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Charcoal versus LPG grilling: A carbon-footprint comparison
Abstract
Undoubtedly, grilling is popular. Britons fire up their barbeques some 60 million times a year, consuming many thousands of tonnes of fuel. In milder climates consumption is even higher, and in the developing world, charcoal continues to be an essential cooking fuel. So it is worth comparing the carbon footprints of the two major grill types, charcoal and LPG, and that was the purpose of the study this paper documents. Charcoal and LPG grill systems were defined, and their carbon footprints were calculated for a base case and for some plausible variations to that base case. In the base case, the charcoal grilling footprint of 998 kg CO2e is almost three times as large as that for LPG grilling, 349 kg CO2e. The relationship is robust under all plausible sensitivities. The overwhelming factors are that as a fuel, LPG is dramatically more efficient than charcoal in its production and considerably more efficient in cooking. Secondary factors are: use of firelighters, which LPG does not need; LPG's use of a heavier, more complicated grill; and LPG's use of cylinders that charcoal does not need.
... Furthermore, grill sales in Germany in 2020 nearly equaled those of televisions, indicating that grilling devices are a prevalent household item worthy of investigation [1,8]. While some researchers have compared the greenhouse gas emissions of various energy carriers used for barbecuing, such as charcoal, liquefied gas, and electricity [9,10], other impact categories have not been considered. ...
... The energy consumption for barbecuing is influenced by various factors, including the grilling time, the efficiency of the appliances, the barbecuing habits, and the quality of the fuel [9]. The energy requirement for a barbecue with four people in the scope of this study is defined based on a literature screening as either 750 g of charcoal, 3.3 kWh of electricity, or 525 g of LPG, depending on the type of grill device [9]. ...
... The energy consumption for barbecuing is influenced by various factors, including the grilling time, the efficiency of the appliances, the barbecuing habits, and the quality of the fuel [9]. The energy requirement for a barbecue with four people in the scope of this study is defined based on a literature screening as either 750 g of charcoal, 3.3 kWh of electricity, or 525 g of LPG, depending on the type of grill device [9]. For gas barbecues, the use of gas bottles was also considered. ...
Rising environmental consciousness has prompted increased scrutiny of the environmental impact of everyday activities, such as barbecuing—a popular summertime activity in Germany. This study aimed to explore the environmental impacts of three grilling techniques, charcoal (including reusable types such as swivel, round, and kettle grills, as well as disposable charcoal grills), gas, and electric grills, utilizing a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach including the manufacturing of grills, consumption of energy sources and grilling ingredients, as well as the end-of-life of the grills. Five impact categories were considered: global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), abiotic depletion potential fossil (ADP), and land use (LU) according to the CML2016 and ReCiPe 2016 methodology. This study found that a barbeque event for four people results in GWP, AP, EP, ADP, and LU values ranging from 18 to 20 kg CO2-eq., 174 to 179 g SO2-eq., 166 to 167 g PO4-eq., 102 to 138 MJ, and 36 to 38 m² annual crop-eq., respectively, across different types of grills. Furthermore, the ingredients proved to be the most significant contributor, surpassing 70% in all impact categories. Among the three types of grills, the electric grill emerged as the most environmentally friendly, while the disposable grill had the greatest environmental impact across the majority of categories. Lastly, the environmental impacts of varying consumer behaviors were evaluated to potentially assist consumers in adopting more sustainable grilling practices.
... Combustion alone of 55 million tonnes amounts to 207 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emitted per year, about the same annually as emitted by the country of Pakistan or about 0.5% of the world's total. There are also significant carbon emissions in the production of charcoal, typically about equal to those of combustion [3] which would mean that for its full life-cycle, charcoal accounts for about 1% of global carbon emissions. These emissions are of natural concern to governments of countries where charcoal is heavily used, and also to grillers in the developed world. ...
... This is known to be the case in production at proFagus, Kingsford and many other producers in the developed world. In the developing world, where most charcoal is both made and consumed, this is often not the case: charcoal from stemwood can be carbon positive and lead to deforestation [3,34,35]. ...
... Two other, more important quality effects are that of: 1) the efficiency of the grill used to cook with the charcoal, which can vary greatly; and 2) 'practise' of the grill operator, i.e., wastefulness or conservation with respect to fuel. These go beyond the aim of this study, but they are covered elsewhere [3]. ...
There are four commercial pathways to make grill charcoal from wood. These have been modelled to calculate a Carbon Intensity (CI) for each. Results are presented along with discussion of the sensitivities: biogenic carbon; quality of the charcoal; classification of products, wastes and residues; and division of burden. Grill charcoal's CI ranges greatly, depending on the pathway by which it is produced. Wood distillation, a commercial process that once was common but now is rare, has a CI 50+% lower than that of the next-lowest commercial process, Kilns. Earth mounds/pits and external-fueled Retorts have CIs considerably higher still. The Carbon Efficiency (CE) of Wood distillation is more than twice that of the next-best, again Kilns. CE is defined as normalized, total carbon emitted. This is not the same as CI, it is not usually considered in studies such as this, yet it is important for climate impact. CE could be a useful measure in assessments (such as this) where biogenic carbon is significant.
... Combustion alone of 55 million tonnes amounts to 207 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emitted per year, about the same annually as emitted by the country of Pakistan or about 0.5% of the world's total. There are also significant carbon emissions in the production of charcoal, typically about equal to those of combustion [3] which would mean that for its full life-cycle, charcoal accounts for about 1% of global carbon emissions. These emissions are of natural concern to governments of countries where charcoal is heavily used, and also to grillers in the developed world [4]. ...
... Only two sources report methane emissions ( Table 7). The default is the average of the two: 0.02 g methane per kg 3 Or, possibly, to some pollution control device, although this is not believed to be at all common. 4 proFagus produces other products, as detailed in Section 0. However, in this discussion, the data have been limited to its retorting of charcoal only. ...
... This is known to be the case in production at proFagus, Kingsford and many other producers in the developed world [4]. In the developing world, where most charcoal is both made and consumed, this is often not the case: charcoal from stemwood can be carbon positive and lead to deforestation [3] [34] [35]. ...
There are four commercial pathways to make grill charcoal from wood. These have been modelled to calculate a carbon intensity (CI) for each. Results are presented along with discussion of the sensitivities: biogenic carbon; quality of the charcoal; classification of products, wastes and residues; and division of burden. Grill charcoal’s CI ranges greatly, depending on the pathway by which it is produced. Wood distillation, a commercial process that once was common but now is rare, has a CI 50+% lower than that of the next-lowest commercial process, Kilns. Earth mounds/pits and external-fuelled Retorts have CIs considerably higher still. The carbon efficiency (CE) of Wood distillation is more than twice that of the next-best, again Kilns. CE is defined as normalised, total carbon emitted. This is not the same as CI, it is not usually considered in studies such as this, yet it is important for climate impact. CE could be a useful measure in assessments (such as this) where biogenic carbon is significant.
