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Backlash Effects for Disconfirming Gender Stereotypes in Organizations
Abstract
Backlash effects are defined as social and economic reprisals for behaving counterstereotypically (Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 629–645). The present chapter outlines an impression-management dilemma that women face and describes the literature on backlash effects in organizations. Because women are perceived to be less competent, ambitious, and competitive (i.e., less agentic) than men, they may be overlooked for leadership positions unless they present themselves as atypical women. However, the prescriptive nature of gender stereotypes can result in negative reactions to female agency and authority (i.e., backlash). This dilemma has serious consequences for gender parity, as it undermines women at every stage of their careers. It also has consequences for organizations, as it likely contributes to female managers’ higher rates of job disaffection and turnover, relative to male counterparts. In addition to specifying the consequences of backlash for women and organizations, we consider potential moderators of backlash effects and the role that backlash plays in maintaining cultural stereotypes. Finally, we outline potential avenues for future research.
... In contrast, compassion, caring, trustworthiness, and sensitivity are considered stereotypically feminine traits which are, in general, deemed less relevant for executives (e.g. Eagly & Karau, 2002;Rudman & Phelan, 2008). Thus, men are held to provide a better fit to executive positions than women (e.g. ...
... Role congruity theory suggests that the executive gender pay gap is driven by the perceived discrepancy between the masculine qualities thought necessary to perform executive tasks and the stereotypical perceptions of women's traits (Eagly et al., 2012;Rudman & Phelan, 2008). We seek to refine this notion. ...
... human resource management, communication) (Barbulescu & Bidwell, 2013;Kanter, 1977;Kraus & Yonay, 2000;Stojmenovska et al., 2021). At the same time, men are not viewed as 'insufficiently feminine' for executive functions which are perceived to also require stereotypically feminine qualities (Eagly et al., 1992;Rudman & Phelan, 2008). Therefore, discrimination against women when hiring and self-selection of female executives reduce the supply of top management labor for highly masculine executive functions as compared to less masculine executive functions. ...
... To do so, we build on the extant literature on gender roles at the workplace and their impact on employee behaviours (Heilman, 2012). Specifically, we draw on social role (Eagly, 1987;Eagly & Wood, 2012) and backlash (Rudman & Phelan, 2008) theories to describe the theoretical rationale for why women and men may differ in the frequency of their knowledge hiding at work and in their approaches to do so. Next, we build on congruity theories (Eagly & Karau, 2002;Heilman, 1983) to theorize what contextual factors might influence these gender differences in knowledge hiding. ...
... Our research makes several contributions to the literatures on knowledge hiding, on knowledge management more broadly and on role congruity. First, we theorize about gendered aspects of knowledge hiding at work by extending the application of the theories that explain gender effects at the workplace (Eagly, 1987;Eagly & Karau, 2002;Heilman, 1983;Rudman & Phelan, 2008) to this field. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to focus on the role of gender in knowledge hiding. ...
... To advance our knowledge on the effect of gender on knowledge hiding, we build on the abundant literature on gender stereotypes and their effects in the workplace (Eagly, 1987;Eagly & Karau, 2002;Heilman, 1983Heilman, , 2012Rudman & Phelan, 2008). Specifically, we build on social role theory (Eagly, 1987), backlash theory (Rudman & Phelan, 2008), and role congruity theories (Eagly & Karau, 2002;Heilman, 1983). ...
Knowledge hiding – intentionally concealing knowledge from a colleague who requested it – is often damaging for individuals and organizations. Amongst the factors explaining knowledge hiding, one has been overlooked, despite being an important lens for understanding employee behaviours: gender. In this article, we investigate its relevance by examining whether and how gender shapes two complementary aspects of knowledge hiding behaviour: frequency of hiding, and the approaches that knowledge hiders employ to do so. Building on extant literature about gender roles at the workplace, we suggest that the social roles into which women and men are socialized, and the sanctions they face if they behave incongruently with these roles affect both aspects of knowledge hiding. We explore these ideas in a multi‐wave study of full‐time employees based in the United Kingdom ( n = 449). Our findings suggest that men hide their knowledge from colleagues more frequently. In addition, both women and men hide knowledge in a way that is congruent with the expectations of others regarding their social role: that is, women use evasive hiding and playing dumb more than men, while men use rationalized hiding more than women. A male‐dominated context reduces these differences between genders.
... However, higher confirmatory standards are required for women than men (Biernat and Fuegen, 2001). Moreover, backlash effects (Rudman and Glick, 2001) may emerge as women who display competence attributes (e.g., demonstrating self-assertion and achievement orientation) can represent a violation of gender prescriptions and produce social disapproval and negativity, leading to a decreased likelihood of being hired (Cortina et al., 2021) and lower promotion opportunities (Rudman and Phelan, 2008). ...
... Besides the measures based on time reaction, it has been proved that participants' responses are susceptible to the influence of the priming procedure (e.g., Gawronski and Bodenhausen, 2006). For instance, Rudman and Phelan (2008) investigated the priming effects on women's leadership self-concept. The procedure consisted of two prime conditions: the traditional one depicted men as occupying traditional roles (e.g., Stanford business professor, business executive), while the non-traditional priming provided opposite associations of women with traditional male roles. ...
Research has widely explained gender inequalities in terms of gender stereotypes, according to which women are considered more nurturing, empathic, and emotional but less competent – than men. Recent evidence highlights that especially women are portrayed along multiple dimensions. In this research, we adopted an implicit Semantic Misattribution procedure to detect whether gender stereotypes have a multidimensional structure and are differently attributed to men and women. Results showed that Competence and Dominance-related terms were considered more masculine ones. In contrast, Morality and Physical Attractiveness were attributed to feminine ideograms to a higher and significant extent than masculine ones. Sociability was related to feminine and masculine ideograms almost to the same extent. The gathered evidence provided a multidimensional picture even composed of more judgment dimensions with reference to women highlighting how it can be difficult for them to meet all those multiple expectancies.
... We have argued earlier that the relevance of work-life practices is assessed with regard to how one construes work and care roles, and work-life needs. Gender norms consist of rolespecific expectations that produce pressures to behave in a way consistent with the prototypical masculine and feminine roles present in society (Eagly & Wood, 2012;Rudman & Phelan, 2008). ...
... They may be explicit, as in the case of a supervisor assuming that an expecting mother will take parental leave (Van Doorne-Huiskes, den Dulk, & Peper, 2005), or implicit and largely unconscious (Rudman & Phelan, 2008). Societies vary in the degree to which they assign work roles primarily to men and family roles primarily to women, that is low gender equality, or view the genders as equally able to fulfill work and family roles, that is high gender equality (Emrich, Denmark, & Den Hartog, 2004). ...
Although employees increasingly need support to reconcile work and family, many lack a thorough knowledge of work-life practices such as flexible work arrangements, leaves, and dependent care programs, or they hesitate to use them. Building on social network and social contagion research, this paper argues that employees assess work-life practices not in isolation but through relational processes of social priming, social influence, and social comparison. I delineate six dimensions along which employees assess work-life practices–visibility, relevance, employer's motivations, instrumentality, fairness, and relative generosity–and analyze social contagion processes in networks of strong and weak ties, expressive and instrumental ties, within and outside the organization. I then examine how the national context may intervene in these processes by making the information that flows across ties more or less gender normative and by setting employees’ expectations for employer work-life support.
... We have argued earlier that the relevance of work-life practices is assessed with regard to how one construes work and care roles, and work-life needs. Gender norms consist of rolespecific expectations that produce pressures to behave in a way consistent with the prototypical masculine and feminine roles present in society (Eagly & Wood, 2012;Rudman & Phelan, 2008). ...
... They may be explicit, as in the case of a supervisor assuming that an expecting mother will take parental leave (Van Doorne-Huiskes, den Dulk, & Peper, 2005), or implicit and largely unconscious (Rudman & Phelan, 2008). Societies vary in the degree to which they assign work roles primarily to men and family roles primarily to women, that is low gender equality, or view the genders as equally able to fulfill work and family roles, that is high gender equality (Emrich, Denmark, & Den Hartog, 2004). ...
From its headquarters in Montreal (Quebec, Canada), La Vie en Rose sells lingerie, swimwear and sleepwear in over 275 boutiques in 18 countries. The company has followed a growth strategy since its acquisition by François Roberge in 1996. This case study describes the international Human Resources Management (HRM) challenges raised by its expansion. It examines HRM in Canada and in the province of Quebec. It describes the operating modes of the fashion industry. Building on this information, the second part of this case study presents a series of five challenges created by the firm’s growth. Students are asked to develop international HRM solutions for each of these challenges.
