/- 3.1) areas and mainly composed of cows. Most (75%) of the cattle owners were adult males and were more involved in herd management than adult females and youths. Shortage of feed and diseases/parasites were ranked by farmers as the most important constraints. The logistic regression model showed that odds ratio estimates of households experiencing cattle feed shortage and disease/parasite challenges were high for rangeland type, production system and gender of the household head. About 40 and 75% of the respondents in the sour and sweet rangelands reported that cattle condition deteriorates during winter, respectively (P<0.05). Tick-borne diseases were the common causes of cattle mortality, especially in summer. Local crossbreds and Nguni were the common cattle breeds in the smallholder areas. African tradition worshippers had higher (P<0.05) Nguni herd sizes (6 +/- 3.2) than Christians (1 +/- 0.5). Breeding season was undefined and mating system was largely uncontrolled in the communal areas. Farmers' socioeconomic and pedo-climatic situations should be considered when planning strategies for cattle development in the smallholder farming systems.
... DALYs are widely used by global disease burden studies [11][12][13] and national burden of disease studies [12,14,15]. Whilst livestock, especially cattle, play an important role in human health and well-being as source of income, meat, milk, draught power, employment and as a measurement of wealth/social status [16], to date, no attempts have been made to adapt these measures in quantifying disease burden in livestock. ...
... To date, there are no standard mathematical methods to measure and assess the impact of ticks and TBDs on livestock, affecting the health and productivity of cattle. The most common methods are statistical, and the acceptable procedure is data collection about a specific disease and then followed by modeling using preferred statistical techniques [16,22]. For example, using such techniques as least squares regressions requires large data sets to obtain realistic conclusions. ...
... We asked livestock owners why they kept animals and what was the impact of ticks and TBDs on cattle with respect to these six parameters. These responses, taken together with other published data [16], enabled us to classify the impact of the diseases. The first question allowed us to determine the purpose of keeping the cattle with reference to our parameters and the second question revealed the impact of ticks and TBDs in each parameter. ...
Background
The study aimed to estimate the burden of ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) among rural cattle-keeping households of the Eastern Cape province of South Africa using Productivity Adjusted Life Years (PALYs). We modified Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY) equations for humans to PALYs to estimate the societal burden of tick-borne animal diseases. Whilst the World Health Organization has indicated the adaptability of DALYs to assess burden of animal diseases, nothing has been done in this regard. This could be due to several reasons including that the assessment of animal disease burden is often less of a priority compared to human diseases, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where resources may be limited. As a result, less funding and attention may be given to developing and implementing PALYs for animal diseases. Furthermore, technical and conceptual challenges may be associated with applying DALYs equations to animal diseases, such as determining appropriate measures of productivity loss for different types and categories of animals and diseases. This motivated our study, which is focused on modelling the burden of ticks and TBDs in cattle (cows, oxen and bulls) reared in resource-poor settings.
Method
We formulated a PALYs approach for cattle populations by adapting the DALYs approach to assess the burden of ticks and TBDs for cattle populations in 20 villages in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. PALYs is a measurement used to assess the burden of disease in cattle populations, quantifying the years of life lost due to premature mortality and disability. It encompasses years of life lost due to premature mortality (YLL) and years lost due to disability (YLD) caused by health conditions. PALYs provide a comprehensive perspective on the effective number of years lost due to disability and premature death in cattle populations. The PALYs model involves several parameters that are examined to understand their impact on the model’s behavior. To illustrate this, we used a structured questionnaire to collect data on parameters that feed into PALY equations. We coded and entered data from questionnaires directly into Statistical Package of Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Version 20) and entered the estimated values of PALY parameters to calculate PALYs equations, which were to estimate the societal disease burden of ticks and TBDs in cattle. PALYs calculations were done in three categories; PALYs without discounting and age weighting, PALYs with only discounting, and PALYs with discounting and age weighting in a practical example to study how these parameters influence the outcomes of the PALYs model.
Results
Our results revealed that the years of productivity lost by a cow, bull, and ox that suffered from ticks and TBDs could be estimated at various disability weights. Approximately 26%, 23% and 35% of the productivity years of a cow, ox and bull, respectively, reared by resource-poor livestock owners are lost due to the burden of ticks and TBDs in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. However, introducing tick control measures reduces the loss to approximately 3%, 2% and 3% of their lifespan productivity, an indication that tick control will save approximately 23%, 21% and 32% of years of the productive life of cows, oxen and bulls, respectively. Therefore, it is evident that using ticks and TBD prevention measures at an early age of cattle will improve cattle productivity and hence the socioeconomic welfare of resource-poor rural farming communities in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa.
Conclusion
The findings generated from the PALYs approach are helpful in projections for the future burden of any livestock disease. They may be used as a basis in policy formulation and decision-making by various stakeholders, and hence a priority in animal health economics. We recommend that a classification of livestock diseases of national economic importance should consider both the societal burden (non-monetary) and economic impact instead of the common practice of only considering the economic (monetary) impact. Adding a societal burden measure to existing economic measures provides a holistic understanding of the impact of a disease on society especially in resource-limited settings where the livestock value goes beyond monetary value.
... The demand for the natural meat by the consumers has increased, leading to an increase of the use of genetic resources which produce meat without any use of the chemicals such as growth promoters and acaricides (Musemwa et al., 2010). Mapiye et al. (2009) andMuchenje et al. (2009) reported that the indigenous cattle breeds such as Nguni, which are mostly found in the harsh environment of communal areas, have the ability to produce beef of a significantly high quality without or with little use of chemicals. As reported by Muchenje et al. (2008a;, the Nguni cattle adapt and produce very well to the poor grazing and heat stress condition. ...
... and 22.5% beneficiaries respectively as shown in Table 3.4. The results of the current study agrees with Mapiye et al. (2009);Hangara et al. (2011) and Ogunkoya (2014), who found that diseases and feed shortage (drought) are the most constraints affect cattle production of smallholder famers. The water shortage was not regarded as the major constraints in all the municipalities. ...
... Diseases were found to be the main constraint which affects cattle production across Nguni beneficiaries. These findings agree with Mapiye et al. (2009);Hangara et al. (2011) and Ogunkoya (2014), who reported diseases as the major constraints for smallholder cattle production. However, 89.2% of beneficiaries received veterinary assistance from the government. ...
... In dairy production, the hyperselection of milk production traits has effectively increased milk production; however, at the expense of other important economic traits such as mastitis such that there exists a positive correlation between mastitis and milk yield for a number of milk breeds (Heringstad et al. 2003;Hinrichs et al. 2005;Govignon-Gion et al. 2016). Furthermore, a study by Mapiye et al. (2009) concluded that the major factors influencing cattle production in the smallholder sector of South Africa are feed shortage and disease/parasites. ...
... It is therefore imperative for these farmers to utilize indigenous breeds given their desirable traits. Much of the farmers in South Africa lack ample resources; hence, breeds such as the Nguni could be used to promote sustainability, alleviate the dire effects of poverty (Mapiye et al. 2009) and increased production costs (Musemwa et al. 2008). On-going interventions by the University of Fort Hare and other agencies provide ample support to communities in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa by providing farmers with two bulls and 10 incalf heifers allowing them to establish a nucleus herd (Fuller 2006;Mapiye et al. 2007). ...
... The Nguni breed is one that exhibits adaptive features in lowinput systems. However, due to crossbreeding with other breeds, the genetic integrity of this breed could be compromised (Mapiye et al. 2009). In this study, the genetic structure of South African Nguni crossbreds was unravelled to assess the genetic architecture and maternal origin of these individuals using the cyt b region. ...
The Nguni cattle breed predominates South Africa and is endowed with traits favourable against environmental stressors such as heat stress and resistance to diseases. Interventions to improve production have led to the erosion of the genetic integrity of local breeds and the introduction of exotic breeds has proved ineffective as they fail to perform well due to different climatic conditions and production systems. In this study, the genetic structure and genetic lineage of Nguni crossbreds from 6 populations were assessed using the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Twelve polymorphic sites were detected resulting in 11 haplotypes with haplotype and nucleotide diversities of 0.550 ± 0.135 and 0.0019 ± 0.0011, respectively. Only 2 of the 6 populations displayed recent population expansion events, whereas the majority adhered to neutral evolution. The basal haplotype contained approximately 60% of the studied populations and there were four unique haplotypes that were revealed. A possible Nguni descript haplotype was uncovered, and this haplotype was found in all populations but was however devoid of individuals from around the world. The genetic structure of the populations was rather low (average pairwise FST = 0.066 and Slatkins FST = 0.094), and approximately 96% of the total genetic variation was accounted for by differences within populations. Phylogenetic analyses supported the clustering of all the samples within the Bos taurus clade and no Bos indicus haplotype was detected. Furthermore, no intermediate haplotype of taurine and indicine was detected. Overall, the maternal lineage of the crossbreds points to a taurine origin and the low genetic diversity depicts the retention of the Nguni genetic pool and possibly its superior adaptive traits.
... In Zimbabwe, livestock contribute 25% to the agricultural GDP and cattle contributes almost half of the 25% (Mutibvu et al. 2012). In addition to meat and milk, communal farmers also depend on cattle for draught power, manure, cash and socio-cultural uses (Mapiye et al. 2009). Zimbabwe's cattle population is estimated to be 5 million, 91% of which are found in semi-arid and semi-humid communal rangelands (Gororo et al. 2017;Nyamushamba et al. 2017). ...
... Generally, cattle production under communal rangelands in Zimbabwe and in the SSA region is constrained by a myriad of challenges including feed and water shortages, drought, parasites and diseases, poor access to extension services, lack of markets, small herd sizes and very low off take (Mapiye et al. 2009(Mapiye et al. , 2018Khapayi and Celliers 2016). These challenges are similar in both semi-arid and sub-humid environments, though there are severity differences (Dzavo et al. 2018). ...
... Household members aged less than 30 years were categorized as young and the rest as old (Zindove and Chimonyo 2015). A similar statistical analysis was used by Mapiye et al. (2009). The logit model fitted predictors, production environment (sub-humid and semiarid environments), herd size and farmers' demographic factors such as gender, age, education level, employment status and residential area. ...
The objective of the study was to examine strategies employed by farmers to mitigate the effects of drought on cattle production in communal rangelands of Zimbabwe. Data were collected from a total of 316 communal cattle farming households selected from semi-arid and sub-humid environments (158 each) using structured questionnaires. Farmers in sub-humid environments mostly resorted to controlled migration in search of pastures during drought whilst those in semi-arid environments mainly supplemented their cattle (P < 0.05). Travelling long distances to centralized water tanks was ranked first as a strategy to counter water shortage in sub-humid environments whilst in semi-arid environments farmers mostly resorted to use of boreholes (P < 0.05). Farmers in sub-humid environments were more than twice more likely to supplement their cattle than those in semi-arid environments (P < 0.05). Crop residues were the main type of feed used to supplement cattle during drought periods (P > 0.05). Mashona cattle were the most preferred breed (P > 0.05). Conformation traits were less preferred in both environments (P < 0.05). It was concluded that communal cattle producers in both environments use dietary supplementation with crop residues and controlled migration in search of pastures and water to mitigate drought effects. Given the shortcomings associated with drought mitigation strategies being used by communal cattle farmers, current findings suggest the need to design and implement sustainable strategies such as breeding cattle for drought resilience and selective supplementary feeding.
... All respondents interviewed owned livestock which comprise of sheep (72%), cattle (16%) and goats (11%) ( Table 2). The finding of Mapiye et al. (2009), reported high number of cattle (µ = 8.7), followed by goats (µ = 5.4) and sheep (µ = 4.7) in the Eastern Cape. However, high number of sheep in Zwartwater was anticipated due to market availability for wool fibre and the sustainability of grazing lands. ...
... In terms of ranking stock-theft was followed by livestock diseases at 25% (frequency: 21) and shortage of feed during winter 13% (frequency: 11). In contradiction, Mapiye et al. (2009) ranked feed shortage as the most critical constraint followed by diseases and parasites. Addressing stock theft demands a coordinated and collaborative approach encompasses communities, traditional leaders, private stakeholders, and government authorities (Clack, 2024). ...
... All respondents interviewed owned livestock which comprise of sheep (72%), cattle (16%) and goats (11%) ( Table 2). The finding of Mapiye et al. (2009), reported high number of cattle (µ = 8.7), followed by goats (µ = 5.4) and sheep (µ = 4.7) in the Eastern Cape. However, high number of sheep in Zwartwater was anticipated due to market availability for wool fibre and the sustainability of grazing lands. ...