... Abriquettes having a high content of biomass (6.1% by volume based on petrographic analysis), B-Cbriquette containing a piece of plastic, Dbriquette containing a metal screw, Ebriquette containing a piece of metal (aluminum foil from candy), Flump charcoal packaged with a piece of unburned wood (bottom of the image). al., 2006;Johnson, 2009;Kabir et al., 2010Kabir et al., , 2011Susaya et al., 2010;Rahman and Kim, 2012;Viegas et al., 2012;Kao et al., 2014;Wu et al., 2015;Huang et al., 2016;Vicente and Alves, 2017;Jiang et al., 2018;Vicente et al., 2018;Sun et al., 2019). Not only can burning charcoal briquettes or lumps produce a significant amount of ash and odor, but, more importantly, grilling fumes can have negative impacts on human health (Wu et al., 2015;Oanh et al., 2002). ...
... times higher compared to that of liquefied petroleum gas (Johnson, 2009;Borowski et al., 2017). Johnson (2009) has estimated that during an average grilling session, 6.7 kg of CO 2 equivalent is released, which is comparable to driving an average car for 35 km (21.7 miles). ...
... times higher compared to that of liquefied petroleum gas (Johnson, 2009;Borowski et al., 2017). Johnson (2009) has estimated that during an average grilling session, 6.7 kg of CO 2 equivalent is released, which is comparable to driving an average car for 35 km (21.7 miles). Lump charcoal burns hotter than charcoal briquettes and reaches temperatures of up to 1400°F (760°C), while the temperature achieved by briquettes ranges between 800 and 1000°F (427-538°C). ...
Numerous studies have been conducted to assess air pollution and human health risks arising from exposure to outdoor cooking, but limited standards have been implemented around the world to assure fuel quality. While charcoal briquettes and lumps are a popular fuel choice for grilling, almost no data specifying their properties are available to consumers. Because the properties of fuels affect the flue gases, it is critical to understand how the quality of grilling briquettes and lumps translates not only into the quality of the grilled food, but, even more importantly, how their emissions impact human safety and the environment.
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the impacts of the quality of charcoal briquettes and lumps on potentially harmful emissions during grilling. To analyze their quality, we used reflected light microscopy to identify a range of contaminants, including biomass, mineral matter, coal, coke, metal, rust, plastics, glues, and synthetic resins, in 74 commercially available products made in Poland, the United States of America, Ukraine, Germany, Belarus, the Czech Republic, and the Republic of South Africa. Our data show that majority of the products analyzed do not meet the existing quality standard EN 1860-2:2005 (E) of less than 1% contaminants, some of these products contain up to 26.6% of impurities.
The amount of contaminants correlates with particulate matter, as well as CO and CO2. The contribution of biomass is especially significant because it can be used to predict harmful particulate matter emissions during grilling. The relationship between the composition of charcoal briquettes and lump charcoal and their emissions is particularly strong during the first 15 to 20 min after ignition (when emissions are the highest), therefore, this initial stage is especially unsafe to consumers, and staying away from the grill during this time is recommended.
... In 2014, about 53 million tonnes of wood charcoal were produced worldwide [1]. Charcoal is a product of thermochemical conversion of biomass by pyrolysis and has advantages as fuel when compared to the original feedstock (biomass) such as the higher heating value and easy storage [2,3]. It has also an advantage in comparison with other renewable fuels: the cheaper production. ...
... Despite the spatial and temporal changes in fuel consumption patterns, charcoal remains a popular cooking fuel in the developed world since it produces food with unique flavour and texture. In fact, charcoal-grilling is extensively used by households and restaurants [3,5]. Johnson [3] estimated the charcoal grilling footprint to be 6.7 kg CO 2 e per grill session which is, according to the author, similar to the carbon footprint obtained for driving an average car for approximately 35 km. ...
... In fact, charcoal-grilling is extensively used by households and restaurants [3,5]. Johnson [3] estimated the charcoal grilling footprint to be 6.7 kg CO 2 e per grill session which is, according to the author, similar to the carbon footprint obtained for driving an average car for approximately 35 km. Charcoal production is the dominant process in the carbon footprint (45%), as well as charcoal combustion (40%). ...
The use of charcoal for cooking and heating can be a major source of air pollution and lead to a wide range of health outcomes. The aim of this study was to experimentally quantify and characterise the gaseous and particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions from charcoal combustion in a typical brick barbecue grill. The gaseous emission factors were 219 ± 44.8 g kg−1 for carbon monoxide (CO), 3.01 ± 0.698 g kg−1 for nitrogen oxides (NOx expressed as NO2), and 4.33 ± 1.53 gC kg−1 for total organic carbon (TOC). Particle emissions (7.38 ± 0.353 g kg−1 of dry charcoal burned) were of the same order of magnitude as those from traditional residential wood burning appliances. About 50% of the PM2.5 emitted had a carbonaceous nature while water soluble ions accounted, on average, for 17% of the particulate mass. Alkanes (C11–C16 and C23), hopanes, steranes and alkyl-PAHs accounted for small mass fractions of PM2.5. Phenolic compounds and saccharides represented the major particle-bond organic constituents. The high proportion of either resin acids or syringyl and vanillyl compounds is consistent with emissions from charred coniferous wood. The ratios between anhydrosugars for charcoal are much lower than the values reported for lignite combustion, but overlap those from other biomass burning sources.
... Though there are consistent average NO x emissions of 0.27 g/m 3 , it is worth noting that a particular lump charcoal sample recorded a remarkably large NO x value of 0.74 g/m 3 , which had potentially been saturated with a flammable substance while it was being produced. It is indicated by earlier approximations of CO2 emissions that there is a significant carbon footprint of charcoal combustion-around three times greater than that of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) (Johnson, 2009;Borowski et al., 2017). According to Johnson's (2009) estimate, CO2 e equaling almost 6.7 kg is released during a standard grilling session, which is the same as driving a standard car for a distance of 35 km (21.7 miles). ...
... It is indicated by earlier approximations of CO2 emissions that there is a significant carbon footprint of charcoal combustion-around three times greater than that of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) (Johnson, 2009;Borowski et al., 2017). According to Johnson's (2009) estimate, CO2 e equaling almost 6.7 kg is released during a standard grilling session, which is the same as driving a standard car for a distance of 35 km (21.7 miles). It is worth noting that lump charcoal burns at higher temperatures than charcoal briquettes, going up to 1400 °F (760 °C), whereas the temperature range for briquettes falls between 800 and 1000 °F (427-538 °C). ...
This research focuses on examining the potential impact of charcoal briquettes and lumps on human health due to the emissions they release, and verifying their quality standards. Quality assessment was conducted using a device capable of measuring toxic gases to identify contaminants from various sources such as biomass, synthetic resins, coal, metals, and mineral matter. Toxicity assessments were carried out on five types of briquettes and two varieties of lump charcoal. All charcoal samples were subjected to elemental analysis (SEM/EDAX), including the examination of Ca, Al, Cr, V, Cu, Fe, S, Sr, Si, Ba, Pb, P, Mn, Rb, K, Ti, and Zn. The results showed that burning lump charcoal had toxicity indexes ranging from 2.5 to 5, primarily due to NOx emissions. Briquettes, on the other hand, exhibited higher toxicity indices between 3.5 and 6.0, with CO2 being the main contributor to toxicity. The average 24-h CO content of all charcoal samples exceeded the World Health Organization’s 24-h Air Quality Guideline of 6.34 ppm, with a measurement of 37 ppm. The data indicates that most of the products tested did not meet the prevailing quality standard (EN 1860-2:2005 (E) in Appliances, solid fuels and firelighters for barbecuing—Part 2: Barbecue charcoal and barbecue charcoal briquettes—Requirements and test method, 2005), which specifies a maximum of 1% contaminants, with some products containing as much as 21% impurities. The SEM analysis revealed irregularly shaped grains with an uneven distribution of particles, and the average particle size distribution is quite broad at 5 μm. Malaysia Charcoal had the highest calorific value at 32.80 MJ/Kg, with the value being influenced by the fixed carbon content—higher carbon content resulting in a higher calorific value.