... We predicted that a woman will evoke a more negative response for violating the motherhood role than for violating other gender-based expectations like working in a counterstereotypical field (Study 1), in a high-power position (Study 2) or being gay (Study 3). We chose these specific domains for comparison to the motherhood-norm violation because these are the most reported in the field of bias and prejudice against women (Bettinsoli et al., 2020;Rudman & Phelan, 2008;Williams & Tiedens, 2015). We used various measures to test how the motherhood-norm violation affects interpersonal dimensions of attitudes, such as attributional (personality evaluations of a target), affective (emotions towards a target), behavioural intentions and trusting behaviour and professional penalty intentions. ...
... Together, the experiments supported our predictions that not only voluntarily childfree women evoke more negative reactions than mothers, but also more so than women violating other traditional gender norms in domains of occupation (Study 1), power status (Study 2) or sexual orientation (Study 3). We chose these specific domains for comparison to the motherhood-norm violation because these are the most commonly reported in the field of bias and prejudice against women (Bettinsoli et al., 2020;Rudman & Phelan, 2008;Williams & Tiedens, 2015). Such reaction to nonmothers cannot be merely attributed to a lack of perceived communality as we found that even a non-communal mother is evaluated more positively than a communal woman who is not a mother (Study 4). ...
Recent conservative political rhetoric support women having careers but emphasize that this should not be an obstacle to having children. We propose that this sentiment reflects the hierarchy of gender norms in today's society whereby motherhood is the ultimate role that women are expected to fulfil and denying such role evokes social penalties, above and beyond other prescribed gender norms. Across five experiments (N = 738), we predicted and found that voluntarily childless women elicit more negative reactions than mothers, and importantly, also more than women violating other gender norms in the realm of occupation (Study 1), power (Study 2) or sexual orientation (Study 3). We demonstrate that these patterns cannot be explained merely by a perceived lack of communal qualities of the non-mothers (Study 4) and also show that involuntary childless women do not receive the same negativity (Study 5). We discuss this, often neglected, gender bias and its resistance to social change.
... In contrast, men attach less importance to social relations and are subject to more active and competitive stereotypes. However, such expectations may lead them to be more inclined to violate social norms in pursuit of personal interests and show more problematic behaviors [42]. Men are also considered to show less emotional expression than women. ...
... However, interestingly, when men participate in abnormal behaviors, such as shoplifting and attacking others, they experience more positive emotions than women. When they recall violations that they have committed, they are more tolerant and confident than women [42]. Compared with male college students, female students with high self-control tend to fully assess the risk of Internet cyberaggression and consider moral constraints and social customs, so do not tend to act impulsively; compared with female students, male students with low self-control make insufficient use of cognitive resources, experience more self-depletion, show more cognitive impulsivity [43], think less deeply about moral offences, and often express impulsive behaviors owing to a failure of self-control [24] when using the Internet. ...
(1) Background: To examine the relationship among just-world beliefs, self-control, and cyberaggression among college students. (2) Methods: A total of 1133 college students were surveyed using the just-world belief scale, self-control scale, and cyberaggression scale. (3) Results: The results showed that college students with low levels of belief in justice frequently showed cyberaggression; belief in a just world directly and negatively predicted cyberaggression, and indirectly predicted student cyberaggression through self-control; gender moderated the indirect effect of self-control on cyberaggression and the direct effect of belief in a just world on cyberaggression. (4) Conclusions: Belief in a just world significantly and negatively predicts cyberaggression; self-control has an indirect significant effect on cyberaggression; the direct effect of belief in a just world on cyberaggression and the mediating effect of self-control on this association are moderated by gender.
... Commonly, the literature links this backlash with the trade-off faced by women: they may be perceived either as competent or as likeable Glick, 1999, 2001). Thus, to increase hireability, women have to present themselves as competent, ambitious and competitive (Rudman and Phelan, 2008). Yet, when presenting themselves as agentic, women may be viewed as atypical, violating prescriptive gender norms that require them to show stereotypically feminine (communal) traits. ...
... weakness and uncertainty) as well as prescriptive norms (e.g. confidence and ambition) are likely to encounter social and economic penalties by being ranked as less likeable, competent and suitable for managerial roles (Moss-Racusin et al., 2010;Rudman and Phelan, 2008). The literature also supports the view that male employees with more caregiving responsibilitiesincongruent with the demands of the work environment or the notion of a good employeesuffer a flexibility or femininity stigma and are less likely to be promoted or more likely to be dismissed or have their working hours reduced (Miller and Borgida, 2016;Rudman and Mescher, 2013). ...
Purpose: Following Goldberg’s paradigm, the study investigates whether women and men are at risk of differential treatment by HR professionals in recruitment and dismissal processes and focuses on the impact of exogenous factors, such as discrimination and gender norms.
Design: A total of 155 individuals with experience as HR professionals participated in a randomised vignette study. In Task 1, they evaluated three applicants (all three either men or women) for the post of regional sales manager based on the applicant’s competences, hireability, likeability and proposed salary. In Task 2, participants were asked to select one of six employees for dismissal and provide a rationale for their choice.
Findings: In Task 1, female applicants were offered significantly lower salaries than male applicants. In addition, average and low-performing male applicants were assessed as less likeable than identical females. In Task 2, the willingness to dismiss increased when employees with frequent absences were presented as men.
Originality: By involving a sample of HR professionals, the study contributes to the literature and practice by highlighting the differential treatment of women and men in the labour market. While women are likely to experience direct discrimination in the form of significantly lower pay offers, men may suffer a backlash due to lower educational attainment and absenteeism. The findings suggest that the labour market situation for women is complex and affected by norms and expectations requiring men to behave in a masculine and career-oriented way.
... Compared to the lexical definitions, Faludi (1991) narrowly defined backlash as a counterassault on women's liberation or as anti-feminism. In a similar vein, backlash has been defined as economic and social sanctions against women's (and/or men's) atypical behaviors violating gender role congruity (Rudman, 1998;Rudman & Phelan, 2008). This negative evaluation of women's agentic behavior for violating gender stereotypes has been termed the backlash effect (Rudman & Phelan, 2008). ...
... In a similar vein, backlash has been defined as economic and social sanctions against women's (and/or men's) atypical behaviors violating gender role congruity (Rudman, 1998;Rudman & Phelan, 2008). This negative evaluation of women's agentic behavior for violating gender stereotypes has been termed the backlash effect (Rudman & Phelan, 2008). ...
Compared to the relatively well-trodden concepts of other workplace mistreatments, workplace backlash has received little attention from HRD academics. Therefore, our primary research objective is to identify how workplace backlash manifests and how it is addressed in the HRD and relevant literature. Through the analysis of 40 empirical studies on workplace backlash, we identified three types of backlash: backlash against gender equality, backlash against work-family balance, and backlash against racial justice. Additionally, we identified the consequences of each type of backlash and the coping strategies used by victims. Based on the findings, we discussed them from the recent conversations on diversity and inclusiveness in HRD from a social justice perspective and found ways to overcome workplace backlash. This study provides meaningful insights for HRD professionals and helps to advance diversity and inclusiveness research in HRD.
... Nevertheless, it should also be noted that gender stereotypes and gendered expectations of self and others have existed throughout history and continue to exist today (Charles & Bradley, 2009;Correll et al., 2007). These stereotypes are mainly based on the idea that women adopt more of what is termed "communal" values, namely qualities associated with social relationships, such as helpfulness, kindness, and sympathy, whereas men adopt what is termed "agentic" values, namely qualities associated with goal achievement, such as assertiveness and aggressivity (Rudman & Phelan, 2008). These stereotypes are used by critics of women's rights, for example, to promote the idea that women should be content with parenting and family responsibilities at home rather than going out to work. ...
Aim/purpose – The impact of teleworking on the work-life balance is still not clear. Since women are the ones who tend to assume most of the domestic tasks, our paper aims to determine, in gender terms and with a theoretical approach, how the effects of teleworking may affect the division of domestic tasks and the reconciliation of the pri- vate and professional spheres. Design/methodology/approach – This paper is based on a literature review and focuses on theoretical perspectives. Findings – On the one hand, the flexibility offered by teleworking during the health crisis may have enabled women to achieve a better work-life balance by offering them the possibility of not having to stop working despite the family responsibilities they had to assume. On the other, the unequal distribution of unpaid domestic work, which has continued and even increased during the crisis, has forced many women to quit their jobs. Research implications/limitations – The health crisis has shown that as long as tele- working is not organized in a way challenging the assumption of the home as a female environment, the office will stay a male environment with gender inequalities always prevailing between home and work. Originality/value/contribution – This paper contributes to the literature on teleworking by highlighting that generalizing teleworking without considering gender aspects may be harmful to female workers. Such a finding is important in the actual context of the de- velopment of hybrid organizations. Keywords: Teleworking, gender, repartition of domestic tasks, work-life balance. JEL Classification: O15, J16.