... In terms of ranking stock-theft was followed by livestock diseases at 25% (frequency: 21) and shortage of feed during winter 13% (frequency: 11). In contradiction, Mapiye et al. (2009) ranked feed shortage as the most critical constraint followed by diseases and parasites. Addressing stock theft demands a coordinated and collaborative approach encompasses communities, traditional leaders, private stakeholders, and government authorities (Clack, 2024). ...
Socioeconomic research is crucial for assessing a community's current state and guiding its development initiatives. The study aimed at assessing the socioeconomic status of Zwartwater communal farmers in Dordrecht, Emalahleni Local Municipality, Eastern Cape Province. A total of eight-five (85) communal farmers (i.e. livestock owners) were purposively selected and interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires. The results showed that most of respondents were males (54%) compared to females (46%). Additionally, the results revealed that majority of most farmers 53% had reached the primary school (53%) and 46% relied on both government's social support (46%) and livestock sales (42.35%). Livestock comprised sheep (72%), cattle (16%) and goats (11%). Zwartwater farmers kept livestock to generating income through wool fibre sales (44%) and sales of live animals (23%). Zwartwater livestock farmers were practising farming mainly producing wool fibre sales (µ=4.75) and meat consumption (µ = 3.34). Stock theft (55%) and livestock diseases (25%) were the most reported constraints faced by farmers. In conclusion, livestock farming in the Eastern Cape is predominantly male dominated, with females playing a lesser role. Low level of education among farmers may hinder the adoption of new technologies aimed at improving livestock productivity and combating constraints faced by farmers. Addressing these constraints requires robust government policies and creating an enabling environment for agricultural development.
... Under severe drought conditions, where crop residues alone are not enough, farmers may reduce their livestock number to balance feed requirements. These strategies are associated with the socioeconomic challenges of the smallholder livestock sector that render it vulnerable to feed gaps (Lamega et al. 2021;Mapiye et al. 2009;Marandure et al. 2020). ...
... Crops such as maize, pumpkin, groundnut, and cabbage are found in the fields and the straw and stover left at harvest are used for livestock feed. In line with this, Mapiye et al. (2009), explored the cattle keeping system among 218 smallholder farmers in the study province and showed that about 70% of the total farmers used crop residues to cope with the feed shortages during the dry season. The importance of crop residues is further demonstrated in Fig. 19.5 as a farmer collects and stores for use in periods of feed gaps. ...
Rural livestock farmers in the semiarid and arid areas of Southern Africa face large uncertainties due to a high intraseasonal and year-to-year variability in rainfall patterns which affect forage resources. Creating resilient communal livestock farming systems will require the understanding of feed gaps as perceived by livestock farmers as well as an assessment of available feed resources. In this chapter, we estimated the annual feed balance (i.e., forage supply minus forage demand) based on statistical data and described the perception of feed gaps across 122 livestock farmers in Limpopo province, South Africa. In addition, we analyzed available feed and soil resources during the dry season across land use types. We found a negative feed balance, an indication of feed gaps for livestock farms, mainly during the winter and spring seasons. Farmers perceived a combination of factors such as drought, infrastructure, capital, and access to land as the major causes of feed gaps. Furthermore, our analyses of feed and soil resources point to low crude protein (e.g., ~5% in rangeland biomass) and poor soil nutrient contents (e.g., % N < 0.1). To support rural policies and improve the performance of communal livestock systems, there is a need to combine the most appropriate site-specific options in optimizing the feed supply.
... Studies reported several factors that local farmers are faced with include lack of animal food, increased occurrences of ailments and diseases, deprived animal breeding programmes among others (Hesterberg et al., 2007;Mapiye et al., 2009b;Tada et al., 2013a). The afore-mentioned challenges are presumed to contribute to in animal (cattle) numbers, inferior body condition, and productivity; which in turn, hampers their sale in both informal and formal markets. ...
... However, Marandure (2015) believed that, the reduced level of cattle off-take for rural herders is commonly triggered by the several roles of cattle to the households. Mapiye et al. (2009b) pointed out that the several rural herders of South Africa raise cattle solely for sale and quick cash for their household use. Conversely, the same author also reported in their study that, the actual figure of cattle traded during off-take is less in the communal areas of South Africa. ...
Smallholder cattle farming in most developing countries and Africa has been fingered as an area of agriculture that forms a major driver through which the aims of poverty reduction and community development can be
realized. For instance, about twenty-five to thirty percent of cattle farming contributes to the sum aggregate of farm
produce to the South Africa economy yearly. Several prevailing factors have however limited the prospect and sustainability of cattle production among rural farmers who happen to be a major player in cattle production in South Africa.
Such prevalent factors that have been identified to decline cattle productivity include poor animal breeding, lack of
available feed resources, marketing constraints and animal health challenges among others. These limiting constraints
have in turn negatively affected the potential of communal cattle farmers from exploring both the local and global markets. To upsurge farm practices that can be sustainable and the involvement of cattle production to defeat starvation
and financial lack among poor-resourced areas and in the nation at large, there is need by the government and other
vital stakeholders to tackle the prevailing challenges faced by cattle farmers. This can be achieved by adopting workable
initiatives that will promote best farming practices in rural communities with the view of utilizing locally adapted
cattle breeds to boost cattle production.
... In contrast to the commercial sector which is characterized by high levels of productivity and use of sophisticated machinery, the smallholder sector is often allied to a lack of access to adequate market facilities, high labor-intensity with low farm capital investment and little division of labor [14]. Cattle offtake in the smallholder sector is as low as 9% as compared to 30% in the commercial sector [15]. The problems facing smallholder farmers in Africa are complex and range from a lack of institutional support mechanisms to specific farmer related challenges. ...
... The land issue has been at the center of public debate in the past decade, with smallholder farmers incapacitated by a lack of land rights and access to adequate agricultural land [15]. [14], highlighted a lack of investment, poor access to extension, lack of working capital and poor livestock management practices as the major constrains limiting emerging farmers from advancing to commercialized production in Limpopo province of South Africa. ...
The practice of pasture-based livestock farming systems in South Africa is susceptible to climate-related events, low production output, income fluctuation, and by extension poor adaptive capacity. Understanding the importance and gravity of sustainable livestock farming through adaptive capacity has been identified as a tool to cope in the face of the climate-related event which extends to production output. It is to this end, that the study explored the adaptive capacity and the socioeconomic determinants that influence this capacity used by the pasture-based livestock farmers in the study area. Random sampling technique was used to select a sample of 277 pasture-based livestock farmers in the study area from and their responses concerning on demography, farm-based characteristics, production constraints and adaptive capacity were used. Data were analyzed, in which the descriptive statistics, composite scores, and the extended ordered probit model were used to establish the results. The findings revealed the adaptive capacity score of low, moderate, and high to be 40.1%, 43.7%, and 16.2% respectively. Correspondingly, the model estimate revealed the significant factors that affect the adaptive capacity to include: the use of labor (p < 0.05), other sources of income (p < 0.05). Conversely, the age of the farmers (p < 0.05) and landowners (p < 0.01) was found significant but had a negative relationship to adaptive capacity. By implication, the study concluded that there is a need for fruitions of policies that support farmers’ socioeconomic behavior to engage more in adaptive capacity and to improve the Sustainable Development Goals of the united nation as well as vision 2030 of the National Development Plan.
... Generally, data on consumption patterns of meat at individual and household levels in developing countries is seldom collected [57]. Beef consumption within the SADC rural communities has, however, been reported to be low and seasonal [58,59], largely due to the multipurpose nature of cattle [60]. Cattle slaughter usually occur when an animal becomes sick or unproductive, or for exceptional occasions such as ceremonies or hospitality [37,38]. ...
... The majority of the rural farmers would thus forego selling their indigenous cattle through formal market and opt for the informal one where the prices are based on visual appraisal and negotiations [115,116]. In that context, the off-take rates of indigenous cattle from smallholder areas could, thus, be higher than the estimated 5-10% [58,59,117]. Although indigenous cattle owners might get better returns from informal marketing, food safety regulations are not available or often poorly enforced and might compromise the health and well-being of the consumers. ...
Of the 345 million people in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), 30.6% are severely food insecure, 8% malnourished and 50% live with less than US $1 per day, respectively. Livelihood, food and nutrition security have, therefore, become key priorities for the SADC region in response to these complex challenges. Given that 70% of the SADC population directly rely on agriculture for food, nutrition and income, sustained agricultural productivity may play an important role in achieving livelihood, food and nutrition security in the region. Being an important part of the agri-food system of marginalised communities in the region, cattle have great potential to contribute to the goal of reducing food and nutrition insecurity. The region has a population size of about 64 million cattle of which 75% of the population is kept under the smallholder farming systems, and primarily composed of indigenous tropical breeds. Most indigenous cattle breeds are, however, either undergoing rapid genetic dilution or at risk of extinction. At the same time, their environments, production and marketing systems are experiencing high rates of change in time and space. More importantly, indigenous cattle breeds in the region are undervalued. This makes it uncertain that future systems will have the adapted cattle breeds required for optimal livelihoods, food and nutrition security. To this end, the promotion of sustainable use of indigenous cattle for livelihood, food and nutrition security in the SADC region is strongly recommended.
... Smallholder farmers in South Africa are vulnerable to food insecurity and mostly fall under the poor in the social ranks (Altman, Hart & Jacobs, 2009;Thamaga-Chitja & Morojele, 2014). The average monthly income per household is R5615 (Statistics South Africa (StatsSA), 2014) with an average household size of seven members (Mapiye et al, 2009). The role that sheep play to provide food and income is of paramount importance for sustaining the rural livelihood. ...
... Smallholder farmers in contrast do not achieve high lambing and weaning percentages due to a number of constraints. These constraints include obsolete management practices, poor environmental conditions resulting from the overexploitation of resources, unstable feed availability, limitations to grazing rights, the adaptability of the breed(s) used, as well as the number of sheep owned by the individual relative to the resources allocated (Mapiye et al, 2009;Rust, Goosen & Mbatsha, 2015). Grobler (2010) indicated that of the 17 farms benefitting from the LRAD and CASP programmes, only four showed acceptable lamb marketing percentages. ...
The purpose of this study was to determine off-take rates in smallholder sheep farming systems in the Western Cape province of South Africa. A purposeful sampling technique was used where smallholder farmers were selected based on certain criteria. The criterion set out was that farmers must own between five and 100 sheep. Interviews were conducted with 72 smallholder farmers in three districts, namely the West Coast, Karoo and Eden. General information on the socioeconomic status of the farmers was obtained through semi-structured questionnaires. The main sources of income for the Karoo farmers was livestock (46%) and crops for Eden (32%). Farmers in the West Coast area mostly relied on salaries (43%), thus off-farm income. The Karoo district sold a higher average number of lambs per year (41 ± 8.8), with West Coast and Eden selling the same average number of lambs per year at 7 ± 2.2 and 7 ± 2.6 respectively. Overall, the income derived from livestock is low and not economically sustainable. Therefore, different strategies (such as access to market, financial assistance, improved animal nutrition and health management, as well as sound breeding plans) should be employed to assist smallholder livestock farmers to increase off-take rates.
... In response to insufficient forage in their communal grazing areas, some farmers are practising transhumance (Moyo et al. 2013) in Botswana that involves temporary movement of animals to far-flung areas with better rangelands and water sources. Relatedly, many livestock farmers have recalibrated their animal husbandry focus to specialize in indigenous cattle breeds, for example, the Nguni breed in South Africa (Mapiye et al. 2009) and hard MaShona breed in Zimbabwe (Svotwa et al. 2007), both of which are adaptive to the heat and drought conditions of the Southern Africa savannah. Although diversification to small livestock (sheep and goats) is happening in countries that include Namibia (Kuiper and Meadows 2002), Malawi (Bie et al. 2008;Freeman et al. 2008), South Africa (Lehloenya et al. 2007) and Zimbabwe (Phiri et al. 2021), its uptake is not as high as anticipated by climate-smart livestock husbandry enthusiasts. ...
... Feeds shortages and quality [28][29][30] Diseases and parasites [5,25,31] Markets and prices [32,33] Breeds and breeding [34][35][36][37][38] Management [25,39] Water access and quality [23] Extension service [5,23] Capital and other financial resources [40] Fresh leaves are ground and applied to the wound. Fresh leaves are ground and applied to the wound as a powder on the wound [11,42] Gavakava (Aloe spp.) ...