... Carbon footprints are a popular measure of sustainability. Peer-reviewed footprints of grilling have been published for the United Kingdom [1], and a non-peer-reviewed study by the University of Sheffield was published in 2019 (https://bit.ly/3bJeN0r (accessed on 20 May 2022)). ...
... Lower heating values of 19.6 and 20 MJ/kg are used for pellets and air-dried wood [6]. Combustion emissions are 202 lb CO 2 e/mmBTU [1]. Pre-combustion footprints are taken from ecoinvent: pellets from the process 'Wood pellets, u = 10%, at storehouse/RER U'; and logs from 'Logs, hardwood, at forest/RER U'. ...
Grill-specific footprints for common fuel/grill types in the USA have been estimated from public information and data from a major grill manufacturer. In 2022, grill-specific footprints vary by a ratio of 9:1. A typical gas grill has the highest footprint; a wood-pellet grill is lowest; charcoal briquettes, electricity and super-efficient gas grills come in-between those two. Efficiency varies greatly for gas (natural gas or propane) grills: a typical gas grill has twice the footprint of a super-efficient one. In 2027, the footprint rankings could change considerably from 2022. With biofuel substitution, the super-efficient gas grill would move ahead of pellets. Electricity and charcoal could improve but would still place fifth and sixth. The range of grill-specific footprints could fall to 4.5:1, and within a much-lower range. The highest footprint in 2027 is almost 60% lower than 2022′s highest.
... It is experienced as a culinary and social get together. Johnson (2009) estimated that annually over 30.000 tons of charcoal is used as fuel for barbecues in England only (Johnson, 2009). However, by a large group of people, including elderly and people with respiratory diseases, the smoke is experienced as a source of nuisance. ...
... It is experienced as a culinary and social get together. Johnson (2009) estimated that annually over 30.000 tons of charcoal is used as fuel for barbecues in England only (Johnson, 2009). However, by a large group of people, including elderly and people with respiratory diseases, the smoke is experienced as a source of nuisance. ...
Background
Epidemiological studies have associated biomass combustion with (respiratory) morbidity and mortality, primarily in indoor settings. Barbecuing results in high outdoor air pollution exposures, but the health effects are unknown.
Objective
The objective was to investigate short-term changes in respiratory health in healthy adults, associated with exposure to barbecue fumes.
Methods
16 healthy, adult volunteers were exposed to barbecue smoke in outdoor air in rest during 1.5 hours, using a repeated-measures design. Major air pollutants were monitored on-site, including particulate matter <2.5 μm (PM2.5), particle number concentrations (PNC) and black- and brown carbon. At the same place and time-of-day, subjects participated in a control session, during which they were not exposed to barbecue smoke. Before and immediately after all sessions lung function was measured. Before, immediately after, 4- and 18 hours post-sessions nasal expression levels of interleukin (IL)-8, IL6 and Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNFα) were determined in nasal swabs, using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Associations between major air pollutants, lung function and inflammatory markers were assessed using mixed linear regression models.
Results
High PM2.5 levels and PNCs were observed during barbecue sessions, with averages ranging from 553-1062 μg/m³ and 109,000–463,000 pt/cm³, respectively. Average black- and brown carbon levels ranged between 4.1-13.0 and 5.0–16.2 μg/m³. A 1000 μg/m³ increase in PM2.5 was associated with 2.37 (0.97, 4.67) and 2.21 (0.98, 5.00) times higher expression of IL8, immediately- and 18 hours after exposure. No associations were found between air pollutants and lung function, or the expression of IL6 or TNFα.
Discussion. Short-term exposure to air pollutants emitted from barbecuing was associated with a mild respiratory response in healthy young adults, including prolonged increase in nasal IL8 without a change in lung function and other measured inflammatory markers. The results might indicate prolonged respiratory inflammation, due to short-term exposure to barbecue fumes.
... Okoko et al. (2017) describe carbon footprints as amounts of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions about a given activity and linked to climate change and its impacts. Among the GHGs, carbon dioxide contributes the most to carbon footprint at 87% with methane, nitrous oxide, and other GHGs contributing the rest (Johnson 2009). In 2016, global warming, an important factor of energy footprint was ranked as the most significant global threat to the environment, society, and the economy (World Economic Forum 2016; Meena et al. 2020a, b). ...
... An unimproved charcoal value chain would have a basic earth kiln (recovery 13.1%) for production, and charcoal would be used in common braziers (efficiency 24%), while in the improved value chain, charcoal earth kilns are improved with an efficiency of 20% and used in improved cookstoves with an efficiency of 32% (Okoko et al. 2017). The charcoal footprint is dominated by the production of charcoal at 45% followed by its combustion at 40% (Johnson 2009). The reduction in carbon footprint from the unimproved charcoal value chain to the improved one is up to an average of 77.5%, and there is a further benefit of lessened demand on the wood resources by up to 60% (Okoko et al. 2017). ...
Agroecological footprints are a unique and popular concept for sustainable food system. Measuring and keeping a tab on the agroecological footprints of various human activities has gained remarkable interest in the past decade. From a range of human activities, food production and agriculture are most essential as well as extremely dependent on the agroecosystems. It is therefore crucial to understand the interaction of agroecosystem constituents with the extensive agricultural practices. The environmental impact measured in terms of agroecological footprints for a healthy for the sustainable food system. The editors critically examine the status of agroecological footprints and how it can be maintained within sustainable limits. Drawing upon research and examples from around the world, the book is offering an up-to-date account, and insight into how agroecology can be implemented as a solution in the form of eco-friendly practices that would boost up the production, curbs the environmental impacts, improves the bio-capacity, and reduces the agroecological footprints.
It further discusses the changing status of the agroecological footprints and the growth of other footprint tools and types, such as land, water, carbon, nitrogen, etc. This book will be of interest to teachers, researchers, government planners, climate change scientists, capacity builders, and policymakers. Also, the book serves as additional reading material for undergraduate and graduate students of agriculture, agroforestry, agroecology, soil science, and environmental sciences.
National and international agricultural scientists, policymakers will also find this to be useful to achieve the ‘Sustainable Development Goals’.
... Okoko et al. (2017) describe carbon footprints as amounts of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions about a given activity and linked to climate change and its impacts. Among the GHGs, carbon dioxide contributes the most to carbon footprint at 87% with methane, nitrous oxide, and other GHGs contributing the rest (Johnson 2009). In 2016, global warming, an important factor of energy footprint was ranked as the most significant global threat to the environment, society, and the economy (World Economic Forum 2016; Meena et al. 2020a, b). ...