... Gender stereotypes refer to general beliefs and expectations about the behaviors and characteristics of each sex, reflecting social norms and perpetuated through socialization [1,2]. These stereotypes are reinforced through various mechanisms, including perceptual and behavioral confirmation processes, which contribute to biased social interactions [3]. Gender stereotypes have been deeply ingrained in society for a long time, and their impact is farreaching. ...
Textbooks serve a pivotal role in individuals' development, often presenting gender stereotypes that significantly influence childrens perceptions. This study explores gender stereotypes in Chinese textbooks, focusing on how these stereotypes differ based on target gender and the domain of traits. The research examines gender stereotypes across various trait domains within 274 illustrations from 12 Chinese language textbooks. A coding scheme was developed to identify gender stereotypes about boys and girls in different trait domains, such as hairstyle, occupations, and color schemes. The results reveal a significant presence of gender stereotypes, with no variation between different genders but a notable difference among trait domains in the textbook illustrations. These findings suggest that Chinese language textbooks consistently depict significant gender stereotypes for boys and girls but vary based on the specific characteristics implied by the illustrations.
... Gender differences in first impressions within videoconferencing contexts are important to establish because gender biases exacerbate workplace inequality where videoconferencing is increasingly becoming the preferred method of communication [23]. Women are more likely to be discriminated against in a professional environment [69,70] and are more likely to face obstacles when entering or staying in a field that requires intellectual competence [71,72]. The present study will therefore investigate differences in trustworthiness and competency perceptions of male and female faces in a videoconferencing context. ...
Trait inferences from first impressions are drawn rapidly and spontaneously. However, the Covid-19 pandemic forced interactions online introducing differential influential factors on first impressions. As such, there is an absence of research investigating video background on videoconferencing impression formation. This study explored the influence of video background , facial expression, and gender on first impressions of trustworthiness and competence. Video background affected trustworthy and competence perceptions with Plants and Book backgrounds scoring highly on both dimensions while the Home and Novelty backgrounds consistently received the lowest ratings. Happy faces were perceived as more trustworthy and more competent while female faces were also rated as more trustworthy and more competent, regardless of the background they were using. The explanations for these findings are discussed, along with future directions for research and the implications for videoconferencing use.
... First, gender role beliefs create specific role expectations toward which people behave because role-conforming behavior is socially rewarded and role-incongruent behavior is punished. For Rudman and Phelan (2008) this is marked as a social reaction, "where gender roles do not only describe and show what people (usually) do but at the same time impose what people should do". Mechanisms of social control thus influence gender roles in which people adjust their position according to social forms and processes. ...
Over the past decade, many studies have been conducted on the ethical aspects of gender equality in international
business negotiations. Research shows that, despite women’s success in solving global negotiation challenges,
their participation is still limited. And while this influence may not be direct, it should be noted that women
are generally considered less good negotiators than their male counterparts. In this sense, through analyzing
theoretical discourse, this article examines the contemporary practice of business negotiation. The goal is to
point out the (un)ethical continuity of the gender division of labor, whereby gender should not prejudge the
individual, but rather his negotiation abilities. As the existing scientific literature requires further multidisciplinary
research, we believe this article will contribute to a better understanding of the importance of ethical harmony of
gender equality as the best strategy and practice for negotiating parties in international business negotiations.
... Even when women report feeling satisfied with a discussion or negotiation, studies reveal they have less influence on the decisions made or the views of fellow group members than men 8,13,14 . Pervasive discounting of women's expertise, competence, or capability reduces women's confidence 15 , influence 16 , and aspirations 17 , and presents a barrier for women's career advancement into high-level leadership roles in STEM 17 , business 18,19 , politics 20 , sports 21 , medicine 22 , and many other areas. Yet women bring distinctive experiences, priorities, and approaches to policy-making processes 8,14,23,24 , and their absence leads to unrepresentative outcomes and lower trust in decision-making institutions 25,26 . ...
Women have less influence than men in a variety of settings. Does this result from stereotypes that depict women as less capable, or biased interpretations of gender differences in behavior? We present a field experiment that—unbeknownst to the participants—randomized the gender of avatars assigned to Democrats using a social media platform we created to facilitate discussion about the 2020 Primary Election. We find that misrepresenting a man as a woman undermines his influence, but misrepresenting a woman as a man does not increase hers. We demonstrate that men’s higher resistance to being influenced—and gendered word use patterns—both contribute to this outcome. These findings challenge prevailing wisdom that women simply need to behave more like men to overcome gender discrimination and suggest that narrowing the gap will require simultaneous attention to the behavior of people who identify as women and as men.
... By establishing a correlation between these events and the rise in negative tweets targeting the opposite gender, we demonstrate how the online discourse both reflects and magnifies societal reactions to high-profile incidents [22]. For men, the public exposure of these incidents can intensify the perceived threat to their social status, power, and privilege [64]. Consequently, some men may view the #MeToo movement as an attack on their gender and engage in defensive behavior, including backlash and negative tweets against women [31]. ...
The #MeToo movement has catalyzed widespread public discourse surrounding sexual harassment and assault, empowering survivors to share their stories and holding perpetrators accountable. While the movement has had a substantial and largely positive influence, this study aims to examine the potential negative consequences in the form of increased hostility against women and men on the social media platform Twitter. By analyzing tweets shared between October 2017 and January 2020 by more than 47.1k individuals who had either disclosed their own sexual abuse experiences on Twitter or engaged in discussions about the movement, we identify the overall increase in gender-based hostility towards both women and men since the start of the movement. We also monitor 16 pivotal real-life events that shaped the #MeToo movement to identify how these events may have amplified negative discussions targeting the opposite gender on Twitter. Furthermore, we conduct a thematic content analysis of a subset of gender-based hostile tweets, which helps us identify recurring themes and underlying motivations driving the expressions of anger and resentment from both men and women concerning the #MeToo movement. This study highlights the need for a nuanced understanding of the impact of social movements on online discourse and underscores the importance of addressing gender-based hostility in the digital sphere.
... Such mechanisms support the status quo of gender inequality (Jost & Kay, 2005). When people challenge these entrenched meanings or behave contrary to them, they experience backlash (Rudman & Phelan, 2008). ...
To measure gender identity in past research, identity theorists have used the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Other researchers studying gender identity have used either the PAQ or Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). Both the PAQ and BSRI are classic gender scales that emerged 40+ years ago to measure gender meanings in American culture. At issue is whether these scales continue to reflect current gender meanings in American society. We investigate this by gathering contemporary meanings on men and women from a racially diverse group of over 900 U.S. young adults at two universities. We follow measurement procedures outlined in identity theory to measure gender meanings (Burke & Tully, Social Forces, 55(4), 881–897, 1977). When we compare respondents’ gender meanings with those in the PAQ and BSRI, words for masculine and feminine characteristics used 40+ years ago are not commonly used today. While we see the common distinction of men as agentic and women as communal, women are now described as more competent than men, and men and women tend to evaluate men more negatively than women. We use our findings to develop a new gender identity scale in which the meanings better reflect how man and women are seen in contemporary society. This can be used in future research to capture gender identity in modern times.KeywordsGenderGender meaningsGender identityMeasurementIdentity
... These projects feature a range of methodological and design techniques, including longitudinal surveys, experimental vignettes, and response surface analysis. Furthermore, they are grounded in several different theoretical frameworks including role-congruity theory (Eagly & Karau, 2002), the status-incongruity hypothesis (Rudman & Phelan, 2008), and identity theory (Burke & Tully, 1977;Thoits, 1986). A brief summary of each presentation is included below. ...
... it can provide women with guidance, feedback, and opportunities, which can help them to develop the skills and confidence necessary to advance in their careers. Rudman and Phelan (2008) suggest that women who had female mentors were more likely to aspirate to and achieve top management positions. Women may face a lack of female role models and mentors, which can impact their career development and opportunities for advancement according to Linehan and Walsh (2001). ...