Cattle play a pivotal role especially for the rural farmer by providing milk, draught power, meat and serving as an indication of wealth among other roles. Research and development of cattle production especially in communal areas can be a sustainable way to improve the livelihoods of the rural population. Major constraints to communal cattle production include high prevalence of diseases, limited forage and poor marketing linkages. For reasons that include; lack of veterinary clinics and extension services, high costs of drugs and potency of the ethnoveterinary medicines, many farmers have resorted to the use of their indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) in the management of cattle diseases. Generally, these practices are cheap, locally available, and sustainable especially in times of climate change and variability. One of the challenges in the use of (IKS) is the lack of scientific evidence on their efficacy and the lack of precise dosages, which could lead to toxicity. There is need therefore for documentation, research and scientific validation of IKS to increase their sustainable use and adoption in livestock health management.
... This is similar to our study results, which revealed that feed shortage in the dry season is a major challenge for smallholder dairy production systems in different parts of Kenya (Kashongwe et al., 2017b;Nyokabi et al., 2022) and in South Africa (C. Mapiye et al., 2009;O. Mapiye et al., 2018). ...
... Nguni cattle are a tropically adapted and admixed Sanga-type breed that are indigenous to southern Africa (Scholtz et al., 2011a;Makina et al., 2016). These cattle are also widely used in communal and small holder farming systems on natural grazing where they contribute to the food security of resource-poor farmers in South Africa (Bester et al., 2003;Mapiye et al., 2009;Morokong, 2016). Females of this small-framed breed are often used in crossbreeding systems due to their low maintenance requirements, high fertility, and good mothering ability (Scholtz et al., 2011b). ...
Objectives of this research were to examine differential gene expression profiles of Nguni and Bonsmara cattle fed diets differing in their energy density. The ultimate goal was to improve understanding of the mechanisms that underlie differences between these breeds and the potential interactions of the differences between breeds with the nutritive environment. The experiment was designed as a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of breed and diet (12.5 MJ/kg DM vs. 10.9 MJ/kg DM). The initial feeding trial had 10 bull calves per treatment. However, financial constraints limited RNA sequencing to six animals per treatment and the RNA generated from one animal was of insufficient quality to be useful. Transcripts with false discovery rate P-values <0.05 and fold-changes >2.0 were considered significant. Bonsmara had a faster growth rate, heavier live and carcass weights, and better feed conversion compared to Nguni. However, lower levels of fat were observed in Nguni. Twenty different genes were differentially expressed, with three exhibiting interaction effects and all 20 having differences in transcript abundance between the breeds. A dietary effect was only observed for the one gene and that gene was also subject to an interaction effect with breed. Observed differences in gene expression between Bonsmara and Nguni by several genes affecting the structure or function of the mitochondria imply differences in energy metabolism between the breeds. Interaction effects on the abundance of some gene transcripts indicate the need to consider the diet when evaluating breed differences and conversely, consider breed when evaluating diets.
... Finally, while conducting a survey on livestock production and management in the Republic of South Africa, Mapiye et al. (2009) recommended that nutritional management should be considered as a major factor in the management of pedo-climatic conditions threatening the productivity of indigenous livestock in the country. It could be inferred from the above submissions that nutritional manipulations stand as potential ameliorative strategies for improving animal efficiencies in Africa under climate conditions. ...
Climate change is a global millennial challenge affecting humans in all facets of life. In Africa, livestock production is one of the sectors most affected by climate change because livestock production is extensive, smallholders operated, and low external input operation. The paper gives an insight for sustaining Africa’s livestock production in resilience to climate change. The study obtained secondary meteorological and livestock production data for the continent over forty years, and the data were analysed for the understanding of changes over the years and prediction of future scenario. The result revealed that by the year 2050, the average surface temperature in Africa will rise by 2.2 °C, while the livestock population will continue to grow. The result also indicated that the scenario revealed in the study is an Africa-wide condition, but the West Africa subregion of Africa could be the most vulnerable to the climate change impact of temperature rise. The study also indicated that small ruminant animals including sheep and goats could be more tolerant to the future changing climate scenarios in Africa compared with other livestock because their population keeps increasing over the years despite the climate change threats. Finally, future projections of climate conditions indicated that Africa could be a hub of future livestock production, but climate conditions would affect optimal animal performances and production. Therefore, several strategies to sustain livestock production were suggested as resilient means for adapting to the changing climate conditions.KeywordsAdaptationAfricaAmeliorationClimateHeat stressLivestockResilience
... This dairy sub-sector owns over 40% of the total 1.4 million dairy cattle in the country [4], with most smallholder dairy cattle farms situated in Free State and Limpopo provinces of SA. However, one of the most significant impediments to smallholder dairy cattle productivity in the country is shortage of high-quality feeds [5]. Dairy complete feeds and feed ingredients in SA are prone to contamination from various sources such as environmental pollution and activities by microorganisms, pests, and insects [6,7]. ...
This study investigated 65 (35 in summer and 30 in winter) smallholder dairy cattle feeds from Free State and Limpopo provinces in South Africa from 2018 to 2019 for fungal contamination and assessed the impacts of seasonal variation on fungal contamination levels, isolation frequency, and diversity. Samples were examined for fungal contamination using macro- and microscopic approaches, and their identities were confirmed by molecular means. A total of 217 fungal isolates from 14 genera, including Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium, were recovered from feeds from both seasons. The most prevalent fungal species recovered were A. fumigatus and P. crustosum. Mycological analyses showed that 97% of samples were contaminated with one or more fungal isolates, with the summer fungal mean level (6.1 × 103 to 3.0 × 106 CFU/g) higher than that of feeds sampled during winter (mean level: 1.1 × 103 to 4.1 × 105 CFU/g). Independent sample t-test revealed that the isolation frequencies of the genera Aspergillus and Fusarium were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher in summer than winter, while Penicillium prevalence in both seasons was not statistically (p > 0.05) different. Furthermore, the Shannon–Weiner diversity index (H′) revealed a higher fungal diversity in summer (H′ = 2.8) than in winter (H′ = 2.1). This study on fungal contamination could be used for future fungal control and mycotoxin risk management in South Africa.
... Commercial and communal farming are common practice, where commercial is farming with more head of cattle, better farming equipment and practices and high turnover whereas communal farming involves insufficient resources and the rearing of mostly indigenous breeds of cattle (Malusi, Falowo & Idamokoro, 2021). Communal farming is mostly small-scale and used to meet the needs of the immediate family (Mashoko et al., 2007;Mapiye, et al., 2009). ...
The agricultural sector in South Africa is a major contributor to the gross domestic product with livestock farming being a substantial component. Livestock is purchased at auctions and farmers require all available data sets for animal off-taking. In a previous research study, a data centric framework (DCF) for animal trading decision support was developed for cattle farmers, which could be used to predict the price of cattle at auctions. The DCF included a visualisation component for animal family trees. The implementation of the DCF required that the requirements for the visualisation of cattle family trees be determined for farmers. The Design Science Research Methodology was used to acquire requirements for animal family trees from cattle farmers in South Africa. An online questionnaire was developed showing various information requirements and visualisation options for cattle family trees. The findings show that farmers prefer a cattle family tree visualisation showing three generations, which is different from the one currently being used in auction catalogues. The selected cattle family tree visualisation will be implemented in an online application, combining other catalogue information to assist farmers in their purchase decisions at auctions.
... Smallholder dairy producers in Zimbabwe have also successfully cultivated these species in limited rainfall (<600 mm) areas (Mapiye et al., 2007). Nonetheless, smallholder dairy producers in South Africa and Zimbabwe still point to shortages of quality feed, lack of technical knowledge, and grazing land as leading constraints in milk production (Mapiye et al., 2006(Mapiye et al., , 2009Nkonki-Mandleni et al., 2019). Under some circumstances, reallocating portions of marginal land from maize to forage legumes may be warranted to help overcome some of these milk production constraints. ...
Legume agronomic research in Southern Africa has often focused on integrating legumes into smallholder cereal cropping systems, but there is limited information available on the feasibility and soil health implications of continuous cropping legumes in the region. Continuous legumes may be suitable in areas with large livestock populations where a premium is placed on high-quality forage, or where efforts are underway to reclaim degraded cropland. Our objectives in this study were to (i) evaluate the performance of diverse legumes under continuous cropping and conservation tillage management with no fertility inputs and (ii) assess the response of soil health parameters to continuous legumes in a semi-arid environment. A 4-year study was conducted in Limpopo, South Africa beginning in the 2011–2012 growing season in which 10 legume and fallow treatments were imposed in the same plots for 4 growing seasons. All legumes responded negatively in varying degrees to continuous cropping in terms of biomass and nutrient accumulation. Lablab ( Lablab purpureus L.) was the top-performing legume in the study and accumulated 4.5–13 Mg ha ⁻¹ of biomass and 153–345, 11–34, and 75–286 kg ha ⁻¹ of N, P, and K, respectively. Lablab often outperformed natural fallow, while other legumes generally performed as well as or inferior to natural fallow, depending on species and growing season. Cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata Walp) was especially incompatible with continuous cropping and averaged less than 252 kg ha ⁻¹ and 2.1 Mg ha ⁻¹ of grain and biomass, respectively, from 2012–2013 to 2014–2015. Continuous cropping did not lead to sustained improvements in soil health. By 2014–2015, soil organic matter for all treatments had either declined or resembled baseline values. Rates of potentially mineralizable N in cowpea, lablab, vining mucuna ( Mucuna pruriens var. Utilis ), natural fallow, and bare ground plots fell by 70–96% during the study. There was also evidence for lower recovery of leached K by legumes compared to natural fallow species. In conclusion, legumes, such as lablab, should be considered as continuous forages on marginal land in areas where high-quality forage is in demand, but continuous cropping legumes without fertility inputs are not an effective strategy for improving soil health on degraded cropland in this semi-arid region of Southern Africa. Future research efforts may focus on the grazing strategies and baling frequencies required to optimize annual biomass accumulation of continuous lablab to meet livestock demand and support smallholder livelihoods.
... On the other hand, an estimated 78% of the identified Aloe species generally had low (1À3) citations which is an indication of their limited ethnoveterinary applications and uses. Examples of these leastcited Aloe species included A. africana (Mapiye et al., 2009), A. aageodonta (Bjora et al., 2015, A. cameronii (Mudzengi et al., 2017), A. ...
The high diversity and occurrence of Aloe species in African landscapes often translates to their frequent utilisation for meeting the medicinal needs for human health and well-being. In addition, their value in ethnoveterinary medicine has been intermittently indicated amongst ethnic groups in Africa. This review entails a critical analysis on the ethnoveterinary uses and applications of the genus Aloe in Africa. We explored different scientific databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, Sabinet and Science Direct) to extract information from 123 eligible studies that included research articles (86.2%), dissertations/theses (9.8%), books (2.4%) and reports (1.6%). We generated an inventory of 55 Aloe species with ethnoveterinary applications across 13 African countries. Tanzania (16), South Africa (15), Kenya (14) and Ethiopia (14) had the highest number of Aloe species used for ethnoveterinary purpose. On the basis of the number of citations, A. vera (31), Aloe spp. (29), A. ferox (16) and A. secundiflora (11) were identified as the most common Aloe species with ethnoveterinary applications in Africa. The identified Aloe species were indicated as remedies against nine (9) major disease categories from the analysed literature. In terms of versatility, A. greatheadii had the most diverse applications as they were indicated as remedies for the management of eight (8) disease categories. Likewise, A. ferox, A. marlothii, Aloe spp., A. secundiflora and A. vera had multi-purpose value in ethnoveterinary medicine as they were used against seven (7) diseases/health conditions. The leaves (65.4%) and whole plant (4.7%) of Aloe species were the major plant parts used to prepare the Aloe-based herbal remedies that often targeted cattle (29.3%) and poultry/chickens (28.2%). The remedies were prepared using different methods which mainly entailed infusion (17.7%), juicing (14.2%), crushing (13.8%) and decoction (12.7%). Overall, the current review established the increasing vital role of Aloe species in treatment of animal diseases and general well-being in Africa. However, the apparent gaps (e.g., absence of plant part, diseases, animal-type, preparation and administration methods) existing in some of the assessed literature mean that deliberate efforts remain essential during ethnoveterinary surveys, to ensure the reliability and trustworthiness of the generated data. This will contribute towards the establishment of a holistic inventory/database of Aloe species with ethnoveterinary applications. Subsequent in vitro and in vivo efficacy testing of priority and valuable Aloe species with applications in ethnoveterinary medicine remain pertinent.