... An unimproved charcoal value chain would have a basic earth kiln (recovery 13.1%) for production, and charcoal would be used in common braziers (efficiency 24%), while in the improved value chain, charcoal earth kilns are improved with an efficiency of 20% and used in improved cookstoves with an efficiency of 32% (Okoko et al. 2017). The charcoal footprint is dominated by the production of charcoal at 45% followed by its combustion at 40% (Johnson 2009). The reduction in carbon footprint from the unimproved charcoal value chain to the improved one is up to an average of 77.5%, and there is a further benefit of lessened demand on the wood resources by up to 60% (Okoko et al. 2017). ...
Charcoal is used in up to 80% of urban households and in small- to medium-scale commercial entities across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). These provide a ready market which contributes to household income generation, poverty reduction, national development, employment, and development of especially the rural economy. The demand for charcoal as an energy source is mainly driven by urbanization and population growth and also varies with the level of income among other factors. Meanwhile, charcoal production in SSA is mostly by producers in rural areas who are usually scattered and work independently of one another. Their production operations are temporary, and they shift whenever the wood resources dwindle. Charcoal energy footprint has become vital, and calculating the impacts of charcoal production is important in shrinking the ecofootprint. Contribution to rural livelihoods and national economies is significant but grossly undervalued due to the nature of the sector. In 2008, charcoal production and trade contributed US12 billion by 2030 and employing eight million people. It has an oligopolistic structure whose major players in the value chain are producers, wholesalers, transporters, and retailers. The transporters/wholesalers get as much as four times the income of the producers and more than 10 times that of retailers. The stable urban demand, easy access to forest resources, and low investment cost ensure that 60% of rural household income is from charcoal production and trade in most of the SSA. Production technologies are quite a challenge as they are of low efficiency (10%), thereby putting immense pressure on the natural forests that provide the feedstock. This, in turn, increases the energy footprint due to the reduced carbon sequestration capacity of the SSA woodlands. Hypothetically, production is projected to increase by 73% in 2030 with the fastest growth being in the Central African sub-region of SSA driven by, among other things, an increase in the human population. However, despite its contribution to rural livelihoods, policymakers give the charcoal sector a low priority and nearly zero consideration in planning and the implementation of national or regional energy action plans. Besides, existing policies, if any, are rarely implemented, and are usually governed by a weak regulatory framework. As such, the charcoal sector remains largely informal and less appreciated at both national and regional levels in the SSA.
... This can only be achieved when people take informed decisions like limiting their demand on charcoal and adopting the use of energy sources like LPG, thereby by saving the forest and reducing emissions of GHGs. In Sub-Saharan Africa, charcoal carbonization process involves large portions of the wood being lost in kilns with only 10% efficiency (Ackah, 2015; Johnson, 2009; Mugo & Gathui, 2010). The critical effect of charcoal production as held by (Pennise et al., 2001) is carbon emissions and forest cover depletion. ...
... The critical effect of charcoal production as held by (Pennise et al., 2001) is carbon emissions and forest cover depletion. Pennise et al (2001) investigate that in charcoal production, 51% of the wood is converted to charcoal, 27% to CO 2 and 13% as products of incomplete combustion or by-products (Ackah, 2015; Johnson, 2009). In a related study, Andreae (1991) as cited by Ackah, (2015) earlier estimates that burning biomass including the production of charcoal accounts for 2 – 45% of global emissions. ...
This study investigated the awareness of the urban population on the effects of charcoal production and use on the environment. Specifically, the study evaluated the charcoal production techniques in Kenya, identified the different types of cooking stoves used and cooking environments adopted by charcoal users as well as investigated the level of awareness of the population of Nairobi on the effects of charcoal production and use on environmental degradation. Survey research design was used in this study involving the use of semi-structured questionnaire, with a target of 100 respondents (20 large scale charcoal traders and 80 charcoal users) sampled through person-to-person interview, selected using purposive/systematic random sampling technique. Descriptive and inferential statistical data techniques were used to analyze the field data in Microsoft Excel and SPSS (Version 20). The findings of this study revealed traditional charcoal production techniques to be high (100%) among producers supplying Nairobi city. Significant low level (<50%) awareness by charcoal users and traders on the negative effects of charcoal production to the environment was also noted. Most users (93%) do not use energy conserving stoves for their cooking and heating activities. This is a big challenge to the highly predicted forest cover depletion, which is affecting the rooting of a green economy in Kenya. The findings reveal charcoal production as the main energy source, coupled with low awareness on environmental impacts by the producers and users. Biodiversity loss and reduced water cycling was poorly pointed as other environmental effects from deforestation from charcoal. This calls for urgent need on public awareness on energy saving technologies on charcoal production and use, government legislations on charcoal production with focus on reforestation and afforestation to be reinforced nationwide if Kenya hopes to transition to a sustainable green economy within its vision 2030 agenda. Mechanisms to allow access to green energy sources by the government are also urgently needed to reduce reliance on charcoal. The findings suggest the need for mitigation measures in order to minimize environmental impacts at local, national and global levels from charcoal production and use. The environment and particularly the forest is a major aspect in the drive towards sustainable development and therefore adopting a policy framework that protects the forest from uncontrolled charcoal production and use is imperative.
... Even in modern times charcoal production with traditional methods is very popular amongst rural communities in developing countries [9][10][11][12] as it is used as a fuel for domestic purposes and generates income because the raw charcoal and its by product vinegar are the starting material for the manufacture of products which are in very high demand [13][14]. However the process of production is crude and inefficient, unscientific yielding poor quality of bamboo charcoal. ...
... Therefore the production of Charcoal with bamboo is very attractive as the time required to harvest the starting bio mass is lower compared to charcoal made from other sources. The process of production, usage and consumption for charcoal has a lower carbon footprint when compared to other sources of fuel and firewood [9][10][11][12]. Charcoal made from bamboo inherently has 1.5 times the calorific value as compared to wood charcoal and nearly 2-3 times the surface area of wood charcoal due to the porous microstructure of bamboo [13,18,19]. ...
This paper presents the study of carbonization systems for the production of Bamboo Charcoal which is formed on dry distillation of raw bamboo. The paper mentions the drawbacks of the conventional practices of production of Bamboo Charcoal. Design of a new charcoal production unit is aimed at eliminating the identified drawbacks in the present methodology of production making the process of production faster and more efficient by minimizing heat loss during the production process. Designing is attempted with strong consideration for manufacture, operational cost and ease of operation of the furnace as the process finds application amongst rural people with little or no technical knowhow, making simplicity of design absolutely critical for implementation of the developed technology. Results of testing and experimentation presented in this paper describe the working prototype confirming qualitative and quantitative improvements in the bamboo charcoal being produced as compared to the conventional method of production.
... In the UK, however, barbecuing is generally performed outdoors. Here, data for 2006 suggest that, annually, over 30,000 t of charcoal are consumed in some 60 million barbecues [2]. According to HM Revenue and Customs, the UK imported 67,400 t of wood, shell and nut charcoal in 2012 [3], and of this 29.2% was imported from the EU (and mainly Spain), 10.6% from Asia, 18.3% from Latin America and 38.8% from Sub-Saharan Africa (and mainly Namibia and South Africa). ...