This research investigates the factors that affect women's career mobility within the context of Egypt's social, economic, organisational culture and policies. We explore the challenges that women face in advancing their careers in Small and Medium Micro Enterprises, including but not limited to gender stereotypes, work-family conflicts, limited access to training, and discriminatory policies. Additionally, we examine the ways in which Egypt's societal and cultural norms intersect with organisational practices and policies to shape women's career trajectories.
Despite the progress in women's participation in the labour market in recent years, women still encounter various barriers to career advancement. Based on a review of the existing literature and empirical data, this research suggests several strategies to promote women's career mobility in Egypt. These include strengthening policies and programs to support women's education and training, increasing access to finance and mentorship opportunities for women entrepreneurs, promoting flexible work arrangements, endorsing employment equality policies, and engaging in advocacy efforts to shift cultural norms and promote gender equality in the workplace.
Our findings highlight the need for organisational policies and cultural change initiatives, the success of these strategies will depend on the commitment of key stakeholders, including policymakers, business leaders, and civil society organisations, to prioritise women's career mobility and promote women’s empowerment. By working together to address the unique challenges faced by women in the workplace, Egypt has the capacity to unlock the full potential of equal participation of women in the workforce and drive economic growth and development.
... For example, in our studies, men whose behavior suggests that they may value parenting over earning were judged negatively regarding competence. These adverse judgments are analogous to negative responses toward working women who violate traditional feminine roles (Heilman & Caleo, 2018;Rudman et al., 2012;Rudman & Phelan, 2008). Gender roles will be difficult to change if people proclaim support for gender equality but harshly judge people who behave in a gender-atypical manner. ...
The Role Prioritization Model (RPM; Haines & Stroessner, 2019) proposes that evaluations of gender-incongruent behavior depend on the degree to which actions imply prioritization of earning versus childrearing responsibilities. When behavior indicates prioritization of gender-atypical roles (a family focus for men and a professional focus for women), they will be judged as poor representatives of their gender and low on gender-stereotypical traits (i.e., men as competent and women as warm). Four experiments examined these hypotheses focusing on fathers’ perceived prioritization of family versus earning responsibilities. Study 1 verified that men and women are expected to prioritize breadwinning and caregiving roles, respectively, and that subtle context cues (i.e., whether men care for a child on a workday or weekend) affect the perceived prioritization of roles. Studies 2 and 3 demonstrated that gender role incongruency (fathers caring for young children) produces a competence penalty when the context suggests prioritizing family over work (i.e., when men are described as caring for a child on a workday). In contrast, judgments of men are enhanced when the context suggests that expected prioritization is met (i.e., when men are described as caring for a child on the weekend). Study 4 showed that this penalty was attenuated by cues suggesting that men balance work and family responsibilities. These results are considered in terms of perceived role prioritization and consequences of gender incongruent behavior for men and women.
... Thus, people's personal attitudes, behaviors, and self-concepts are a reflection of the political status quo (i.e., the personal is political; Hanisch, 1969;see also Mills, 1959). This proposition has been at the heart of, and empirically supported by, myriad lines of social psychological research demonstrating that gender norms regulate the behavior of heterosexual men and women (e.g., Bem & Lenney, 1976;Dahl et al., 2015;Deaux & Major, 1987;LaFrance & Banaji, 1992;Prentice & Carranza, 2002;Vandello & Bosson, 2013) in ways that maintain and bolster the gender hierarchy (Eagly & Steffen, 1984;Glick & Fiske, 2001;Heilman, 2001;Morgenroth & Ryan, 2021;Napier et al., 2010;Rudman & Phelan, 2008;Vescio & Kosakowska-Berezecka, 2020). ...
We examined whether gay men (Studies 1–2) and lesbian women (Study 1) who harbor internalized stigma due to their sexuality will desire a romantic relationship that reflects conventional, complementary gender roles where one partner is stereotypically feminine and the other is stereotypically masculine, in terms of both personality traits and division of household labor. Results showed that, among gay men with high (but not low) internalized stigma, self-ascribed masculinity was positively related to preferences for an ideal partner with stereotypically feminine traits. Preferences for partners with gender complementary traits did not emerge among women, or among men high in self-ascribed femininity. Contrary to predictions, internalized stigma was not associated with preferences for a gender-complementary division of household chores. Instead, internalized stigma was associated with the avoidance of tasks that are stereotypically gender incongruent—women high (vs. low) in stigma preferred for the partner (vs. self) to do so-called masculine (but not feminine) chores, whereas men high (vs. low) in stigma preferred for the partner (vs. self) to do stereotypically feminine (but not masculine) chores. Study 2 also included an experimental manipulation to test whether these effects were influenced by societal exclusion or acceptance, but there was no evidence of this.
... 67 Instead, social consequences for breaking with firmly entrenched stereotypes can be perpetrated by others in a social environment (e.g., criticism) or through self-sabotage (e.g., self-doubt). 68 tees and co-workers that they are assertive enough, or 'male', enough. 69,70,74,75 Conversely, women are expected to have better interpersonal skills compared to men and are held to a different standard: Whether rated as a teacher, clinician, scientist or leader, women are criticised more harshly if their interpersonal skills are perceived as weak, while men are not. ...
Objectives:
This paper stems from a desire to deepen our own understanding of why women might 'say no' when allies and sponsors offer or create opportunities for advancement, leadership or recognition. The resulting disparity between representation by men and women in leadership positions, invited keynote speakers and publication counts in academic medicine is a stubborn and wicked problem that requires a synthesis of knowledge across multidisciplinary literature. Acknowledging the complexity of this topic, we selected a narrative critical review methodology to explore reasons why one man's opportunity might be a woman's burden in academic medicine.
Methods:
We engaged with an iterative process of identifying, reviewing and interpreting literature from Psychology (cognitive, industrial and educational), Sociology, Health Professions Education and Business, placing no restrictions on context or year of publication. Knowledge synthesis and interpretation were guided by our combined expertise, lived experience, consultations with experts outside the author team and these guiding questions: (1) Why might women have less time for career advancement opportunities? (2) Why do women have less time for research and leadership? (3) How are these disparities maintained?
Results:
Turning down an opportunity may be a symptom of a much larger issue. The power of social expectations, culture and gender stereotypes remains a resistant force against calls for action. Consequently, women disproportionately take on other tasks that are not as well recognised. This disparity is maintained through social consequences for breaking with firmly entrenched stereotypes.
Conclusions:
Popular strategies like 'lean into opportunities', 'fake it till you make it' and 'overcome your imposter syndrome' suggest that women are standing in their own way. Critically, these axioms ignore powerful systemic barriers that shape these choices and opportunities. We offer strategies that allies, sponsors and peers can implement to offset the power of stereotypes.
... Simultaneously, it provokes leaders/managers to think that it must be an anomaly. As a result they tend to inquire of what may have gone wrong and provides support to the employees by offering opportunities to revert back (Rudman & Phelan, 2008;Wang et al., 2022). Contrary to the male employees, females are not provided the same kind of support or even a harsh behavior. ...
This paper explores the relationship between the Pygmalion Effect and female career progression. The data was collected from sales representatives in the real estate sector in Pakistan through semi-structured interviews. Data was analyzed using Quirkos 2.5.3. The results of thematic analysis revealed that male employees received preferential treatment due to their perceived self-efficacy, leading managers to invest more in their development, which can be linked to the Pygmalion Effect. In contrast, female employees did not receive the same treatment within the real estate sector. The findings recommend that top management in the real estate sector should maintain similar interactions with all employees, regardless of their gender, to avoid sub-group formation. Conducting exit interviews with female employees can help identify underlying issues that contribute to their departure from organizations. This paper fills a gap in the existing literature by developing a model for understanding the role of the Pygmalion Effect in female career progression.
... Women who do not display masculine traits may be deemed a poor fit for management, while women who display masculine traits may experience a backlash. The negative assessment of assertive or opinionated women, who are perceived as a threat to the patriarchal social order (e.g., Rudman and Phelan, 2008; supports the prediction that women would fare poorly in MACs (e.g., Eagly and Carli, 2003;Heilman et al., 2004). Our study was undertaken to explore why in fact they do not. ...