... Consequently, in addition to the problem of feed gaps, the available forage does not meet the nutritional demands of cattle in terms of its nutrient mineral content. Moreover, increasing growth of drought-tolerant shrubs during the dry seasons, many of which are avoided by livestock, further reducing the feed value of rangelands (Hitayezu et al., 2017;Mapiye et al., 2009). Even though the dry matter intake is affected by a number of different factors (e.g. ...
The risk of climate-induced feed gaps, i.e. seasonal deficiencies in forage quantity and quality, is a major constraint for livestock in the dry regions of southern Africa. In South Africa particularly, the frequent occurrence of drought is a challenge for livestock farming and, coping strategies to mitigate feed gaps on smallholder farms are urgently needed. We chose the Limpopo province, of northern South Africa to study livestock farmers’ perceptions of the temporal patterns of feed gaps and their perceived impacts on livestock production across different agro-ecological zones (AEZ) and farm types (i.e., livestock only, mixed crop-livestock farms). We combined a semi-structured questionnaire on ninety farms with data from herbage analysis (mineral nutrient concentrations of grasses grazed in winter). Additionally, we explored the effect of seasonal feed availability on feed gaps, expressed as gross primary productivity (GPP), based on long-term simulated vegetation data. We found a close correlation between farmers’ perceived feed gaps and GPP (Pearson’s r = − 0.77, p
... Under these systems in Africa and other developing countries, farmers raise exotic specialized breeds (Bos taurus), which have low resistance to TTBD. Under these circumstances these modern technologies give optimum productivity, but the same cannot be said for poorly resourced smallholder farmers who produce the bulk of cattle on the market in developing countries and whose farms are located in remote and rainfall-marginal areas that may be geographically and logistically less accessible [67]. The road networks are often poor and the areas may not have access to amenities like electricity. ...
Cattle are a livelihood asset to smallholder farmers in Africa yet remain threatened by the effects of ticks and tick-borne diseases during production because they cause morbidity and premature death. The use of indigenous plants in tick control is a worldwide practice spanning thousands of years. Changes in the agricultural and socio-cultural landscape over time have, however, led to neglect of indigenous pesticidal plants in favour of synthetic products. The benefits of synthetic acaricides are well-recognized, but emerging observation indicates that they cannot solve all livestock health problems across production systems, farmer circumstances and agro-ecologies. Concerns associated with commercial acaricides have revived research interest in alternative or complementary remedies. Past research has focused on documenting ethnoveterinary practices, scientific validation of the practices and optimization of these practices. Here, we review the challenges of synthetic acaricides and progress made in ethnoveterinary plant research and development in Africa. The review highlights challenges of access, affordability and availability of commercial acaricides to resource-poor communities; synthetic acaricide resistance development; disposal of obsolete acaricides and environmental pollution; reduced water supply and implications on conventional use of acaricide-treated dipping facilities; and plant bioprospecting and downstream development of products in Africa. This information contributes towards shaping the ethnoveterinary plant research agenda and policy, and investment interventions in Africa. Review Methodology: Information screening was conducted to identify relevant literature and studies, published and unpublished (grey literature), that included either in the title or abstract the terms: 1.
... Overall, majority of the emerging cattle farmers are confronted by various challenges and constraints [4,13]. The challenges are complex and almost similar to those of the smallholder sector in general [17]. For examples, based on [8], currently, cattle off-take in the smallholder sector is far much lower (9%) relative to the commercial sector (30%). ...
Factors such as increases in population, urbanization, growth in per capita income and changes in consumer taste and preferences are causing gradual increases in livestock product consumption and demand. South Africa is addressing this predicted increase in livestock products demand by commercializing smallholder livestock producers. The Limpopo Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) Nguni Cattle Development Project is an example of such effort. The economic performance of these efforts needs to be evaluated. We use gross margin analysis to evaluate the performance of the Limpopo IDC Nguni Cattle Development Project. Additionally, we use regression analysis to identify factors influencing gross margins. Our results indicate that although smallholders show potential to commercialize, they lack commercial farming experience and require that a strong extension support system be used as one of the strategies to improve profitability. We also noted that individual farmers were more profitable than group farmers. Multiple regression analysis shows that three variables could be used to stimulate gross margin among the Limpopo IDC Nguni Cattle Development Project farmers. These are herd size, distance to market and farm size. Since farm size is a given, policy should focus on assisting farmers to build their herds and to have better access to markets.
... performance records and dates of medication application. The results of the current study agree with Mapiye et al. (2009) andHangara et al. (2011), who found that about 85% and 95% of farmers were not keeping records in the communal areas of South Africa and Namibia respectively. All the farmers who were not keeping records reported, however, that they keep the records in their head without writing it down. ...
... Meat is an essential source of nutrients for most people [1]. In developing countries (e.g., Africa and the Middle East) where more than 90% of the world's goat population is found [2], goats are the second most important and abundant ruminant livestock species following cattle [3]. Such importance is due to their ability to graze and browse poor quality forage, survive feed-and water-scarce [4]. ...
To improve goat meat quality in rural communities, it is important to evaluate the effects of indigenous slaughter methods used by resource-limited farmers when performing traditional ceremonies on the meat physico-chemical characteristics. The current study assessed the effects of the meat physico-chemical characteristics of Nguni goats slaughtered with the transverse neck incision (TNI), suprasternal notch piercing (SNP) and the under shoulder blade piercing at the chest floor point of elbow (CFP) to the direction of the heart methods. Thirty Nguni weathers were randomly assigned to three slaughter treatments (10 goats/treatment). Musculus longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) was sampled at post-mortem for physico-chemical characteristic measurements. Meat from wethers slaughtered with the SNP method had greater ultimate pH values than meat from wethers slaughtered with TNI and CFP slaughter methods. Wethers slaughtered with the SNP method had lower meat redness (a*), yellowness (b*), and chroma (C*) values than those slaughtered with TNI and CFP slaughter methods. Goat slaughter method did not affect meat drip loss, water holding capacity, cooking loss and shear force. Overall, Nguni wethers slaughtered with the TNI and CFP methods produced chevon with fresher meat appearance than those slaughtered using the SNP method.
... Mobile pastoralism, which we consider to be the movement of people and their livestock, is practiced all over the world, but more particularly in environments with extreme weather conditions where cultivation is considered risky and frequently prone to failure (Box and Perry 1971;Mapiye et al. 2009). Environmental drivers of mobile pastoralism include extreme temperature fluctuations, usually on a seasonal cycle, and low rainfall, often patchily distributed, associated with high variation between seasons or drought of several months to several years in duration. ...
Legislation and policy are key tools used by governments to change the socio-economic and political landscape of agrarian systems with consequences for mobile pastoralism. This study used the social-ecological systems framework to examine how pastoral mobility in the semi-arid, montane communal rangeland in South Africa adapted to the changing socio-political landscape. It analysed the impact of apartheid and democratic era legislation and policies over the past 70 years. Apartheid legislation promoted betterment planning and the privatisation of communal lands by awarding access to most of the grazing areas to a few wealthier pastoralists. This led to increased stocking densities and further restriction of herd mobility when the majority of herds were restricted to fewer grazing camps. Democratic era land reform policies continue to advocate for the modernisation and sedentarisation of pastoral practices. The persistence of mobility among livestock keepers despite discriminatory policy interventions suggests that this is a particularly resilient and necessary element of their practices. We argue that agricultural legislation and policies regarding livestock farming should promote landscape connectivity to allow mobile pastoralists to access variable resources. Connected landscapes should be viewed as alternative ways to modernising pastoralism and these should prevent elite capture when the land is subdivided.
... The most common (38.4%) major constraint listed by the beneficiaries were diseases such as tick-borne diseases (anaplasmosis and heartwater) which commonly cause death of infected animals, followed by stock theft and feed shortage at 27.5% and 22.5%, respectively (Fig. 1). The results of the current study agrees with Mapiye et al. (2009), Hangara et al. (2011) and Nkonki-Mandleni et al. (2019, who found that diseases and feed shortage (drought) are the highest constraints affecting cattle production of smallholder farmers in South Africa and Namibia. The water shortage was not regarded as a major constraints in all six municipalities. ...
This paper examines the challenges restricting the commercialization of cattle across Nguni Cattle Project beneficiaries in South Africa. Data were collected from one hundred and twenty (120) Nguni cattle beneficiaries using a structured questionnaire across six district municipalities of the Eastern Cape Province. Results revealed that majority of Nguni cattle beneficiaries were males, were above 60 years old, and have received formal training in livestock farming. Most of the beneficiaries reared cattle with other livestock species, with 45% owned non-descript breeds, 33% Nguni and 22% other breeds such as Bonsmara and Brahman. About 79.2% of the beneficiaries practised continuous grazing while 52.5% give their cattle supplements, with most commonly (48%) using rivers as the source of water. Most beneficiaries (38.4%) reported diseases as main production constraints, followed by stock theft (27.5%) and feed shortages (22.5%). Furthermore, results showed that 80.8% of beneficiaries market one to 10 cattle per year, 64.8% adult cattle (2+ years old) and 35.2% weaners (8 months to 1 year). Most beneficiaries (78.7%) used private marketing channels to sell their animals, while 4.3% used abattoirs. Factors identified as the main market constraints included low cattle numbers (41.7%), inability to meet formal market standards (25%) and inadequate government support. There was a strong association between formal livestock training and cattle marketing attributes as well as production constraints. In conclusion, more emphasis should be given to improve cattle production and commercialization through provision of more cattle, livestock trainings and market services to communal farmers.
... Currently, smallholder beef cattle farmers in Southern Africa utilize legume by-products such as oilseed cakes, straws, husks and hulls as protein supplements [2,18]. Overall, these supplements are highly fibrous and have low vitamin and mineral contents [18,19]. ...
Beef production in the smallholder sector of South Africa is constrained by low feed quantity and quality, particularly protein during the dry season. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of replacing Glycine max in a complete finisher beef cattle diet with either Acacia mearnsii leaf meal or Medicago sativa hay on growth performance, carcass traits and meat quality of steers. Thirty-six, 12-months old nondescript crossbred steers (157.9 ± 31.37 kg body weight) were randomly allocated to three dietary treatments (12 animals/treatment), with A. mearnsii and M. sativa replacing G. max (control diet) at 500 g/kg dry matter (DM) of diet. Steers fed the A. mearnsii diet had lower (P ≤ 0.05) DM intake, average daily gain, feed efficiency and carcass weights than those fed G. max and M. sativa diets with no difference found between G. max and M. sativa treatments (P > 0.05). Diet had no influence on any of the measured meat physicochemical traits (P > 0.05). Overall, steers fed the M. sativa and G. max diets had similar growth performance and meat yield, but higher (P ≤ 0.05) than that of steers fed the A. mearnsii diet. Current results suggest that M. sativa is a better alternative protein source to G. max for smallholder beef cattle compared to A. mearnsii.
... In this regard, these aging farmers could adopt new technologies with little resistance. On the other hand, the observed findings that single farmers, who were also the youngest group, had the most years in school was consistent to observation by Mapiye et al. (2009). These results could be explained in terms of the improved access to education since end of the apartheid era in 1994. ...
The need to increase self-sufficiency of rural agricultural systems has been a centre of focus for many extension programs aimed at rural development and improved livelihoods. Numerous biotic, abiotic and socio-economic factors affect maize production for resource poor farmers in the Eastern Cape (EC), which is one of the poorest Provinces in South Africa. Focus group discussions and semi-structured questionnaires were used to identify farmer characteristics, and specific production constraints influencing maize productivity in Jixini and Mkhwezo villages, of O. R. Tambo District in the EC Province. Elderly farmers who are above 56 years dominated the studied farming communities. The predominant varieties used were local landraces (53%) followed by hybrids (31%) and improved open pollinated varieties (OPVs) (11%). Farmers preferred local landraces as they were considered more palatable. Unmarried farmers were the least productive farmer group due to shortages of labour, use of landrace varieties and inadequate fertilizer. The main production constraints faced by farmers, were too much rain, pests and diseases infestation, drought stress due to climate change, and lack of fencing of the out-fields. Increasing the involvement of youths in agricultural activities could improve maize productivity. Maize breeding programs should solicit information on farmer-preferred traits and incorporate them into the improved varieties to enhance their desirability and adoption. Targeting of varieties should be guided by the most common constraints affecting maize productivity in a specific location rather than issuing blanket recommendations. Additionally, agricultural extension programs could improve their service delivery by having good knowledge of target-farmer traits, their farming practices and prevailing constraints. Information in this manuscript can go a long way in improving extension service delivery in the EC Province of the country. Keywords: Maize; Focus Group Discussions; Socio-Economic; Rural Livelihood, Agricultural extension
... These findings are similar to earlier reports in Zimbabwe by Zvinorova et al. (2016)) and in South Africa by Mpofu et al. (2020)) in goats. These results also agreed with Marufu et al. (2008)), Mapiye et al. (2009), andBath et al. (2016)) who reported high loads of gastrointestinal nematodes during the hot-wet season in cattle. Roundworms were common internal parasites affecting goats, more precisely in the hot-wet season. ...