... The trace element content of charcoal may be augmented if recycled wood is used that has been treated with preservatives or painted. Although barbecue charcoal supplied to the UK market is believed to be produced from harvested wood [2], the presence of a rusty nail in one coal (from product 2/BB) suggests that recycled material may, in fact, be used in some cases. Additional, extraneous sources of trace elements in charcoal arise from secondary constituents, like brown coal and mineral carbon (as heat sources) and chemical additives, including binding agents, ash-whitening aids and ignition accelerators. ...
Total and bioaccessible concentrations of trace elements (Al, As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn) have been measured in charcoals from 15 barbecue products available from UK retailers. Total concentrations (available to boiling aqua regia) were greater in briquetted products (with mean concentrations ranging from 0.16μgg(-1) for Cd to 3240μgg(-1) for Al) than in lumpwoods (0.007μgg(-1) for Cd to 28μgg(-1) for Fe), presumably because of the use of additives and secondary constituents (e.g. coal) in the former. On ashing, and with the exception of Hg, elemental concentrations increased by factors ranging from about 1.5 to 50, an effect attributed to the combustion of organic components and offset to varying extents by the different volatilities of the elements. Concentrations in the ashed products that were bioaccessible, or available to a physiologically based extraction test (PBET) that simulates, successively, the chemical conditions in the human stomach and intestine, exhibited considerable variation among the elements studied. Overall, however, bioaccessible concentrations relative to corresponding total concentrations were greatest for As, Cu and Ni (attaining 100% in either or both simulated PBET phases in some cases) and lowest for Pb (generally <1% in both phases). A comparison of bioaccessible concentrations in ashed charcoals with estimates of daily dietary intake suggest that Al and As are the trace elements of greatest concern to human health from barbecuing.
... Avec l'augmentation de la population et l'urbanisation, le charbon de bois est le combustible le plus largement adopté dans les villes malgaches. Cela s'explique du fait que ce combustible présente plusieurs avantages par rapport au bois de feu : plus léger, plus facile à transporter et à stocker, il génère moins de fumées et possède un pouvoir calorifique plus élevé (Johnson, 2009 ;Lame et Adamu, 2018). Selon l'INSTAT (2021), 28,5 % des ménages malgaches utilisent encore le charbon de bois pour satisfaire leurs besoins énergétiques pour la cuisson des aliments. ...
À Madagascar, 28,5 % des ménages utilisent le charbon de bois pour cuisiner. Pour répondre à la demande, des méthodes locales de carbonisation traditionnelles et peu efficaces sont utilisées. Cette étude examine trois méthodes utilisant des matériaux forestiers locaux : i) MATI (Meule améliorée à Tirage Inversé), actuellement en phase d'extension ; ii) une meule hybride (HB) utilisée localement par les charbonniers ; et iii) la pratique traditionnelle « Doro Dedaka » (DD). Ces techniques diffèrent par la position des évents, l’humidité et l'agencement du bois à carboniser dans la meule. L’objectif est de comparer les caractéristiques physico-chimiques et énergétiques du charbon d'Eucalyptus robusta obtenu par ces méthodes. Le rendement brut de MATI est de 25 %, contre 19 % pour HB et 12 % pour DD. Les densités apparentes des charbons des trois types de meules sont statistiquement similaires. Un charbon d’eucalyptus acheté sur le marché (charbon x) a également été caractérisé. Les matières volatiles sont statistiquement similaires pour MATI, HB et DD tandis que celles du charbon x sont plus faibles (12,19 %). De plus, la teneur en cendres varie significativement entre les différents types de charbons : le charbon HB possède la teneur en cendres la plus faible (2,04 %), tandis que le charbon x présente la teneur la plus élevée (3,59 %). La teneur en carbone fixe des charbons fabriqués est quasi-similaire, mais celle du charbon x est légèrement inférieure (75,02 %). Le charbon MATI détient la meilleure valeur calorifique avec 31 307 J/g, contre 31 070 J/g pour HB et 29 453 J/g pour DD. Le charbon x a une valeur calorifique de 29 723 J/g. Ces résultats montrent que MATI, avec son rendement élevé et ses performances énergétiques optimales, constitue une alternative prometteuse pour améliorer l'efficacité de la production de charbon tout en préservant les ressources forestières.
... Charcoal derives from the pyrolysis process of various types of biomasses, primarily wood, conducted at relatively low temperatures and reduced oxygen concentration (Seboka, 2009). It offers several advantages compared to wood, including higher calorific value, faster ignition times, and ease of transport and storage (Johnson, 2009;Sharp and Turner, 2013). In addition to lump charcoal, charcoal briquettes have gained popularity as an alternative grilling fuel, particularly for barbecues (Seboka, 2009;Sotannde et al., 2010). ...
Charcoal-based products are widely spread and appreciated as fuel for grilling food. However, during their use,
they release high emissions that pose significant environmental issues and health risks. Charcoal grilling emissions
contain a wide range of pollutants including CO, CO2, NOx, PM, PAHs, VOCs, and trace metals. The
emission of these pollutants contributes to both indoor and outdoor air pollution. Factors such as charcoal type
and qualitative characteristics, combustion temperature, and the presence of food influence the emission
released. Compared to domestic emissions, charcoal grilling restaurants can be a major source of air pollutants
affecting both indoor and outdoor air quality. The deterioration of air quality determines health repercussions.
This study aimed to review the existing scientific literature on the environmental and health implications of
charcoal-based products used in domestic and restaurant settings. The association between charcoal grilling
emissions, respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and the increased risk of developing carcinogenic
conditions was evaluated. Workers in restaurant settings, exposed to cooking fumes for several hours, are
particularly vulnerable to these health risks, but even short exposure can lead to health problems. Mitigation
strategies involve different approaches, including the use of high-quality charcoal, implementing a certification
system to ensure high-quality tested products, using grilling equipment designed to reduce emissions, ensuring
proper ventilation, using abatement systems, and promoting responsible and sustainable grilling practices.
Implementing these strategies guarantees more eco-friendly and safer grilling conditions while effectively
reducing the adverse impacts of charcoal combustion on the environment and human health.
... Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a mixture of propane and butane, traditionally derived from oil refining or natural gas processing and is an essential off-grid fuel source for rural communities and business worldwide (Raslavičius et al., 2014;Aberilla et al., 2020). As LPG possesses a low carbon to hydrogen ratio it is cleanburning and generates lower amounts of carbon dioxide per capacity of heat produced and as such can provide significant carbon savings in comparison to solid and liquid fuel options such as coal and petroleum (Ristovski et al., 2005;Johnson, 2009). When utilized for transportation, LPG has further advantages over fossil alternatives producing 14 and 10% less CO 2 than petrol and diesel, respectively, while producing virtually no PM0.25, ...
Propane is a major component of liquefied petroleum gas, a major energy source for off-grid communities and industry. The replacement of fossil fuel-derived propane with more sustainably derived propane is of industrial interest. One potential production route is through microbial fermentation. Here we report, for the first time, the isolation of a marine bacterium from sediment capable of natural propane biosynthesis. Propane production, both in mixed microbial cultures generated from marine sediment and in bacterial monocultures was detected and quantified by gas chromatography–flame ionization detection. Using DNA sequencing of multiple reference genes, the bacterium was shown to belong to the genus Photobacterium . We postulate that propane biosynthesis is achieved through inorganic carbonate assimilation systems. The discovery of this strain may facilitate synthetic biology routes for industrial scale production of propane via microbial fermentation.