Why do women receive equal or better performance ratings than men in managerial assessment centers even when they are structured in ways that systematically disadvantage them? This study provides the first attempt to understand this managerial assessment center gender paradox using in-depth interviews with managerial assessment center evaluators for a large semi-military governmental organization. The study revealed that the managerial assessment center was a gendered environment in which organizational practices, language used, and the underlying logic establish and reinforce men as assertive or protectors and women as weak and in need of protection. In accordance with the managerial assessment center gender paradox, women were successful at the managerial assessment center despite systemic bias against them. Interpretive analysis revealed that women candidates generate discomfort that evaluators alleviate by increased attention to the extent to which they conform to gender ideology. We coin the term 'benevolence effect' to describe evaluators' tendency to over-valuate and advance women candidates who conform to traditional stereotypes of white femininity. 2 Human Relations 00(0) The benevolence effect paradoxically contributes to the preservation and perpetuation of the sexual binary and the idealization of the abstract manager as male-bodied in the organization, even as it contributes to the promotion of women.
... Later as they join the mainstream society the differential treatment of both genders further internalizes gender role expectations thus shaping the self-confidence of women and men regarding various roles and professions (Hoffman 1972;Sahlstein and Allen 2002). Women are expected to be communal, and men are expected to be agentic (Rudman and Phelan 2008;Vinkenburg et al. 2011). Groysberg and Abrahams (2014) reported in a study of leadership experience across SN Soc Sci (2023) 3: 79 79 Page 6 of 22 ...
The purpose of this study is to find out how women negotiate their path to leadership; the barriers and facilitators and how they navigated them to reach the top. An inductive, qualitative approach has been used to systematically analyze the in-depth open-ended responses of female leaders in public higher education institutions and note emergent themes. Women face various endogenous and exogenous challenges in their journey to the top. The major emergent themes turned out to be personal cognizance, individual development, breaking gender stereotypes, and embracing and translating gynandrous leadership by women leaders. Familial support and women-friendly organizational policies were regarded as the most significant enablers. The major barriers turned out to be a lack of institutional support and grit among women. The metaphor of the labyrinth turned out to be an apt metaphor for studying the journeys of women. This research is limited by survivor bias as it only studies women who successfully navigated the labyrinth to the top but not those who got lost in the labyrinth. This study examines the leadership journeys of women leaders in public higher education in Pakistan by extending the metaphor of a labyrinth in the public sector in academia. It also proposes a conceptual model of how women navigate the labyrinth.
... Sin embargo, al mostrar un comportamiento más masculino, las mujeres enfrentan una reacción adicional por desviarse de las acciones estereotípicamente femeninas (Rudman y Phelan, 2008). Como consecuencia, las mujeres políticas experimentan un doble estándar desventajoso como resultado direc-to de la disparidad en la percepción de lo que son buenas frente a lo que "hace un líder exitoso" (Eagly y Karau, 2002;Heilman, 2001). ...
... Norms exist to guide people toward behaviors deemed appropriate and desirable, and dissuade them from behaviors deemed unfitting (Hartley 1983). As organizations constitute strong situations in which implicit and explicit cues generate psychological pressure that controls individual behavior, exhibiting deviant behavior or violating norms can be especially consequential and result in social and economic backlash (Rudman 1998, Rudman andPhelan 2008). Employees, for instance, are known to suffer reprisals for behaviors such as challenging the status quo by speaking up candidly (Morrison 2011) and violating gender role expectations (Rudman andGlick 2001, Burke 2005). ...
Past research suggests that when organizations communicate the benefits of their work for human welfare—that is, use a social impact framing for work—job candidates are willing to accept lower wages because they expect the work to be personally meaningful. We argue that this explanation overlooks a less socially desirable mechanism by which social impact framing leads to lower compensation demands: the perception among job candidates that requesting higher pay will breach organizational expectations to value work for its intrinsic (rather than extrinsic) rewards, or constitute a motivational norm violation. We find evidence for our theory across five studies: a qualitative study (Study 1), a hiring experiment with undergraduate students (Study 2), an online labor market field experiment (Study 3), a vignette-based simulation (Study 4), and a stimulus sampling study using multiple occupations (Study 5). Exploratory analyses find that the negative effects are unique to monetary (versus nonmonetary) job rewards. Together, results uncover a novel mechanism by which emphasizing work for the greater good leads job candidates to accept lower wages—one that reflects candidates self-censoring on pay from concerns about violating organizational norms rather than solely from a willingness to trade higher pay for potentially meaningful work. Our research contributes to understandings of how social responsibility messaging impacts workers’ perceptions of organizations and negotiation behavior. It also holds implications for emerging scholarship on managers’ implicit theories of employee work motivation.
Funding: I. Hussain thanks the Dean’s Research Excellence Grant at the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas Austin for generous financial support. The research also benefitted from Tier 1 Academic Research Funds awarded to M. Pitesa [Grant C207/MSS19B011] and M. Schaerer [Grant C207/MSS22B011] by the Ministry of Education, Singapore, and the Research & Development Fund of INSEAD.
Supplemental Material: The online supplement is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2023.1675 .
... Gender is a stable and unambiguous ascriptive characteristic that is associated with social status and affects external evaluation (Baron et al. 1991;Rudman & Phelan, 2008). Public investors can readily get access to CEO gender demographics from the IPO prospectus. ...
Female entrepreneurs and CEOs generally face greater challenges in securing funding to exploit entrepreneurial opportunities, yet contextual factors under which such challenges are more likely to arise are less understood. We find that female-led initial public offerings (IPOs) incur greater IPO underpricing, but this effect is moderated by their ownership structure, reflecting different institutional logics in which these firms operate. Specifically, the positive relationship between female CEOs and IPO underpricing is attenuated by venture capitalist ownership, whereas such a relationship is exacerbated by state ownership. Based on a sample of 958 IPOs in China between 2009 and 2015, this study corroborates these findings.
... Despite an assumed female advantage, women often experience the entrenched agenticcommunal binary as a "double-bind" (Hoyt and Murphy, 2016;Rudman and Phelan, 2008). Women leaders are not expected to display agentic behaviours as women, or communal behaviours as leaders (Zheng et al., 2018). ...
Purpose
This study aims to explore the experience of performing androgynous leadership approaches by New Zealand women leaders within the context of everyday conflict situations.
Design/methodology/approach
The research question “How do women leaders experience gender in conflict situations?” was explored through the facilitation of 4 focus groups with 19 senior female leaders in New Zealand. Poststructural discourse analysis was used to explore how participants negotiated positions of power within their environments and in accordance with competing gendered discourses.
Findings
Participants described taking a flexible, balanced, androgynous leadership approach to managing conflict situations. While the expectations to be “empathetic”, “sympathetic”, “gentle”, “nurturing” and “caring” resonated with the participants preferred approach, they remained firm that if conflict persisted, they would “cross the line” and adopt stereotypically masculine behaviours to resolve the situation. However, participants describe that when perceived to be crossing the line from feminine to masculine approaches, they experienced significant backlash. This demonstrates the tensions between the approaches women leaders would like to take in managing conflict and the experiences of doing so within a prescriptively gendered organisational context.
Originality/value
This research contributes to a gap which exists in understanding how gender is experienced from the viewpoint of the woman leader. This research presents a nuanced view of gendered leadership as a contested ground, rather than a series of strategic choices. Despite an increase in the acceptance of women into leadership positions, the authors seemingly remain bound by what is considered a “feminine” leader.
The past half‐decade has seen an exponential rise in proposed and debated anti‐trans legislation in the United States. These bills are often positioned at the center of divisive political debates between Republicans (who typically support these laws) and Democrats (who typically do not). In the process of discussing these debates, there has been widespread dissemination of anti‐trans rhetoric that has the potential to impact public opinion. In this review, we approach this rhetoric through the lens of social psychology with a specific focus on instances where anti‐trans legislation is portrayed as beneficial for the rights of other vulnerable groups of people, such as cisgender women and children. We identify psychological constructs reflected in anti‐trans rhetoric and then review existing literature on the consequences and beliefs associated with these constructs. Based upon this review, we argue that the kind of reasoning used to promote anti‐trans laws—specifically, essentialist beliefs and benevolent sexism—is actually associated with outcomes that are detrimental to the very groups these laws purport to protect. Given these potentially adverse effects of essentialism and benevolent sexism, we reflect on ways to reduce the impact of these psychological constructs in everyday life and suggest some alternatives to these laws that would improve the lives of both cisgender and transgender individuals. Next, we briefly discuss other forms of anti‐trans rhetoric and suggest ways that social psychology can be used to positively reframe rhetoric and policy to promote the welfare of transgender and gender‐diverse individuals. We close our paper with a brief discussion of limitations and summary of our ideas.