Gastrointestinal nematode infestations remain one of the main constraints to goat productivity. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to investigate the perceptions of goat farmers on the infestation and control of gastrointestinal nematode infestation. A total of 282 goat farmers from two villages of Mbizana local municipality in Alfred Nzo district were interviewed. Higher prevalence of diseases, parasites and feed availability were among the major constraints to goat productivity. Gastrointestinal parasites were ranked as the major constraint by farmers in the grassland than those in the forestland. Ordinal logistic regression analyses revealed that farmers in the grassland were 3.2 times more likely to experience gastrointestinal nematode infestation than those in the forestland (P < 0.05). On both vegetation types, tethered goats were perceived to have higher (P < 0.05) GIN infestation compared with free browsing goats. Poor farmers were 3.1 times more (P < 0.05) likely to experience high GIN infestation compared with less poor farmers. Farmers in the grassland were 2.1 times more likely to control GI nematode infestation than to those in the forestland (P < 0.05). Intervention strategies to control gastrointestinal nematodes should mainly target farmers from the grassland vegetation since they experience higher infestation rates of gastrointestinal nematodes.
... The mean livestock numbers owned by farmers were as follows; 11.6 goats, 4.9 cattle and 2.6 sheep (Table 1). These findings disagreed with the results of Mapiye et al. (2009) who reported 9, cattle and 7, goats; Mngomezulu (2010) also reported 12, cattle and 6, goats in the Eastern Cape. The mean of goats and sheep from this study were similar to those reported by Gwelo (2012), under Bhisho thorn veld vegetation type. ...
The study was conducted in Alice, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The objective of this study was to evaluate farmers' perceptions on the impact of Vachellia karroo encroachment on livestock production and vegetation. Forty farmers (62% females and 38% males) were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires. The results showed that goats and cattle were mainly kept for cash sales and sheep for wool production. Shortage of forage and lack of water points were the main constraints to livestock production, especially during the dry season. Cattle and sheep owners perceived that V. karroo encroachment had a negative impact on grazer production, as it reduces the grazing capacity of the veld. Goat owners viewed V. karroo as an acceptable tree to goats and its abundance favours browsers as compared to grazers. Although farmers have different views concerning the impact of V. karroo encroachment. The mean of livestock composition showed that goats (11.6±1.3) are more favoured by the veld condition compared to cattle (4.9± 1.1) and sheep (2.6±0.7). This study concludes that V. karroo had a negative impact on grazers' production and sheep and cattle owners observed V. karroo encroachment as a form of land degradation. Pastoralists recommended that veld burning and bush clearing can be used to mitigate encroachment.
... This situation may negate the number of livestock available for marketing, resulting in a low market off-take rate. Mapiye et al. (2009) found that the rangeland type was statistically significantly associated with the animal body condition. Inconsis-tent with the researchers' prior expectation, the condition of grazing land was found to be negatively correlated with the cattle market off-take rate. ...
... The majority of rangelands in South Africa are located in the semi-arid interior (Palmer and Ainslie, 2005). The elevated interior has moderate annual rainfall, received mainly in summer, and it is characterized by sour rangelands, while the low-lying dry areas mainly in the western part of the country have sweet grasses (Palmer and Ainslie, 2005;Mapiye et al., 2009). Although the majority of cattle breeds produced in South Africa are exotic, both beef and dairy, they have acclimatized to local conditions (Mapfumo et al., 2018). ...
Production of livestock is important for sustainability of human nutrition and overall livelihoods. Demand for livestock products is increasing due to the growing global human population. Cattle production plays an important role in South Africa's socio-economics and largely benefits from vast rangelands available for grazing. Similarly, cattle and their management are significant emitters of greenhouse gases. Quantification of past cattle emissions in the country is, however, affected by unreliable activity data and emission factors. This study therefore aims to calculate emission factors for methane (CH4) produced by cattle during enteric fermentation and the related historical CH4 carbon emissions. The emission factors are developed for each cattle subcategory and management system. Feeding practices are collated from the survey conducted in 2015 and the literature. Dairy cattle have the highest emission factors, followed by subsistence beef and commercial beef cattle. However, the large population of commercial beef cattle results in the highest total emissions by category whilst dairy cattle are the smallest producers of CH4. Of the total CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation of 0.87 million tonnes in 2018, commercial beef cattle contributed 48% while subsistence beef cattle and dairy cattle accounted for 36% and 17% respectively. Declining population particularly of commercial beef cattle results in a reduction in emissions with time. Trends of implied emission factors and emissions per energy-corrected milk and animal carcass weight for beef cattle show that cattle production efficiencies are improving in South Africa. Despite relatively lower meat prices for beef compared to poultry, poultry consumption in the country is higher than that of beef and is still growing. This pattern will out-market beef consumption and ultimately cause the emissions to decline.
... In Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, Mapiye et al. (2009) found factors such as feed shortages, disease and parasites, poor extension, poor breeding, lack of skills, poor infrastructure, inadequate veterinary services and marketing services. Marketing and policy constraints limit access to and availability of some important technologies and access to inputs, mostly limited by lack of infrastructure (roads, markets) and high transportation costs. ...
The study identified constraints faced in a livestock development programme and their determinants. The study utilised a questionnaire, administered purposively on farmer field days in November, 2017, through a cross sectional survey of KyD scheme participants from KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, with a purposive sample of 164 respondents from 3 locations. The data was analysed through descriptive statistics, Likert scale and binary logistic regression. The results show that the constraints faced include lack of sense of ownership, information, extension commitment and lack of leadership. Furthermore, lack of sense of ownership was determined by access to veterinary services, experience in rearing cattle, land tenure and the decision maker. Determinants of commitment of extension worker constraint were gender of household-head as well as the decision maker, whilst for lack of information were monthly off-farm income, land tenure, decision maker as well as source of income. Conclusions reached include overreliance on scheme services, and complexities in decision making having bearing on the constraints faced in the KyD scheme. The study recommends incorporating indigenous knowledge systems which have tier effect of increasing access to services, farmer’s participation and decision making, also taking advantage of the relationships with extension services to enhance effective information dissemination.
... Faku and Hebinck (2013) also reported that most low-input cattle producers, having been accustomed to non-descript crossbreeds for over 60 years, have grown to appreciate and value some of their qualities, such as, larger frame sizes and carcass yield compared to Nguni cattle (Faku and Hebinck 2013). This is confirmed by numerous studies that reported non-descript crossbreeds as the most common breed kept by low-input cattle producers in South Africa (Mapiye et al. 2009;Nowers, Nobumba, and Welgemoed 2013;Scholtz et al. 2008). Over the time the non-descript crossbreds also developed relative adaptation to the local climate, diseases and parasites, marginal feed resources and management regimes of low-input cattle producers compared to pure exotic breeds (Faku and Hebinck 2013). ...
Efforts to exploit the central roles of cattle to drive agriculture and rural development in low-income countries recorded limited success owing to their narrow focus on modernizing and commercializing low-input cattle farming. Most programs failed to take cognizance of the heterogeneous range of complex relationships between the environmental, economic, social and institutional challenges that limit low-input cattle farming. The current qualitative literature review evaluates the environmental, economic and social sustainability delivery impacts of the leading cattle development programs in the low-input farming sector in South Africa using a holistic systems approach. A mixed method procedure involving stratified sampling was used to allocate local and international-based programs while, purposive sampling was used to select programs with a wider scale of operation. The review then draws on the crosscutting key constraints emerging from the case studies to provide a better grounding for subsequent sustainability sensitive recommendations. Local-based cattle development programs advanced more market-led interventions while, their international-based counterparts had more interventions including, soil and rangeland improvement. The narrow focus by both local and international developmental programs is inadequate to address a wide array of environmental, economic, social, technical and institutional challenges faced by low-input cattle producers in South Africa.
... Despite indigenous cattle adaptation to local climatic and socio-economic environments, diseases and parasites still cause irremediable socio-economic impacts on productivity in the smallholder sector because of inbreeding, loss of indigenous knowledge (IK) among herbalists and the elderly, and limited nutrition [7,72]. The situation is aggravated by the lack of extension and veterinary services, inadequate infrastructure for storage of vaccines and medicine, poor road conditions, with some transport operators either refusing to drive on these roads or charging high prices [73]. ...
Indigenous cattle breeds are the most important livestock species in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region owing to their role in human food, nutrition, income, and social security. Despite the role of these breeds in the household and national economies, they are currently underutilised, their productivity remains low, and populations are faced with extinction. In addition, there are insufficient measures taken to secure their present and future value. The current review highlights strategies for sustainable use of indigenous cattle genetic resources in the region, including the use of novel production and marketing practices, women and youth empowerment, and development of the appropriate capacity building, legislative, and policy structures. At present, the lack of coordination among the different stakeholders still poses a challenge to the implementation of these strategies. To this end, partnerships, collaboration, and stakeholders’ participation are recommended to effectively implement strategies for sustainable use of indigenous cattle breeds.
... Whatever the case may be, such genetic structure defines the Nguni breed and its ecotypes and depicts the retention of genes that confer robustness and fitness. This is imperative as this breed is at risk of losing its adaptive features due to gene introgression as a consequence of crossbreeding with exotic breeds (Khombe 2002;Mapiye et al. 2009). ...
High environmental temperatures are one of the main causes of reduced productivity and reproduction in livestock. In an endeavour to counteract the effects of high temperature, a special class of proteins known as heat shock proteins function to alleviate heat stress in the cells. In this study, two regions (3′- and 5′-UTR) of the heat shock protein 70.1 (HSP70.1) gene were studied in Nguni crossbred cattle. Subsequently, the population genetic structure was elucidated. The 5′-UTR contained the most polymorphisms with 46 and 67 SNPs, while the 3′-UTR contained 7 and 16 SNPs in the Umzimkulu and Port Shepstone populations, respectively. The T64G polymorphism had the greatest frequency of all returned SNPs in the 3′-UTR; it was fixed for the Umzimkulu population (allele frequency = 1.00) and was nearing fixation in the Port Shepstone population (allele frequency = 0.979). In the 5′-UTR, the cytosine insertion at position 1110 was fixed for both populations. These polymorphisms are presumed to play a major role in the high thermotolerance exhibited in Nguni crossbred cattle. Partitioning of genetic variation displayed that the majority of the variation (96%) was within populations, whereas only 4% of the variation was due to population genetic differentiation. A total of 22 haplotypes defined the 5′-UTR while the 3′-UTR contained 4. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that Nguni crossbred cattle in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa are clustered into two genetic groups based on the HSP70.1 gene. The findings of this research will provide future directions on the identification of important SNPs within the HSP70.1 gene in South African indigenous cattle because this is one of the first of such studies.