... Faktor lain adalah bahwa sebagai bahan bakar, LPG secara lebih efisien daripada arang dalam produksinya dan jauh lebih efisien dalam memasak. (Johnson, 2009). ...
The most common method used in grilling food is by burning charcoal and food ingredients such as fish and meat, heated from the heat of the charcoal burning. This charcoal grill has the disadvantage that it will produce pollutants into the air. Technically, charcoal grills are more complicated to implement, because during the grilling process the fire must be continuously controlled so that it does not go out. Charcoal grilled food will also get dirty easily. This activity is carried out with the aim of getting a grill design that is easy to operate at home. The method used is engineering research. The activities undertaken are literature study, field observation and design. The result of this activity is the design of a grill that can be operated at home with ease.
... Despite the advancement in fuel consumption patterns, the use of charcoal especially for cooking and heating cannot be overemphasized in the developing world. Charcoal barbecue is widely used by in restaurants, road side and household (Johnson, 2009;Adam, 2009). In 2014, the production of charcoal is about 61% of global production (Vicente, 2018). ...
In the developing countries of the world like Nigeria charcoal is a common source of fuel that is extensively used and this can leads to the emission of various pollutants which are harmful to human health. The aim of this study is to characterize the gaseous emission from the combustion of some common wood charcoal species in southwestern Nigeria using E8500 portable industrial combustion analyzer. The criteria pollutants emissions from this study are CO, HC, NO, and NO x The results obtained showed that the emission factor were of the range 4.850-26.392 g/kg with an arithmetic mean of 17.092±7.483 g/kg for CO, 8.58× 10 −4-3.01× 10 −4 g/kg with an arithmetic mean of 4.85× 10 −4 ± 1.631 × 10 −4 g/kg for HC, 0-1.84× 10 −2 g/kg with an arithmetic mean of 3.28× 10 −3 ± 5.948 × 10 −3 g/kg for NO and 0-1.84× 10 −2 g/kg with an arithmetic mean of 3.28× 10 −3 ± 5.948 × 10 −3 g/kg for NO x .
... As the interest in renewable energy rises and the use of abundant solid biomass grows, it is critical to understand how fuel properties influence combustion emissions, impact human health, and our environment. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the purity of solid biomass fuels available on the market and examine if these fuels are of the highest possible quality before reaching consumers (Bioenergy Europe, 2020;BP, 2020;Drobniak et al., 2021aDrobniak et al., , 2021bChandrasekaran et al., 2012;Huang et al., 2016;Jelonek et al., 2020aJelonek et al., , 2020bJelonek et al., , 2021Jiang et al., 2018;Johnson, 2009;Kabir et al., 2010Kabir et al., , 2011Kao et al., 2014;Kuchler et al., 2019;Kuo et al., 2006;Larson and Koenig, 1994;Miranda et al., 2015;Mirowski et al., 2018;Oanh et al., 2002;Obernberger et al., 2006;Olsson and Petersson, 2003;Orasche et al., 2012;PFI, 2021;Rahman and Kim, 2012;Ruchirawat et al., 2005;Sun et al., 2019;Susaya et al., 2010;Viegas et al., 2012;Vicente et al., 2018;Wu et al., 2015). ...
As concerns about climate change and sustainability rise, biomass utilization has a potential to become one of the pillars of the future energy market. It is therefore critical to assure that solid biomass fuels are of the highest quality and do not contribute to avoidable air pollution. Our research has shown that petrographic analysis of solid biomass in reflected light can quickly and reliably provide information on fuel composition and contamination. As such, this technique has a potential to improve our understanding of raw fuel properties and, in some instances, even predict parameters of their combustion emissions.
This paper provides guidelines for conducting microscopic analysis of wood pellets and charcoal-based fuels in reflected light. It presents two preliminary microscopic classifications of solid biomass components and emphasizes the need for training materials, exemplified by recently published photomicrograph atlases. Our research indicates that pairing reflected light microscopy with the currently used standard testing would enhance the quality assessment of solid biomass. To achieve this, the methodology must be promoted, tested for inter-laboratory reproducibility, and finally standardized.
... The amounts and composition of pollutants emitted from those sources depend greatly on the cooking materials, cooking styles, and even cooking fuel [15]. For example, charcoal is used extensively for barbecuing in most restaurants in the world because it has high heating value, is cheap compared to other types of fuels, can be easily stored, and gives a unique flavor and texture to the food [16][17][18]. Charcoal contains various types of organic and inorganic compounds such as hydrocarbons, sulfur, water, and oxygen along and numerous trace elements [19][20][21]. Therefore, the combustion of charcoal creates a considerable amount of airborne toxic elements both in the solid and gaseous states. ...
The emission of cooking fumes becomes a serious concern due to the fast development of the restaurant business because it harms the health of restaurant workers and customers and damages the outdoor air quality. This study was conducted to evaluate the impact of restaurant emissions on ambient air quality. Twenty restaurants with four different types of food cooking were selected in Dammam City, which represents a densely populated urban city in Saudi Arabia. Levels of five air pollutants were simultaneously measured in the restaurants’ chimneys and in the surrounding ambient air. The highest mean levels of CO (64.8 ± 44.3 ppm), CO2 (916.7 ± 463.4 ppm), VOCs (105.1 ± 61.3 ppm), NO2 (4.2 ± 2.4 ppm), and SO2 (8.0 ± 7.4 ppm) were recorded in chimneys of the grilling restaurants. Similarly, the highest levels of all pollutants were recorded in the areas adjacent to the grilling restaurants rather than other types.
... comm., 2019). There are also land cover change arguments to be considered when using wood from virgin forests and woodlands (Johnson, 2009). These intricacies are beyond the scope of this case study. ...
The development of the local end-use market for waste plastic is crucial to increasing South Africa’s plastic recycling rates, especially for low-value, problematic plastic fractions, such as polyolefins consisting mainly of polyethylene and polypropylene. The use of recycled and/or alternative materials such as plastics in road construction is beneficial not only in terms of sustaining the environment, since naturally occurring materials will be conserved but as a means of reducing construction costs. Recycled plastics are being investigated worldwide not only as a green investment, but also for improved pavement durability (Milad et al., 2020). The objectives of the study were to screen, evaluate and implement existing international technologies in line with South African design standards and specifications for materials in road construction. The main research question was whether low value waste plastics can be optimised as alternative road construction materials in South Africa.
... Furthermore, switching from traditional fuels to LPG for cooking purposes can also be expected to play a key role in reducing CO2 emissions (Kypridemos et al. 2020). The carbon footprint associated with charcoal grilling is said to be three times the level of carbon footprint related to LPG grilling (Johnson 2009). Thus, LPG can be considered as a low ecological-damaging source of energy. ...