We empirically test the social capital model of organizational socialization (SCM) and refine it by examining the influence of gender on its tenets. Research indicates that when new employees socialize with coworkers, they gain relational benefits that contribute to improved newcomer adjustment and onboarding outcomes. Although this work has deepened our understanding of the nature and consequences of newcomer socializing, it has tended to view these positive outcomes as equally accessible to all newcomers. This oversight is meaningful given that men and women do not always earn equal social credit for engaging in social behaviors such as relationship building at work (e.g., socializing with coworkers). Integrating SCM and social role theory, we hypothesize a model predicting that newcomer gender will influence whether relationship-building behaviors during socialization lead to coworker social support, with subsequent implications for newcomer adjustment (i.e., role clarity, task mastery, and social integration). We test this model in a time-lagged study of 183 new employees. Our findings generally support the predictions made by SCM and social role theory, indicating that relationship building positively relates to coworker support and subsequent newcomer adjustment for men but not for women. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our findings.
This study addresses the underrepresentation of women and the so-far neglected process perspective in empirical entrepreneurial research. It aims to identify the personality traits that differentiate successful female entrepreneurs from their less successful peers and to determine which traits are crucial for pre-launch, launch, and post-launch success. Independent t-tests on 305 female entrepreneurs (and 476 male entrepreneurs) from the DACH region highlight the role of self-efficacy, proactivity, locus of control, and need for achievement for female entrepreneurs. Multiple regression analyses further reveal the importance of self-efficacy for every phase of women’s entrepreneurial journey. While the need for autonomy was critical during pre-launch and launch, locus of control significantly predicted female entrepreneurial success in the pre-launch and post-launch phases. Contrary to previous research, risk-taking was not a crucial trait for female entrepreneurs when compared to their male counterparts, while both showed similar levels of need for autonomy, proactivity, need for achievement, perseverance, self-control, and locus of control. The study offers valuable insights into successful entrepreneurship and highlights the need for female- and phase-specific support programs to enhance self-efficacy among female entrepreneurs.
We examined whether sexualizing a businesswoman impacts attitudes toward subsequently evaluated, nonsexualized females applying for a corporate managerial position. Research shows that sexualized women are perceived as less warm and competent (i.e., objectified). Integrating this work with research on social cognition, we hypothesized that the negative effect of sexualization “spills over” onto other nonsexualized women, reducing their hireability. Across two experiments, initially sexualized women were perceived as less warm and competent, as were subsequently evaluated nonsexualized female job candidates. In turn, these negative perceptions reduced the applicants' probability of being hired. Sexualization of women also increased intentions to hire a subsequently evaluated male candidate. The results were robust when we controlled for evaluators' gender and age. Our findings demonstrate that female job applicants can experience detrimental effects from sexually based objectification, even when they are not the individuals initially sexualized. We discuss implications for women's careers.
We examined whether leader gender moderated the relationship between leader's conveyed emotional labor (EL) strategies and followers’ leadership evaluations [effectiveness, trust, leader–member exchange (LMX)]. Participants read a fictitious interview of a CEO (male/female) reflecting on their strategy (surface acting/deep acting/genuine displays) to express emotions. The results suggest that conveyed EL influenced evaluations of female, but not male, leaders for the three measures. Notably, females received better trust evaluations for genuine displays (vs. surface and deep acting), whereas males received similar evaluations across EL strategies. Although less clear for effectiveness and LMX ratings, the results suggest leader EL might influence evaluations of female (vs. male) leaders more strongly. This study sheds light on the role of gender stereotypes in evaluations of leaders performing EL.
While researchers continue to develop their understanding of gender as a complex and multifaceted concept, the detrimental impact of gender-related inequity and social injustice persists. This conceptual paper describes the potential benefits of incorporating Relational Frame Theory (RFT) as a contextual and pragmatic approach to gender. An RFT lens might enhance our understanding of gender as a language-based phenomenon, involving patterns of derived relational responding and rule-governed behavior. Such an understanding might then facilitate the development of assessments and context-sensitive interventions that support flexible and expansive experiences of gender that promote thriving. Despite the potential utility of an RFT approach, RFT has rarely been applied to gender-related concerns. This paper aims to provide a starting point for exploring gender from an RFT perspective, highlight relevant RFT studies, acknowledge limitations of current lines of research, and provide recommendations regarding future research. We hope that the paper will also act as a call to action for contextual behavioral scientists, as well as demonstrate how an RFT perspective might both align with, as well as add to, existing perspectives from other disciplines.
Organizations are using social media as part of their selection processes. However, little is known about whether bias or discrimination is problematic when using these sources. Therefore, we examined whether manipulating the name and photograph of two otherwise equivalent LinkedIn‐like profiles would influence evaluations of candidate qualifications and hireability as well as perceived similarity using an experimental design. To test our hypotheses based on bias/discrimination research and the similarity‐attraction paradigm, a total of 401 working adults were recruited through Mechanical Turk. No evidence was found for bias or discrimination against women or people of color. However, female candidates were viewed as more hireable than male candidates, and Black men were viewed as less qualified than Black women and White men. Furthermore, we found that perceived similarity increased when the participant's gender or race matched the candidate's gender or race, respectively, and also that perceived similarity was related to candidate ratings; however, neither gender nor race match was directly related to candidate ratings. When profiles were more detailed, participants rated candidates of the same race higher than candidates of other races, and perceived similarity fully indirectly mediated this relationship. Conversely, when less detail was provided, participants rated candidates of the same race lower. Thus, while bias/discrimination toward women and people of color is not inherent when using LinkedIn for selection, having a racially diverse set of selectors is important to ensure fairness. This reveals a nuanced view of diversity issues when using social media for selection.
Meaningful and long-lasting progress in equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) continue to elude academics, practitioners, and policymakers. Extending Chater & Loewenstein's arguments to the EDI space, we argue that, despite conventional focus on individual-level solutions (i-frame), increasing EDI also requires a systemic focus (s-frame). We thus call for the design, testing, and implementation of multipronged s-frame interventions.
This paper investigates how entrepreneurs achieve a sense of purpose or, more precisely, eudaimonic well-being—the experience of a good and meaningful life. We explore this in the context of women entrepreneurs participating in a business training program in Nigeria. Specifically, we conduct mixed-methods research, starting with an inductive qualitative Study 1 of what eudaimonic well-being means for these entrepreneurs. We find that, in the context of their enterprises, eudaimonic well-being implies opportunities to experience self-cultivation, mastery, social recognition, and to benefit others in the community. Unexpectedly, the women in our study also experience eudaimonic well-being related to their households. These initial insights inform theory in Study 2 on how enterprise-related learning (i.e., acquiring and assimilating knowledge regarding the enterprise) and household-related learning (acquiring and assimilating knowledge regarding the household) influence their eudaimonic well-being, itself driven by strong social ties with other women entrepreneurs in the training program. Hypotheses testing through a quantitative study of 484 women entrepreneurs in Nigeria over time corroborates the theory. Our research provides a contextualized perspective of “purpose” in entrepreneurship and how to achieve it: by developing strong social ties, enabling enterprise- and household-related learning, women entrepreneurs in our context initiate greater eudaimonic well-being, beyond improving firm performance.
Supplemental Material: The online appendices are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2021.15341 .
Drawing on data from an ethnographic study of the introduction and implementation of a flexible work policy intended in part to improve gender equality at a STEM professional organization, I develop grounded theory on how managers’ gender shapes their implementation of such initiatives. I identify an equality policy paradox in which women managers, who openly support gender equality, are more likely than men managers to limit the policy. This apparent contradiction between intentions and actions is reconciled through an interactional role-based mechanism. Specifically, in this setting women managers encounter barriers to developing technical expertise, client relations, and respected authority. They respond by engaging extensively with subordinates, which allows them to effectively manage by brokering information (as an alternative to technical and client-facing tasks) and cultivating cooperation (as an alternative to formal authority). The policy undermines these interdependent activities; reflecting this, women managers generally oppose it. Men managers tend not to experience these constraints, and they focus on technical and client-related tasks that are largely independent of subordinates. The policy maintains these activities; reflecting this, they implement it. By identifying the equality policy paradox and the mechanism underlying it, this study advances theory on managers’ implementation of equality-related practices and policies as well as theory on gender and management.
Gender inequalities and deeply rooted gender stereotypes create enormous challenges for women in working life. Female academics in Turkey face these challenges and try to overcome them. The current study focused on female leaders' experiences in academia about these challenges. The findings showed that in order to survive in the male dominant working life, some female academics establish sisterhood with other women and enjoy solidarity behaviors, and others try to cope with the hardships via showing crab and queen bee behaviors. Thus, the study presents a portrayal of these three metaphors, queen bee, sisterhood, and crabs in a barrel in academic circles in the country.