The genetic background and characteristics of South African smallholder cattle populations remain largely unknown. These cattle exhibit remarkable adaptability to challenging environments with minimal inputs from farmers, making them a valuable genetic resource for sustainable farming. This study aimed to genetically characterize non-descript cattle kept in smallholding systems using singlenucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. A total of 188 non-descript smallholder beef cattle were sampled from seven South African provinces; Eastern Cape (n=27), Free State (n=28), Gauteng (n=13), KwaZulu-Natal (n=29), Limpopo (n=34), North West (n=44) and Northern Cape (n=10). In addition, samples were obtained from Afrikaner (n= 42), Bonsmara (BON; n=46), Boran (n=20), Brahman (n=96), Drakensberger (n= 25), Hereford (n=31), Holstein (HOL; n=29), Nguni (n=59) and Shorthorn (n=35) to serve as reference populations. Quality control of the original SNP data removed less informative animals and SNPs, which resulted in a final data set consisting of 185 animals and 119,392 SNPs. Principal coordinate analysis, ancestry, and genomic diversity statistics revealed moderate to high levels of diversity within smallholder cattle and substantial relationship with commercial beef cattle (i.e. Afrikaner, Bonsmara, Brahman, Drakensberger, Hereford, Holstein and Nguni). In NW province, there was tendency towards greater influence of Bonsmara, whereas in KZN the cattle were more closely related to Holstein. The smallholder populations were shown not to be unique, likely due to indiscriminate hybridization with the commercial breeds. Among the provinces, estimates of observed heterozygosity (HO) ranged from 0.328±0.001 to 0.395±0.001, while expected heterozygosity (HE) ranged from 0.326±0.001 to 0.389±0.000.Inbreeding levels were low, with (mean±standard error) per-province inbreeding coefficients ranging from -0.023±0.009 to 0.133±0.0254. The low FROH (<0.05) across all populations indicate a more diverse population, which is less likely to express deleterious recessive traits. Estimates of the population differentiation fixation index (FST) indicated greater genetic distance between animals from KZN and GP provinces (0.083) and less distance between the animals from EC and Free State provinces ( 0.010), suggesting a closer genetic relationship probably as a result of the proximity of the latter provinces and hence trans-boundary use of bulls.These findings suggest indiscriminate crossbreeding in smallholder cattle within and across the provinces of South Africa.
Herding is the practice of caring for roaming groups of livestock over a large area, and often motivated by factors like theft and avoiding cattle invading neighbour's harvests in communal areas. Most households in the rural areas of Limpopo have livestock that roam freely often causes conflicts with neighbours, and this is mostly where the foreign nationals are hired for the herding jobs. The main objective of this study was to characterise the cattle herding and management practices in semi-arid savanna communal rangelands of Botlokwa area in Limpopo Province. A semi-structured questionnaire targeting herders and livestock owners was used to collect the data. A purposive sample of 90 cattle owners and those with herding experience was considered. Data show that the majority of the cattle owners were males (64,4%). Ninety-four percent of the farmers practised cattle herding, with 67% using the multi-household herding system. Herding was mainly done by non-South Africans, with the highest majority (42.9%) being Zimbabweans, followed by Lesotho nationals at 32.1%, South Africans at 17.9% and the lowest percentage (3.6%) were Botswana and Malawi nationals. A significant number (77%) of herders spent the whole day with the animals grazing the land and had knowledge on the type of grasses available in their areas. Almost all farmers (89%) vaccinated their cattle, with 75% of farmers supplementing their cattle and applying fair breeding practices. Inferences from the data indicate the dominance of males in livestock farming and cattle herding with moderate farming practices applied in Botlokwa.
The ability of dairy and beef cattle to comfortably interact and cope with their environment through physiological, behavioural and psychological systems, defines the state of their welfare. This is largely dependent on providing the cattle with the five universal welfare freedoms (FAWC, Farm Animal Welfare Council Press Statement. December 5th, 1979). A high percentage of sub-Saharan African countries’ population depends on livestock, including cattle, for their livelihoods, hence the necessity to consider how the cattle are kept with regard to their welfare. A high percentage of dairy cattle are kept in smallholder system while the beef cattle are primarily kept in transhumance pastoralist systems. The two systems of keeping cattle in sub-Saharan Africa have, to a greater extent, a negative effect on their welfare and to a lesser extent some positive influences on their welfare. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the factors that affect the welfare of cattle negatively and positively, respectively, in both systems. The description is derived from what is documented in the literature and from personal observation during veterinary practice and social events. The main factors that influence welfare of cattle include diversified substandard zero-grazing unit designs, practices and utility elements in these zero-grazing units, stockperson practices and how they handle cattle, feeding and watering practices, limited resources, lack of knowledge, transhumance pastoralist life style, lack of policy, law and its enforcement, lack of veterinary professionals and practices, improper transportation and slaughter methods, ethnic, religious and cultural beliefs.
It can generally be concluded that there are several multifaceted factors that limit the implementation of good cattle welfare practices in smallholder and pastoralist systems. Education and information on welfare are essential for successful implementation of good animal welfare. Dialogue between advocates of cattle welfare and the communities with acknowledgement of their ethnic, religious and cultural beliefs and practices would be a positive step towards convincing these communities to embrace practices that promote animal welfare and change some of their traditional beliefs that violate animal welfare.
The objective of the study was to describe beef production systems and constraints among subsistence farmers across the Fijian windward–leeward divide. Data were collected from a total of 200 beef cattle owners from windward and leeward locations (100 each) using a structured questionnaire. In both geographical regions, the heads of the households were mostly males and married. Cattle were ranked as the most important species of livestock kept in both leeward and windward areas. In both leeward and windward locations, cattle were mainly kept as a source of income and draught power. Challenges to cattle production differed with the production environment. The major challenges faced by cattle farmers in leeward locations were drought and pasture shortage while farmers in windward locations mainly had theft and disease cases. The odds ratio of Hindu farmers practicing tethering as a grazing method was five times higher than Christian farmers ( p < 0.05). Farmers with medium pieces of land were 14 times more likely to use paddocks for grazing their cattle than those with small pieces of land ( p < 0.05). Farmers in both leeward and windward locations mostly kept non-descript cattle breeds (>60%) and did not control mating. It was concluded that challenges faced by farmers differed with the production environment but feeding and breeding practices were the same across windward and leeward management locations.
Lack of access to agricultural extension and advisory services has been identified as one of the major challenges facing emerging farmers in South Africa. The purpose of this study was to determine the level of access to these services by emerging livestock farmers in uThungulu District Municipality of KwaZulu-Natal. A survey design was used with face-to-face interviews to collect data using a semi-structured questionnaire. A sample of 1 437 was randomly selected from 4 792 emerging livestock farmers in the district. Descriptive statistical analyses were performed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23 software. The results show that more than 90% of emerging livestock farmers in the district had high access to public extension and 14% had access to private extension, in addition. About 32% of the respondents also had access to extension and advisory services from agricultural cooperatives. There was an improvement in access to these services by emerging farmers compared to the past. The involvement of the private sector and cooperatives in rendering extension andadvisory services to emerging livestock farmers shows that various stakeholders are involved in improving emerging livestock farmers in the province.
Tick infestations and tick-borne diseases continue to be the leading causes of loss in livestock and revenue, particularly in developing countries, despite the prevalent use of synthetic acaricides. Research on plants as alternative sources of anti-arthropod agents has received attention from many researchers in the recent past. This interest is mainly motivated by the compelling need to move away from over-reliance on anti-arthropod synthetic chemicals, which have harmful effects on the environment and livestock. While many plants have been shown to possess anti-tick properties, such studies are in the main laboratory-based and thus their effects cannot be accounted for in the natural environments. Furthermore, knowledge on the mechanisms by which plant extracts impact ticks is sparse and not coordinated for ease of reference. The literature explored in this study was collected from indices included in the University of South Africa (UNISA) library database following keyword searches on plant extracts used as tick control methods and reviews. This article provides a consolidation of literature on the anti-tick properties of plant-based material and their prospects for being integrated with current tick control methods.
Anthrax, which is a naturally occurring zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, has been endemic in Western Zambia. This paper estimated the societal burden of anthrax on cattle using Productivity Adjusted Life Years (PALYs) among cattle farmers in the Western Province of Zambia. A quantitative cross-sectional study design was used to collect data from cattle farmers in Mongu, Nalolo and Limulunga districts of Western Zambia. The Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY) model for human populations was modified and adapted to the animal population model, PALYs, to estimate the societal burden of animal diseases. The integral calculator was used to estimate the societal disease burden of anthrax using PALY equations in three categories: PALYs without discounting and age weighting, PALYs with only discounting, and PALYs with discounting and age weighting. The results showed that anthrax affected the quality of life years lived by animals significantly due to years lost due to disability (YLD) and years lost due to premature death (YLL). A cow, bull and ox lost about 34%, 39% and 37% of productivity years of its life span due to anthrax. This shows that a bull lost most years of productivity, seconded by an ox and, lastly, a cow. Anthrax further caused a total loss of 459,280.90 PALYs in the three districts. The quality of life is improved, and productivity losses are reduced to almost 0% for all three types of animals by introducing effective anthrax control measures in the absence of other adverse health conditions. Anthrax negatively affected livestock production due to significant loss of healthy years of life and loss of quality of life. Since bulls lost most of the productivity years of their life span, we argue that transportation, draught power, sells as well, as socio status were the most affected as these are usually performed by the bull, the most productive. Therefore, it is important to minimise the loss of cattle productivity through morbidity and mortality. Different intervention programmes for the same disease can be compared in cost-effective analysis using PALYs as one of the tools. Therefore, the societal burden of diseases should also be applied on top of other existing methods used to assess the impact of diseases on animals to enable policymakers to have a complete and comprehensive picture of the impact.
This study investigated the effect of inputs on the production and
variability of introduced chicken strains. The study applied the
developmental research design, which involves provision of 25 six-week
old chicks to 20 farmers in 12 on-farm testing sites. The study was carried
out in Dodoma, Morogoro and Njombe regions to assess the effects of
agro-ecological differences on production and production variability.
Data used were gathered by using a structured questionnaire, direct
measurement, farmers‘ and extension officers‘ records. A semi log
multivariate regression model according to the Just and Pope Framework
was applied in this study. Results from the mean function revealed that
maize bran, rice bran, sunflower cake, minerals, frequency of medication,
vegetables and house condition had significant effects on production in
the production of both live chickens and eggs. Also, there is production
variability attributable to inputs use and hence exposing farmers to risk.
However, there was an inconsistent effect of input on production
performance variability since some inputs were both variability
increasing and reducing; that is, reducing in production of birds but,
increasing in egg production for the same strain and vice versa.
Therefore, it is likely that the full potential of the introduced strains
requires standardized inputs for reduced variability. It is important to
design strategies that will lead to performance stability. Such strategies
should include the design of trials at farm level to evaluate the input mix
for chicken with minimum effects on output variability.
This study investigated the effect of inputs on the production and variability of introduced chicken strains. The study applied the developmental research design, which involves provision of 25 six-week old chicks to 20 farmers in 12 on-farm testing sites. The study was carried out in Dodoma, Morogoro and Njombe regions to assess the effects of agro-ecological differences on production and production variability. Data used were gathered by using a structured questionnaire, direct measurement, farmers‘ and extension officers‘ records. A semi log multivariate regression model according to the Just and Pope Framework was applied in this study. Results from the mean function revealed that maize bran, rice bran, sunflower cake, minerals, frequency of medication, vegetables and house condition had significant effects on production in the production of both live chickens and eggs. Also, there is production variability attributable to inputs use and hence exposing farmers to risk. However, there was an inconsistent effect of input on production performance variability since some inputs were both variability increasing and reducing; that is, reducing in production of birds but, increasing in egg production for the same strain and vice versa. Therefore, it is likely that the full potential of the introduced strains requires standardized inputs for reduced variability. It is important to design strategies that will lead to performance stability. Such strategies should include the design of trials at farm level to evaluate the input mix for chicken with minimum effects on output variability.
This study address historical legacy of South Africa that has dual economies resembling low and high income beef sectors. Low-income herds are farmed mainly under communal village or land reform farms. The study focused on providing assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) to the low-income sector including finding challenges to its implementation and adoption. The study was conducted in Limpopo, Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces using mixed methods that looked at cows and sectors stakeholders. Data collected and evaluated on cows included breed type, frame size, body condition, age parity, and lactation status. Cows were exposed to ART through synchronisation, oestrus detection, fixed time artificial insemination and pregnancy diagnosis. Qualitative data was collected to study perception of key stakeholders on ART implementation and adoption. Chi-Square Test was computed to determine the association among cow factors. Qualitative data was collected, coded and managed into themes using Nvivo Version 11. Themes that emerged were interpreted using critical social and systems thinking. Conception rate was not independent of provinces (P < 0.05), cow body condition score (BCS) and body frame size. KwaZulu-Natal cows had the highest conception rate at 66% (P < 0.05) than Limpopo (44%) and Mpumalanga (60%) provinces. Cows with a BCS higher than 3.5 had higher conception rate (P < 0.05) than those with BCS of <2.5 and 3. Interestingly, large framed cow size had higher conception rate than medium and small framed (P < 0.05) cows. The study achieved a 100% calf survival rate. Calving rate was influenced by body BCS, province and district (P < 0.05). Calving rate of 58% in Mpumalanga and 54% in KwaZulu-Natal was higher than that recorded in Limpopo at 36% (P < 0.05). Interestingly, cows with BCS of <2.5 had a higher calving rate than those with a higher body condition score of 3 (P < 0.05). Perception study results revealed many factors that could affect the adoption and implementation of ART in the study areas. The high success rate and above average reproductive performance led to North West and KwaZulu-Natal provinces adopting ART as part of their low-income beef sector support.