India is predominantly a fossil fuel-intensive South Asian country that has traditionally settled for higher economic gains at the expense of lower environmental quality. However, in the contemporary era, it has become essential for India to come up with viable solutions that can enable the nation to transform its economy into a low-carbon one. Although replacing fossil fuel use with renewable energy sources is assumed to be the ideal pathway to decarbonizing the Indian economy, achieving this clean energy transition involves a long-term process. Thus, the Indian government should rather consider adoption of interim solutions to the environmental pollution problems faced by the nation. Against this backdrop, this study looks at whether enhancing the consumption level of liquefied petroleum gas, a relatively cleaner fossil fuel, can help India reduce its carbon dioxide emissions figures and attain environmentally sustainable economic growth. The econometric analysis is designed as per the theoretical framework of the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis whereby the effects of economic growth on carbon dioxide emissions are examined controlling for liquefied petroleum gas consumption in the context of India between 1990 and 2018. Based on the findings from the autoregressive distributed lag model bounds test analysis, it is witnessed that there are long-run cointegrating relationships among per capita levels of carbon dioxide emissions, real gross domestic product, and liquefied petroleum gas consumption of India. Besides, the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis is found to be valid only in the short run; however, it does not sustain in the long run since the economic growth-carbon dioxide emissions nexus is observed to follow a U-shaped relationship in the long run. Moreover, higher liquefied petroleum gas consumption is found to boost carbon dioxide emissions in the short run while reducing it in the long run. Furthermore, the findings from the wavelet and partial wavelet coherence and causality analyses also advocate in favor of promoting the use of liquefied petroleum gas in India in order to significantly curb the energy use-related carbon dioxide emission figures of the nation. Hence, considering these important findings, this study recommends that the Indian government should design policies for augmenting liquefied petroleum gas into the national energy mix and also adopt relevant green economic growth strategies in order to facilitate environmentally-sustainable growth of its economy.
... Therefore the production of Charcoal with bamboo is very attractive as it takes only 3-4 years for Bamboo culms to reach adequate height and weight for commercial production of vinegar and charcoal, much lesser time in harvest of starting material for production when compared to charcoal made from other sources. Deforestation can be significantly reduced as charcoal could meet energy demands reducing their reliance on forest firewood for domestic fuel [8][9][10]. Also the multiple uses of bamboo provide an incentive for local people in the North East of India and in other parts of the world to cultivate bamboo for economic benefits other than production of vinegar and charcoal [11]. ...
This paper presents methods for the production of Bamboo Vinegar. Bamboo Vinegar is formed on condensation of Bamboo Vapor which is a byproduct of bamboo pyrolysis occurring during the process of production of Bamboo Charcoal. The Paper mentions the conventional practices of producing Bamboo Vinegar and provides detailed study on the development of a condenser of adequate rating and sizing for the production of Bamboo Vinegar. Appropriate assumptions are made in designing the condenser which is a modification of a shell and tube type heat exchanger. The condenser acts as a heat sink improving the yield and quality of bamboo vinegar produced. Designs have been attempted with strong consideration for manufacture and operational cost as the condenser finds application amongst rural people with little or no technical knowhow, therefore simplicity of design is absolutely critical. Experimental results confirm working prototype of condensation system. Improvement over conventional method of production is specified for in this paper.
... Logo, tem sido consenso entre alguns pesquisadores como : Kenyon, (1945);Hoogwijk, Faaij et al., (2005) ;Domac, Benkovic et al., (2008) ;Noce, Lorensi Do Canto et al., (2008) e Johnson, (2009) que a situação pode ser equacionada mediante o planejamento das condições necessárias para que florestas plantadas possam vir a atender idealmente à totalidade da demanda de madeira para a fabricação desse insumo. Devendo ressaltar que esse planejamento deve ter em seu escopo o período mínimo de seis a sete anos -caso a espécie escolhida seja o Eucalyptus spp. ...
As agroindústrias que consomem biomassa florestal têm crescido a taxas expressivas nos últimos anos, principalmente as que demandam: celulose e papel, siderurgia a carvão vegetal, painéis de madeira para móveis e construções civis, toras extraídas para exportação in natura, entre outros. Porém, o que mais se tem destaque, e preocupações socioeconômicas e ambientais, é a produção de carvão vegetal como insumo-produto a atividade siderúrgica. Logo, esse trabalho teve como objetivo apresentar essa dependência de consumo das siderurgias pelo carvão vegetal e a relação desse consumo com a expansão da Silvicultura do Eucalipto. Para tanto, utilizou-se o Modelo de Correlação Linear e o MMMQ como instrumentos de análise estatística do grau de influência e relação do Carvão Vegetal sobre a Produção de Eucalipto e vice-versa. Os resultados encontrados apresentaram uma projeção crescente e linear da atividade Silvícola do Eucalipto, a fim de atender uma expressiva necessidade de elevação da produção de Carvão Vegetal como principal insumo-produto demandado pelas siderurgias. Sob o ponto de vista do agronegócio esses resultados podem ser dimensionados a uma produção industrial mais limpa e sustentável, atendendo assim as imposições globais, com a finalidade de se produzir com recursos renováveis.
... In one of the studies on GHG emissions, Johnson, E. 2009 on the basis of comparison of carbon emissions analysed that cooking with LPG rather than charcoal combats global warming and deforestation. The author studied the carbon footprint of LPG distribution and assessed it to be 42 kg CO 2 e/t LPG. ...
... In addition, LPG is radically more efficient than charcoal in its production, and considerably more efficient in cooking. However, the use of LPG requires a heavier and more complicated grill ( Johnson, 2009). In using briquettes, odour and visible smoke are not wanted. ...
The paper shows the results of a study on the effect of starch binder on the mechanical, physical and burning properties of charcoal briquettes. Two types of binders were repeatedly used to make briquettes of native wheat starch and modified wheat starch, at 8% of the whole. Briquetting was performed in a roller press unit, and pillow-shaped briquettes were made. The moisture of the mixed material ranged from 28 to 32%. The product, whether the former or the latter, was characterized by very good mechanical properties and satisfactory physical properties. Moreover, the type of starch binder had no effect on toughness, calorific heating value, volatiles, fixed carbon content and ash content. However, the combustion test showed quite different burning properties. As briquettes should have short firing up time and lower smokiness, as well as high maximum temperature and long burning time, we have concluded that briquettes with native wheat starch as a binder are more appropriate for burning in the grill.
... Additionally, charcoal briquettes burn for a longer period of time than gas does, emitting more CO 2 into the atmosphere. When comparing the carbon footprints of two major grill types, Johnson (2009) has found that CO 2 emission during grilling using charcoal is almost three times as large as that during grilling using liquid propane gas. Compared with charcoal, gas has a low carbon-to-hydrogen ratio and a low amount of tar, which means that it generates smaller amounts of carbon dioxide and other carbon-based pollutants per unit of heat produced. ...