I argue that the inappropriate anger criterion for borderline personality disorder (BPD) is likely to contribute to gender bias in the diagnostic process. In its current form, the inappropriate anger criterion is vaguely formulated, providing close to no guidance on to how to distinguish inappropriate from appropriate anger. Further, recent work in moral psychology highlights that the inappropriate anger criterion can be understood and applied in wide range of ways, none of which are required nor excluded by criterion. Moreover, research on public administration and management gives us reason to suspect that the criterion’s ambiguity coupled with the working conditions characteristic of healthcare settings is likely to increase the risk that clinicians will rely on stereotypes in their assessments of the appropriateness of anger. Specifically, various empirical studies point to the existence and widespread influence of gender stereotypes whereby anger is associated with men. Women who display anger are seen as underconforming to prescribed gender roles and, therefore, abnormal. Thus, we have good reason to think that women’s anger will more often be thought inappropriate than men’s, in general and in psychiatry.
Despite students’ growing interest in entrepreneurship education (EE), the small body of research exploring rhetorical strategies for proposing new business ventures has focused only on the argument strategies that startup entrepreneurs use when delivering oral pitches to investors. This study, by contrast, explores the topoi, or lines of argument, that small business entrepreneurs use in written business plans created for bank lenders. Small business entrepreneurs use nine topoi in order to accomplish two rhetorical goals: justifying their ventures, via the creation of stability-focused value propositions, and establishing their entrepreneurial credibility. Ultimately, I argue that small business entrepreneurs use these topoi to frame their ventures as low-risk and stable, which contrasts with startup entrepreneurs’ arguments that their ventures are innovative and disruptive. In addition to learning strategies for highlighting innovation and disruption, EE students would likely benefit from learning rhetorical strategies for minimizing risk and emphasizing stability.
There are many industries wherein gender imbalance is the norm. One of these is shipping. As far as gender is concerned, the maritime domain seems to be a catalyst for discrimination on board vessels and on shore. The number of women as compared to that of men is completely unbalanced and what is more so, even the few women that are employed in the entirety of the maritime domain, may be faced with further discriminatory practices; exclusion, harassment, and even abuse. Within this situation, the studies demonstrating and analysing the specifics of gender dynamics in shipping are sparse. This distinct research gap is covered by the present work. A questionnaire-based survey was administered with reference to pertinent strategic factors in shipping and the responses were segregated based on gender. Statistical analysis uncovers that there are differing perceptions in the way males and females acknowledge different factors. Further cluster analysis in the results reveals that both females and males can contribute distinct added value to the shipping sector. These results are important as they prove that the gender imbalance in shipping is completely unsubstantiated and needs to be addressed imminently if the industry wishes to head towards a sustainable paradigm.
This study tests a gender threat hypothesis whereby having a financial advisor of the opposite gender results in gender stereotypical risk attitudes in portfolio choice. We employ a unique dataset of 1,621 advised UK investors, combined with information on the gender of their financial advisors. Confirming the hypothesis, our results show that men advised by a woman take more risk than when advised by a man. Women advised by a man adopt a more cautious approach than when advised by a woman. When the gender threat is alleviated, that is when women are advised by women, and men are advised by men, we found no gender gap in risk-taking.
Individuals deviating from gender-expected behavior experience negative social repercussions known as "backlash". Backlash is commonly exhibited as decreased ratings of likability and competence toward the gender-incongruent individual. Few researchers have compared gender-incongruent women and men within the same study, nor whether job-incongruence or trait-incongruence has a more potent effect on backlash. We aimed to determine whether and to what extent trait-incongruence and job-incongruence affected ratings of likability and competence for both female and male targets in an online experiment. Participants were 296 Australian adult volunteers (64% female; mean age = 35.87). Participants were presented with point-light walkers visually conveying the target's gender (female/ male) together with a brief vignette describing the target's occupation (feminine vs. masculine) and personal trait (feminine vs masculine). Participants rated each target on likability and competence. We observed a classic backlash effect on likability and competence for trait-incongruent and job-incongruent female targets, with backlash greater for trait-incongruence than job-incongruence. In contrast, male targets exhibiting a stereotypically feminine trait elicited higher ratings on likability and competence than trait-congruent males: A reverse backlash effect. These findings could indicate a change in expectations and values; for example, they may reflect a negative response to the idea of "toxic masculinity".
A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.
The present research suggests that automatic and controlled intergroup biases can be modified through diversity education. In 2 experiments, students enrolled in a prejudice and conflict seminar showed significantly reduced implicit and explicit anti-Black biases, compared with control students. The authors explored correlates of prejudice and stereotype reduction. In each experiment, seminar students' implicit and explicit change scores positively covaried with factors suggestive of affective and cognitive processes, respectively. The findings show the malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes and suggest that these may effectively be changed through affective processes.
Women's "failure to negotiate" is framed within the larger context of women's difficulties in advocating for themselves. These difficulties are examined in light of both the costs associated with female self-promotion and the often invisible link for women between being liked and being influential. Suggestions are made for minimizing the passive injustices that are often a consequence of women's self-advocacy dilemma.
This article examines how different personality types create and benefit from social networks in organizations. Using data from a 116-member high-technology firm, we tested how self-monitoring orientation and network position related to work performance. First, chameleon-like high self-monitors were more likely than true-to-themselves low self-monitors to occupy central positions in social networks. Second, for high (but not for low) self-monitors, longer service in the organization related to the occupancy of strategically advantageous network positions. Third, self-monitoring and centrality in social networks independently predicted individuals' workplace performance. The results paint a picture of people shaping the networks that constrain and enable performance.
The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) is a widelyused instrument in measuring gender role perceptions.Recent concerns regarding the validity of the adjectiveshave arisen as changes in the roles of men and women have occurred in American society sincethe 1970's. A partial replication of the method that Bem(1974) used to validate the masculine and feminineadjectives comprising the instrument was conducted. All but two of the adjectives were validatedusing Bem's criteria. These findings suggest that theBSRI may still be a valid instrument for assessing genderroles. However, evidence was revealed that traditional masculine and feminine gender role perceptionsmay be weakening. Future validation of the BSRI iswarranted in light of these patterns.
Despite the recent electoral success of female candiates in local, state, and national elections, we find that voters' gender stereotypes have potentially negative implications for women candidates, especially when running for national office. We test the political impact of stereotypes by examining the relative importance of typical "male" and "female" personality traits and areas of issue competence for "good" politicians and a hypothetical candidate at different types and levels of office. Overall, we find a preference for "male" characteristics at higher levels of office. We attempt to reconcile the existence of gender stereotypes, which portray women candidates as insufficiently aggressive or less competent in their dealings with the military with the recent electoral success of women in national and statewide elections.
This study represents the beginning of a program of research aimed at assessing the extent to which sex role stereotypes influence the evaluation of leadership behavior. Male and female business students were administered one of two versions of a questionnaire. Both versions contained the same four stories, each depicting a leadership style based on one of the following Ohio State leadership dimensions: initiating structure, consideration, production emphasis, and tolerance for freedom. In one version, the names indicated that the managers in the four stories were (in order) male, female, male, female; in the other version, the managers' names were changed to indicate the opposite sex. The subjects were asked to answer eight evaluative questions for each of the four leadership styles. The results confirmed the hypothesis that sex has an effect on evaluations of managerial behavior, although the effect varied for different leadership styles. In general, the effect was greatest for the consideration style, where female managers received more positive scores than male managers. Initiating structure behavior was valued more highly when engaged in by male managers than when it was used by female managers. Sex also appeared to influence evaluations of the tolerance for freedom style, but the precise effect was unclear. Evaluations of the production emphasis style were not affected by the sex variable. Sex of subject effects also were noted. Implications of the findings for managerial behavior and future research are discussed.
assesses what [has been] learned about some of [the] issues [surrounding stereotypes] from social psychological research, and particularly from research guided by a social cognition approach
cognitive processes in stereotype formation / stereotypes as cognitive structures / stereotyping and information processing / affect, cognition, and stereotyping / stereotype change (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examines institutional variables that affect the success of women in transcending glass ceiling barriers and, earning positions as corporate officers. In an examination of 291 exchange-listed companies, women were found to attain increased representation as corporate officers between 1984 and 1994. The effect of profession favored the advancement of women to corporate officer in staff-oriented occupations rather than line-oriented occupations. The direct effect of younger firm age, and, the interaction of this variable with smaller firm size, favored women in becoming corporate officers. The findings of this study suggest the existence of gender-based forms of screening in organizations aside from the middle management glass ceiling. This study also informs women of firm characteristics that will help them predict where their best opportunities in advancing to top management positions lie.