Fields abandoned to fallow, due to biophysical and socio-economic factors in communal areas of Zimbabwe, are used for livestock grazing. A study was conducted to characterise vegetation from such fields, and assess its grazing suitability across four agroecological regions (AER II – AER V) characterised by annual rainfall ranging from 750 mm to 400 mm, and five categories of fallow age groups (0-5; 6-10; 11-20, > 20 years and normal rangeland). Most fallow fields did not mature into woodlands but remained grasslands with or without sparse shrubs regardless of the period of fallowing and AER because of high stocking rates. There were no variations in palatability, ecological value, diversity, biomass and grazing capacity across fallow age groups. However, significant differences were observed across AERs. The quality of vegetation from fallows in AER II and III was poor but good in AER IV and V. The quantity of vegetation from fallows in AER II was higher than from other AERs. However, all fallow fields from the four AERs had low grazing capacity than expected from literature. We conclude that using fallow fields for uncontrolled grazing is unsustainable. There is need to investigate better management strategies for livestock production in fallow fields.
To assess the effects of farming systems on household maize sufficiency and farmer involvement in off-farm activities, relationships involving maize production, maize retained for household consumption, household maize requirement, time spent on off-farm activities such as gardening, petty trade, and casual work were performed. Data for the study was collected from farmers using structured interviews and key informant interviews. Data was collected from basin conservation agriculture (21 farmers), ripping conservation agriculture (43 farmers), conventional hand hoeing (62 farmers) and conventional ploughing (167) farmers during land preparation (October), weeding (January), harvest (April) and dry season (July) periods. Despite producing enough maize for annual household consumption, 98.4% of conventional hand hoeing farmers, 95.2% of basin conservational farmers, 60.4% of conventional ploughing farmers and 30% of conservational ripping farmers had less maize retained for household consumption than their annual household maize requirement after selling off about 50% of their maize produce. Conventional hand hoeing farmers spent significantly more time on off- farm activities than did basin conservational, conservational ripping and conventional ploughing farmers, especially in July. Conventional hand hoeing farmers also spent a significantly higher amount of time gardening than did basin conservational farmers and conservational ripping farmers. Engagement in petty trade and casual work did not significantly differ among farmers. Diversification of livelihoods by the farmers was reactive and farmers who engaged in farming systems that recorded low maize production had a high involvement in off-farm livelihood activities. Sustainable livelihood diversification should be encouraged as it would result in diversified income sources for farmers and lessen the pressure on maize as a sole important cash crop. Off-farm livelihood diversification could be a viable option for managing risks and shocks associated with food insufficiency among smallholder farmers and contributes to stable food systems as diversified livelihoods are less vulnerable.
Results of screening and evaluation trials of forage legumes for rangeland improvement in Zimbabwe from 1980-2005 are reviewed. Attributes used for selecting legumes and rangeland manage- ment trends are highlighted. Stylosanthes spp., Chamaecrista rotundifolia, Macrotyloma axillare, Desmodium uncinatum, Desmodium intortum, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Lotononis bainesii, Arachis pintoi, Aeschynomene americana and Neonotonia wightii, among others, were rec- ommended for rangeland improvement under the different soil, moisture and grazing man- agement conditions in Zimbabwe. Since 1980, evaluation programs have been aimed at inves- tigating and developing low-input legume-based forage production technologies for the resource- poor farmers in different agro-ecological zones of Zimbabwe. Awareness and adoption of these promising legumes by smallholder and communal farmers were identified as major challenges for rangeland improvement in Zimbabwe. Major constraints in adoption of legume pastures and their possible solutions are reviewed. Innovation, adoption and adaptation of appropriate, target- specific and demand-driven legume-based tech- nologies, in co-operation with farmers and other stakeholders are recommended. Government and other financial agents are urged to support poorly resourced farmers to access the information and technology required to improve rangeland and livestock productivity in Zimbabwe.
This review focuses on challenges and possible interventions to improve the value of Nguni cattle products in the communal areas of South Africa. There is a general lack of adapted genetic material suited to the needs of the resource-poor cattle producers in South Africa. Nguni cattle are well suited to the management levels of communal farmers who require disease resistant multipurpose animals with low-maintenance feed requirements and relatively high-output. Developmental efforts to reintroduce the Nguni breed initiated in most rural areas of South Africa, especially in the Eastern Cape are reviewed. The possibility of selecting Nguni cattle for specific production traits and develop them into single-purpose herds is evaluated. It is recommended that development and research programmes aimed at reintroducing the Nguni breed in the rural areas should take a holistic and participatory approach in improving the value of Nguni cattle products.
The Borana cattle in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya have unique traits that make them suitable for the harsh environment in the lowlands and have long formed a part of their livestock-keepers' cultural identity. However, genetic erosion of this important cattle breed has been occurring at an accelerating rate for the last few decades. Conservation initiatives for the Borana breed are required and in this context, this study provides empirical evidence for the high economic value of the Borana breed and its different subtypes, measured by their distinct attributes. This evaluation, firstly, strengthens conservation justification and provides guidance regarding cost-efficient conservation approaches and, secondly, provides a better understanding of breeding values. The analysis presented is based on a choice model (CM) with 370 local livestock-keepers. The results of the CM indicate that the preferences for some cattle attributes (in particular for cultural traits such as body size and horn conditions) and Borana subtypes vary largely between Kenya and Ethiopia and that high monetary values are placed on adaptive traits, fertility and traction suitability. We further conclude that it is most cost-effective to conserve in-situ the Ethiopian Borana subtype in Ethiopia and the Somali Borana subtype in Kenya.
The multiple benefits from livestock production to rural households are evaluated in Thorndale, a communal area of the Limpopo Province South Africa. Monetary values of livestock products are presented. Values from most previous studies are static (and thus outdated), as a result of conceptual and methodological shifts. The net monetary value of the direct benefits from livestock was estimated as 33 per household/annum. Policy concerns are the provision of adequate market and pricing mechanisms for communal area livestock, tailored savings, investment support, credit schemes, and infrastructure. An appropriate multipurpose benefit production model, other than a commercialised model is suggested for the sector.
The objective of the current study was to compare tick loads, growth and carcass characteristics of dipped and non-dipped Nguni, Bonsmara and Angus steers raised on natural pasture. One hundred 7-month-old castrated weaners were kept at the University of Fort Hare Farm for 12 months. There were 30 weaners each of Angus and Bonsmara, and 40 weaners of the Nguni breed. Half the Bonsmara, Angus and 14 Nguni weaners were dipped every fortnight. The rest were not dipped. Monthly weights and tick counts under the tail, on scrotum, belly, sternum and ears of the steers were recorded. The dipped Nguni steers had lowest (P < 0.05) tick counts, and the non-dipped Angus steers had the highest (P < 0.05) tick counts. There were more ticks (P < 0.05) during the warm wet season than during the cool dry season. Ears had the highest (P < 0.05) tick infestation. Average daily gain (ADG) was similar (P > 0.05) among the three breeds. The non-dipped Bonsmara steers had the heaviest (P < 0.05) carcasses (142 ± 5.4) while the non-dipped Nguni steers had the lightest (P < 0.05) carcasses (111 ± 4.5 kg). The non-dipped Bonsmara had the highest (P < 0.05) eye muscle area (3996 ± 120.8 mm2) while the non-dipped Angus had the smallest (P < 0.05) eye muscle area (3291 ± 210.6 mm2). The non-dipped Bonsmara also had the highest (P < 0.05) dressing percentage (53.8 ± 1.01) while the non-dipped Nguni had the lowest (P < 0.05) dressing percentage (50.3 ± 0.84). The current study has shown that while the non-dipped steers had higher (P < 0.05) tick loads than the dipped steers, their growth and carcass characteristics were similar (P > 0.05). The study has also shown that, despite being a small-framed breed, the Nguni steers had similar (P > 0.05) ADG to the large-framed Bonsmara and Angus steers. Therefore, the Nguni cattle have the potential to produce organic beef. However, a reasonable assessment of organic beef production potential of the Nguni requires an evaluation of its meat quality traits under natural pasture.
Based on fieldwork in Ngxingxolo in 1997-1998, this study highlights some of the key changes that have taken place in the way rural livelihoods have been made in Mooiplaas location, situated 45 km outside the city of East London in the Eastern Cape Province (South Africa). In line with developments elsewhere in Africa, there has been an accelerated shift away from agrarian lifestyles in the rural Eastern Cape, especially since the 1970s. The process of de-agrarianization has occurred more rapidly in South Africa than elsewhere in Africa and can be traced back to the country's early industrialization and the subsequent emergence of the migrant labour system that integrated rural populations into a subcontinental capitalist economy. The working lives of most absent migrants was focused on effecting savings in the city in order to create a rural resource base that could sustain them in retirement. To achieve this men needed women to stay at home in the countryside and work for the 'umzi' (rural homestead). Return migration, regular remittances and immobility of rural women were the key aspects that kept the agrarian economy going in Mooiplaas. In the late 1980s and 1990s the economic and social situation in Mooiplaas changed because of young men and women leaving the village for the city. Without a ready supply of young male and female labour and a serious drought to contend with, the agricultural output of households fell sharply. By the 1990s, pensions and welfare payments had replaced male remittances as the main source of income in Mooiplaas. As the final control of household income increasingly shifted from men to women, there was a shift in household investment from cattle, conceptualized as men's animals, to poultry, which were regarded as women's animals.
Sheep, recognised as one of the important livestock species especially in the semi-arid tropics with high genetic resource potentials, can be exploited through sustainable utilization in order to improve livestock keepers' livelihoods. This study presents the evaluation of the economic values of sheep genetic resources (SGR) in terms of the important non-market traits embedded in sheep and how this information can be utilised to improve livelihoods in semi-arid regions. The results obtained from mixed logit models results derived from stated choice data collected from 157 respondents in the semi-arid Marsabit district of Kenya reveal that disease resistance is the most highly valued trait whose resultant increment results into a welfare improvement of up to KShs.1537. Drought tolerance and fat deposition traits were found to be implicitly valued at KShs.694 and 738 respectively. The results further point out that for livestock stakeholders to effectively improve the livelihoods of poor livestock-keepers, development strategies for improving the management and/or utilisation of SGR in terms of drought tolerance, should not only be tailor made to target regions that are frequently devastated by drought but should also succeed other strategies or efforts that would first lead to the improvement of producers' economic status.
Goats, "the poor man's cow", provide very important genetic resources that can be exploited for continued improvements of the livelihoods of poor livestock keepers in the semi-arid tropics. This study presents the evaluation of the economic values of goat genetic resources (GGRs) in terms of the important non-market traits embedded in goats and how this information can be utilised to improve livelihoods in semi-arid regions. The results obtained from mixed logit models derived from stated choice data collected from 314 respondents in the semi-arid Marsabit district of Kenya reveal that disease resistance is the most highly valued trait whose resultant augmentation results into a welfare improvement of up to KShs.2899. Drought tolerance and milk traits were found to be implicitly valued at KShs.2620 and 1179 respectively. The study further revealed that improvement in milk trait in does, body size and disease resistance traits in bucks, and drought tolerance trait in both does and bucks will collectively improve the producers' welfare hence should be given priority. However, improvement in the reproduction and production ("overall body condition/ meatiness" trait) potential of goats will be worthwhile only if issues concerning access to pasture and water resources are addressed prior and simultaneously.
The study identified the cattle marketing strategies used by small-scale farmers in Kamastone village, Eastern Cape Province. Factors influencing the smallholder farmers' choice of cattle marketing channels were investigated. Based on the findings, the study suggested strategies to improve the marketing of cattle by the small scale farmers. The development of an efficient and sustainable livestock marketing system for the small-scale farmers was identified as one of the main strategy that would improve small scale farmers' access to formal markets. An improved livestock marketing system is likely to increase participation of small scale farmers in commercial agriculture that would mean higher income for them.
The performance of Nguni, Afrikander and Bonsmara cattle during the 1989-92 drought period in the North West Province of South Africa was compared. Results for the Nguni, Afrikander and Bonsmara respectively were as follows: birth mass - 30.3, 30.2, 31.1 kg; 200-day mass - 135.6, 173.6, 150.6 kg; first calving interval - 474, 441, 685 d; second calving interval - 454, 382, 445 d; calving percentage - 87, 69, 70 %. Birth mass and 200-day mass within breed was affected by sire (p < 0.01). It was concluded that the breeds performed well under drought conditions but performance could be improved by genetic means.
(South African Journal of Animal Science, 2000, 30(1): 33)
A review based on recent research is presented on the production of Sanga (Nguni) cattle in South and South West Africa. The high calving rate of Sanga cattle (89,6%) compared to an average of 77,4% of four other breeds was the most outstanding feature. Nguni heifers reached puberty much earlier (349,9 days) than Bonsmara (419,0 days) and Drakensberger (407,2 days) breeds. Low calving losses were evident even with an early mating system (12 months). Indigenous cattle breeds are more tick resistant and may possibly be more efficient in production than exotic breeds. Evaluation of indigenous breeds in crossbreeding systems owing to their outstanding maternal performance is recommended. 'n Oorsig gebaseer op die jongste navorsing oor produksie van Sanga(Nguni)-beeste in Suid-en Suidwes-Afrika word aangebied. Die hoe kalfpersentasie van 89,6% vir Sanga-beeste teenoor'n gemiddeld van 77,4% vir vier ander rasse was die mees uitstaande kenmerk. Nguni-verse het puberteit heelwat vroeer (349,9 dae) as Bonsmara-(419,0 dae) en Drakensbergerverse (407,2 dae) bereik. Lae kalfmortaliteit selfs met 'n vroee paringstelsel (12 maande) is aangetoon. Inheemse beesrasse is meer bosluisweerstandbiedend en kan selfs meer doeltreffend in produksie as eksotiese beesrasse wees. Die evaluering van inheemse rasse in kruisteeltstelsels as gevolg van hulle besondere maternale prestasies word aanbeveel.
A field and literature survey was conducted to determine the status of cattle genetic resources of sub-Saharan Africa and to identify cattle breeds at risk and those which may have become extinct over the last century. This paper - in two parts - summarises preliminary results of the survey. The survey revealed that sub-Saharan Africa is home to a total of 145 cattle breeds/strains comprising two taurine Longhorns, 15 taurine Shorthorns, 75 zebu (Bos indicus), 30 sanga, eight zenga (zebu-sanga), nine breeds derived from interbreeding of indigenous breeds/strains located in close proximity to each other, and six systematically created composite breeds. Out of the 145 breeds identified from the survey, 47 (about 32%) were considered to be at risk of extinction. Risk categories used were: Critical (most severe), Endangered, Vulnerable, and Rare (least severe). Of the breeds identified to be at risk of extinction, six were in the “Rare”category, 10 were “Vulnerable” another 10 were “Endangered”and 15 were in the “Critical”category. A total of 22 breeds (about 13%) previously recognised in the continent have become extinct in the last century. This number excludes some populations which have lost their individual identity due to admixtures involving two or more originally distinct breeds.
Grazing strategies found in communal areas are a result of interactions between social, ecological and institutional factors. To understand the processes in operation, and help in improving management, the perceptions of communal people on institutional structures, utilisation patterns and possible intervention for improving their grazing lands were studied. A more comprehensive understanding of communal rangeland grazing strategies is important as the mere transplanting of large-scale commercial farming management strategies would be met with viability and acceptability constraints. In addition to participatory rural appraisals, a questionnaire-based survey was conducted among a sample of 553 households in Amathole, Chris Hani and Ukhahlamba districts of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. Although the need for fences and paddocks was highlighted as the best intervention to improve range management in communal areas, lack of strong local-level institutions, little or no knowledge of veld management, absence of rules and lack of seasonal restrictions on rangeland resource use are additional constraints that would minimise the impact of fencing. It is concluded that communal range management remains complex and there is a need to consider socioeconomic and ecological factors, as well as institutional factors, in any planned grazing management intervention. Strengthening of local-level institutions and helping in ways to effectively utilise stockposts and abandoned fields will improve the management of communal rangelands.
The paper provides a summary of three studies conducted in the eastern Free State of South Africa between 1998 and 2000. In a questionnaire-based study approximately 21% of interviewed resource-poor farmers (n = 150) indicated that they experienced problems with ticks and tick-borne diseases. About 56% of farmers indicated that tick-related problems were most severe in summer, while 32% indicated that the most problems were encountered in winter. About 12% indicated that the tick problems were experienced throughout the year. Farmers also indicated that the highest tick burdens were experienced between spring and early winter. The principal ticks infesting cattle (n = 30) were found to be Boophilus decoloratus (53.1%). Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi (44.7%), Rhipicephalus follis (1.0%), Rhipicephalus gertrudae (0.7%) and Rhipicephalus warburtoni (0.4%). On small stock (n = 188), R. evertsi evertsi (68%) and B. decoloratus (32%) were recorded as the main ticks in the study area. A sero-epidemiological survey of cattle (n = 386) showed that 94% of cattle were seropositive for Babesia bigentina by IFAT, while 87% were sero-positive for Anaplasma by indirect ELISA. All the animals were sero-negative for Babesia bovis and this is probably because the tick vector, Boophilus microplus, is not present in the study area. All sheep and goats were sero-positive for Theileria species by IFAT while 85% of sheep and 100% of goats tested positive for Anaplasma species by competition inhibition ELISA. The high incidence of positive serological results for B. bigemina and Anaplasma in cattle, and Theileria and Anaplasma in sheep and goats and the absence of clinical cases would indicate that this area is endemically stable for these diseases.
A stratified random sample, cross-sectional survey of 1755 households in the Kenya highlands was conducted between June 1996 and April 1998 to evaluate the rationale underlying smallholders’ breeding decisions. Additional data were collected in a follow-up survey of 50 households sub-sampled from the main survey sample. Cattle-keeping households were 987, of which 62% kept Friesian (FR) and Ayrshire (AY), 22% kept East African Zebu, Boran and Sahiwal (ZB) cattle and 16% kept Guernsey and Jersey (GJ) breeds. Farmers keeping ZB and GJ ranked producing milk for family consumption the most important reason for keeping cattle, whereas those keeping FR and AY ranked producing milk for cash income most highly. Farmers’ relative preference for GJ, AY and FR for high milk yield over hardiness was respectively 3.46, 7.58 and 17.63 times more when compared with preference for ZB. Additional attributes rated highly in the Bos taurus breeds were high butterfat yields, heavier bodyweight, unselective feeding behaviour in zero-grazing systems, hardiness and disease resistance in semi-zero- and free-grazing systems and high market value. Breeding practices tended to favour the use of dairy breeds of larger body size, particularly Friesian, which is inconsistent with technical recommendations that favour the use of the smaller dairy cattle breeds. These findings suggest that multiple objectives, including the need for more milk, adaptability to local feed conditions and diseases, and the provision of non-market production such as manure, insurance and financing roles of cattle, underlie smallholders’ breeding decisions in the Kenya highlands.
The presence of cattle in the Amazon region is controversial in terms of their ecological suitability and profitability compared with crops. Nevertheless, they are widely distributed in the study area in north-eastern Pará and, contrary to the common image of cattle on large ranches, a high proportion of them are kept on smallholder farms. To explain their presence, cattle are assumed to have benefits beyond physical production, such as complementing resource use or representing capital. To test this hypothesis, the costs and benefits of the three main agricultural activities, cattle, cassava and black pepper production, in terms of land, labour and capital productivity, were recorded in 37 small farms over a period of 15 months. To provide a longer perspective, benefits and costs of these activities were calculated for their assumed lifetime, which in the case of cattle, assumed a stable herd, derived from a deterministic herd model. The resultant values for land, labour and capital productivity of cattle were much lower than the values derived from direct observations during the study period, and were not as high as those for cassava and black pepper. Furthermore, the analysis of resource use in the farms showed that cattle production was not usually integrated with cropping activities, did not improve the use of available labour, and competed for land. Therefore, there had to be a reason for keeping cattle beyond their physical productivity. It was deduced to be their functional quality. Cattle could be disposed of quickly and easily at any time, in order to acquire large sums of cash or the equivalent in kind. The liquidity derived from keeping living stock was not matched by other agricultural activities or by the financial market. Hence, cattle turned out to be the best instrument of finance for the smallholder. Farmers were not interested in the continuous development of their herds, or sustainable production practices, and favoured low input management. Consequently, development plans relying on long-term, continuous commitments to pasture and cattle management are inappropriate. Instead, research and extension work should focus on simple, flexible and low-cost improvements to cattle keeping on crop-livestock smallholder farms, until credit programmes are available that replace the financing function of cattle.
The current study compared meat quality of Nguni, Bonsmara and Angus steers raised on natural pasture. Fifteen seven-month-old weaners of each breed were kept at the University of Fort Hare Farm for 12 months till slaughter. Monthly weights of the steers were recorded. Carcasses were electrically stimulated. The m. longissimus thoracis et lumborum was sampled for the measurement of meat colour, pH, drip loss, sarcomere length, myofibrillar fragmentation length and Warner Bratzler (WB) shear force. The Nguni had the highest (P<0.05) average daily gain. Bonsmara and Angus steers had higher (P<0.05) carcass weight and dressing percentage than the Nguni steers. Meat quality characteristics were similar among all the breeds except that Nguni meat was darker (L(∗)) (P<0.05) than meat from the other two breeds. The respective L(∗) values for Nguni, Bonsmara and Angus steers were 36.5, 38.6 and 39.9. There were significant (P<0.05) correlations among some meat quality traits. There were significant (P<0.05) correlations between WB values of meat aged for 2 and 21 days in Nguni and Bonsmara, but not in Angus. Meat quality from Nguni compares favourably with that from established breeds, when raised on natural pasture.
This overview focuses on the interaction between nutritional status and gastrointestinal nematode infection in ruminants and considers: (i) the influence of the parasite on host metabolism; and (ii) the effect of host nutrition on the establishment and survival of parasite populations, the development of the host-immune response and the pathophysiology of infection. Gastrointestinal nematodes reduce voluntary feed intake and efficiency of feed utilisation, a key feature being an increased endogenous loss of protein into the gastrointestinal tract. Overall there is movement of protein from productive processes into repair of the gastrointestinal tract, synthesis of plasma proteins and mucoprotein production. Although reduction in feed intake is a major factor contributing to the reduced performance of parasitised ruminants, the underlying mechanisms of the anorexia are poorly understood. Supplementation of the diet with additional protein does not appear to affect initial establishment of nematode infections but the pathophysiological consequences are generally more severe on lower planes of protein nutrition. The main effect of protein supplementation is to increase the rate of acquisition of immunity and increase resistance to reinfection and this has been associated with an enhanced cellular immune response in the gastrointestinal mucosa. The unresponsiveness of the young lamb can be improved by dietary protein supplementation. Recent trials have shown that growing sheep offered a free choice between a low and a high protein ration are able to modify their diet selection in order to alleviate the increase in protein requirements which result from gastrointestinal nematode infection. Studies on the influence of nutrition on the expression of genotype have shown that the benefits of a superior genotype are not lost on a low protein diet whereas a high protein diet can partially emeliorate the disadvantages of an inferior genotype. In addition to dietary protein both macro-minerals and trace elements can influence the host-parasite relationship.
In an effort to improve productivity and profits, many farmers have replaced traditional livestock breeds with higher yielding alternatives. While such changes may bring about short-term economic gains, the loss of traditional livestock breeds could result in the loss of an important genetic resource as a variety of important genetic traits adapted to local conditions gradually become less common in the population. This is a particular problem in Africa, where livestock make a substantial contribution to human livelihoods. Using the example of cattle in Kenya's pastoral livestock markets this study uses a choice experiment approach to investigate buyers' preferences for indigenous breeds such as the Maasai Zebu. The analysis employs a latent class approach to characterize heterogeneity in valuations both within and across respondents buying cattle for breeding, slaughter, or resale. The results show that there are at least three classes of buyers with distinct preferences for cattle traits and that most buyers favor exotic rather than indigenous breeds. Such preferences have implications for the conservation of indigenous cattle in Kenya and in other developing countries and suggest that some form of intervention may be required to ensure the preservation of this important animal genetic resource. Copyright 2008 International Association of Agricultural Economists.
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