Introducing the concepts of self- and other-advocacy should prove useful as a means of understanding the different contexts in which women and men can effectively and comfortably exert power and influence when making requests. In this conceptual paper, social psychological research is reviewed demonstrating that women can advocate effectively on behalf of others without incurring costs, but gender-linked stereotypes, roles, and norms constrain them from advocating as freely and effectively for themselves. It is argued that women do not frequently make requests for themselves, because they have learned that they may ultimately lose more than they gain. This gendered difference has implications for ongoing pay and promotion inequities.
This review article posits that the scarcity of women at the upper levels of organizations is a consequence of gender bias in evaluations. It is proposed that gender stereotypes and the expectations they produce about both what women are like (descriptive) and how they should behave (prescriptive) can result in devaluation of their performance, denial of credit to them for their successes, or their penalization for being competent. The processes giving rise to these outcomes are explored, and the procedures that are likely to encourage them are identified. Because of gender bias and the way in which it influences evaluations in work settings, it is argued that being competent does not ensure that a woman will advance to the same organizational level as an equivalently performing man.
This chapter presents an integrated understanding of various impression formation processes. The chapter introduces a model of impression formation that integrates social cognition research on stereotyping with traditional research on person perception. According to this model, people form impressions of others through a variety of processes that lie on a continuum reflecting the extent to that the perceiver utilizes a target's particular attributes. The continuum implies that the distinctions among these processes are matters of degree, rather than discrete shifts. The chapter examines the evidence for the five main premises of the model, it is helpful to discuss some related models that raise issues for additional consideration. The chapter discusses the research that supports each of the five basic premises, competing models, and hypotheses for further research. The chapter concludes that one of the model's fundamental purposes is to integrate diverse perspectives on impression formation, as indicated by the opening quotation. It is also designed to generate predictions about basic impression formation processes and to help generate interventions that can reduce the impact of stereotypes on impression formation.
This study examined how women's proportional representation in the upper echelons of organizations affects professional women's social constructions of gender difference and gender identity at work. qualitative and quantitative data were used. Results suggest that sex roles are more stereotypical and more problematic in firms with relatively low proportions of senior women, This research also found that women responded to these constraints in a range of ways and identifies five response profiles. The study challenges prevailing conceptions of gender as an objective property of individuals synonymous with biological sex and universal across organizational settings; instead, it supports a more complex view of gender as an ongoing social construction, the meaning, significance, and consequences of which vary as a function of the power differences reflected in the sex composition across levels of an organization's hierarchy.
This paper examines the impact of women's proportional representation in the upper echelons of organizations on hierarchical and peer relationships among professional women at work. I propose that social identity is the principal mechanism through which the representation of women influences their relationships. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses of interview and questionnaire data are used to compare women's same-sex relationships in firms with relatively low and high proportions of senior women. Compared with women in firms with many senior women, women in firms with few senior women were less likely to experience common gender as a positive basis for identification with women, less likely to perceive senior women as role models with legitimate authority, more likely to perceive competition in relationships with women peers, and less likely to find support in these relationships. These results challenge person-centered views about the psychology of women's same-sex work relationships and suggest that social identity may link an organization's demographic composition with individuals' workplace experiences.
This paper examines whether the dramatic increase in women's representation among managers between 1970 and 1988 was real or was simply a case of women being given managerial titles but not commensurate pay or supervisory responsibility. Earnings and authority differentials between male and female managers are analyzed with data from three sources for this period. The results indicate that the sex gap in earnings among managers narrowed during this period, while the gap in authority remained constant. Thus, women's increasing representation in management was not simply a matter of their artificial reclassification. Nonetheless, the sex gap in wages within management continues to exceed that in the labor force as a whole. The implication of these results for theories of internal organizational dynamics are discussed.
This study examined recipients’ perceptions of workplace discipline. Females delivering discipline were perceived to be less effective and less fair than males. Both recipients’ biases and behavior differences by male and female supervisors appear to contribute to reduced effectiveness. These results suggest the need to raise the awareness of managers and subordinates regarding potential negative reactions to females administering discipline. Special training in discipline delivery for female managers may also be warranted.
In 1932, Cambridge University Press published Remembering, by psychologist, Frederic Bartlett. The landmark book described fascinating studies of memory and presented the theory of schema which informs much of cognitive science and psychology today. In Bartlett's most famous experiment, he had subjects read a Native American story about ghosts and had them retell the tale later. Because their background was so different from the cultural context of the story, the subjects changed details in the story that they could not understand. Based on observations like these, Bartlett developed his claim that memory is a process of reconstruction, and that this construction is in important ways a social act. His concerns about the social psychology of memory and the cultural context of remembering were long neglected but are finding an interested and responsive audience today. Now reissued in paperback, Remembering has a new Introduction by Walter Kintsch of the University of Colorado, Boulder.
This paper examines how perceptions of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs) are affected by socially constructed gender roles. We argue that gender roles are important for the perception, categorization, and consequences of OCBs. We suggest that the dimensions of OCBs (altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, and civic virtue) are related to gender stereotypes. Combining social identity theory with gender role theory suggests that the ‘gender’ of these behaviors, the job, the job incumbent, and the gender identity of the observer interact, potentially broaden the breadth of requisite job behaviors defined as either in- or extra-role. Implications are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article presents a four-category framework to characterize the contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. The framework distinguishes between prescriptions and proscriptions that are intensified by virtue of one's gender, and those that are relaxed by virtue of one's gender. Two studies examined the utility of this framework for characterizing prescriptive gender stereotypes in American society (Study 1) and in the highly masculine context of Princeton University (Study 2). The results demonstrated the persistence of traditional gender prescriptions in both contexts, but also revealed distinct areas of societal vigilance and leeway for each gender. In addition, they showed that women are seen more positively, relative to societal standards, than are men. We consider the implications of this framework for research on reactions to gender stereotype deviants and sex discrimination.
Dynamic stereotypes characterize social groups that are thought to have changed from the attributes they manifested in the past and even to continue to change in the future. According to social role theory’s assumption that the role behavior of group members shapes their stereotype, groups should have dynamic stereotypes to the extent that their typical social roles are perceived to change over time. Applied to men and women, this theory makes two predictions about perceived change: (a) perceivers should think that sex differences are eroding because of increasing similarity of the roles of men and women and (b) the female stereotype should be particularly dynamic because of greater change in the roles of women than of men. This theory was tested and confirmed in five experiments that examined perceptions of the roles and the personality, cognitive, and physical attributes of men and women of the past, present, and future.
This paper develops theory about the conditions under which cultural diversity enhances or detracts from work group functioning. From qualitative research in three culturally diverse organizations, we identified three different perspectives on workforce diversity: the integration-and-learning perspective, the access-and-legitimacy perspective, and the discrimination-and-fairness perspective. The perspective on diversity a work group held influenced how people expressed and managed tensions related to diversity, whether those who had been traditionally underrepresented in the organization felt respected and valued by their colleagues, and how people interpreted the meaning of their racial identity at work. These, in turn, had implications for how well the work group and its members functioned. All three perspectives on diversity had been successful in motivating managers to diversify their staffs, but only the integration-and-learning perspective provided the rationale and guidance needed to achieve sustained benefits from diversity. By identifying the conditions that intervene between the demographic composition of a work group and its functioning, our research helps to explain mixed results on the relationship between cultural diversity and work group outcomes.
The goals of the present study were to assessparents' attitudes toward crossgender boys and girls, aswell as to explore possible reasons for differentialevaluations. A total of 224 White parents of five-year old children completed questionnaires probingtheir attitudes toward cross-gender behavior inchildren, and their expectations regarding the futureadult behavior of typical boys, typical girls,cross-gender boys and cross-gender girls. The resultsrevealed that cross-gender boys were more negativelyregarded than crossgender girls and thatmen perceivedmore societal acceptance of cross-gender boys thanwomen. Cross-gender children were predicted tocontinue to show cross-gender behavior in adulthood andto be less psychologically welladjusted as adults than“typical” boys and girls. Cross-gender boyswere expected to be less psychologicallywell-adjusted than cross-gender girls. When predictingfuture sexual orientation, cross-gender boys were deemedto have a greater likelihood of being gay thancross-gender girls of being lesbian. Men expectedcross-gender boys to be more likely to show male-malesexual behavior than “typical” boys inadulthood while women predicted “typical”girls to be more likely to show female-female sexual behavior in adulthoodthan cross-gender girls.