The present study seeks to define the possible cancer risk arising from the inhalation exposure to particle (PM)-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) present in barbecue emission gases and to compare the risk depending on the type of fuel used for grill powering. Three types of fuel were compared: liquid propane gas, lump charcoal, and charcoal briquettes. PM2.5 and PM2.5–100 were collected during grilling. Subsequently, 16 PAHs congeners were extracted from the PM samples and measured quantitatively using gas chromatography. The content of PM-bound PAHs was used to calculate PAHs deposition in the respiratory tract using the multiple path particle dosimetry model. Finally, a probabilistic risk model was developed to assess the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) faced by people exposed to PAHs. We found a distinctly greater PAHs formation in case of grills powered by charcoal briquettes. The summary concentration of PAHs (Σ16PAH) ranged from <0.002 μg/m3 (gas grill) to 21.52 μg/m3 (grill powered by briquettes). Daily exposure of a grill operator, while grilling meat, to PM2.5-bound PAHs, adjusted to benzo[a]pyrene toxicity equivalent (BaPeq), was 326.9, 401.6, and 0.04 ng/d for lump charcoal, charcoal briquettes, and gas powered grill, respectively. Exposure to PAHs emitted from charcoal briquettes was four orders of magnitude greater than that for gas grill. The ILCR followed a log-normal distribution, with a geometric mean of 8.38 × 10−5 for exposure to PM2.5-bound PAHs emitted from gas grills unloaded with food and as high as 8.68 × 10−1 for the grills loaded with food over charcoal briquettes. The estimated cancer risk for people who would inhale barbecue particles for 5 h a day, 40 days a year exceeds the acceptable level set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. We conclude that the type of heat source used for grilling influences the PM-bound PAHs formation. The greatest concentration of PAHs is generated when grilling over charcoal briquettes. Loading grills with food generates conspicuously more PAHs emissions. Traditional grilling poses cancer risk much above the acceptable limit, as opposed to much less risk involving gas powered grills.
... Carbon footprints are a summation of greenhouse-gas emissions of a product or service across its lifetime (or life cycle). A carbon footprint is a subset of a life cycle assessment, which is a sum total of all emissions of product or service (Johnson, 2009). Consequently, LCA is a suitable tool for assessing plastic bottle packaging and packaging disposal options. ...
Plastic is a modern day’s biggest hazard. This trend, started in 1973’s, and ends in pollution of oceans to ecosystems. A carbon footprint is a measure of the impact human activities on earth and in particular on the environment; more specifically it relates to climate change and to the total amount of greenhouse gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide emitted. The carbon footprints is the largest contributor to humanity’s total environmental footprint. The world population consumes ever-increasing amounts of all types of products, and more products are being sold with packaging day by day. Most market products are offered to consumers in a wide range of packaging alternatives regardless of the proportion of municipal solid waste attributed to packaging increases year after year.
In this study, PET bottles were evaluated for Carbon Footprint criteria. The functional unit is defined as “one piece 33cl bottle”. The study used two different waste disposal scenarios. These scenarios included disposal in landfills and incineration. Assessments and comparing operations in the system are done by using software entitled with SimaPro 8.0.1 Greenhouse Gas Protocol method, which is developed as appropriate with ISO 14040 Life Cycle Assessment Standard was also applied to PET bottle under consideration.
... Charcoal-grilled meat is very popular worldwide, partially due to the effect of flavor enhancement through grilling [2,5]. However, burning charcoal can emit diverse pollutants including particulate matter (PM) and carbon monoxide (CO)6789101112, greenhouse gases (GHGs)13141516 , hazardous trace metals (TMs) [4,5,17,18], volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [3,19202122, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)23242526. Among those diverse pollutants, PM is the most abundant, as its concentration is proportional to the amount of charcoal consumed for cooking, regardless of the source (cook-stoves, combustors, and grills) [8,9] . ...
Charcoal is widely used today for both indoor and outdoor cooking activities such as household cooking, grilling, barbecuing, and broiling. As such, its combustion has been designated as sources of a diverse range of pollutants containing particulate matter (PM) and a list of hazardous trace metals (TMs) in both indoor/outdoor ambient air. In this work, we review the current status of technical tools and approaches to measure the pollution of PM and TMs emitted due to charcoal combustion with respect to available sampling, pretreatment, and analytical techniques. The reported concentration levels of those pollutants were compared in reference to guideline values. Finally, the potential health hazards of PMs and TMs emitted from charcoal are evaluated. Based on this approach, a concise view is provided to describe the diversity, level, and health hazards of particulate and metallic pollutants emitted through the combustion of charcoal in cooking activities.
... A study showed that annually, over 30 000 tons of charcoal are consumed with barbecues in England. 15 In North America, propane also has been used as an important type of fuel. 16 Barbecues and street foods are often prepared in residential, commercial, or recreational areas that have insufficient ventilation and poor air circulation. ...
Barbecuing or charcoal grilling has become part of the popular outdoor recreational activities nowadays; however, potential human health hazards through outdoor exposure to BBQ fume have yet to be adequately quantified. To fill this knowledge gap, atmospheric size-fractioned particle and gaseous samples were collected near an outdoor-barbecuing vendor stall (along with charcoal-grilled food items) in Xinjiang of Northwest China with a 10-stage Micro-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor and a PUF sampler and were analyzed for particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Exposure to PAHs through inhalation and dermal contact by adult consumers who spent one hour per day near a charcoal-grilled vendor for a normal meal (lunch or dinner) amounted to a BaP equivalent (BaPeq) dosage of 3.0-77 ng d-1 (inhalation: 2.8-27 ng d-1 of BaPeq; dermal contact: 0.2-50 ng d-1 of BaPeq), comparable to those (22-220 ng d-1 of BaPeq) through the consumption of charcoal-grilled meat assumed to be at the upper limit of 50-150 g. In addition, the potential health risk was in the range of 3.1×10-10-1.4×10-4 for people of different age groups with inhalation and dermal contact exposure to PAHs once a day, with the 95% confidence interval (7.2×10-9-1.2×10-5) comparable to the lower limit of the potential cancer risk range (1×10-6-1×10-4). Sensitivity analyses indicated that the area of dermal contact with gaseous contaminants is a critical parameter for risk assessment. These results indicated that outdoor exposure (particularly dermal contact) to BBQ fume may have become a significant but largely neglected source of health hazards to the general population and should be well recognized.
... One thing to note is that for comparing the global warming potentials of fuels, the nature of the energy sources should be considered. Johnson (2009) compared the CF of charcoal and LPG grill systems, including production, use, and disposal of charcoal, LPG, grill, and the LPG cylinder, and showed that for 150 grill sessions GHG emissions were 998 and 349 kg CO 2 eq, respectively. In addition, to produce 1 MJ of useful energy, the global warming potential of biogas, charcoal, LPG, electricity, firewood, and kerosene were measured according to the standard LCA guidelines, which considered the extraction of raw materials and energy resources from the environment, the conversion of these resources into the desired product, and the utilization of these fuels, and the CF of the six types of fuels were 0.16, 1.45, 0.12, 0.04, 1.03, and 0.22 kg CO 2 eq, respectively (Afrane & Ntiamoah, 2011, 2012. ...
... The UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative launched a project group on carbon footprint. The Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) launched a carbon footprint trial project [5] and some other projects or researches in carbon footprint [6][7][8][9][10] . All these promotion try to serve an increasing market demand for "climate change relevant" information along supply chains and towards consumers. ...
With the increasing seriousness of climate change problem, carbon footprint has become a very useful method to measure carbon emissions and has been widely accepted. In modern industry, electricity is almost consumed in all industry processes, and electricity is the first "footprint" of most products. As carbon emissions is always measured by theoretical estimation from input inventory but not experimental data, the input inventory of electricity generation becomes very important in carbon footprint analysis. Electricity generation is a very complex process, where all input items inter-dependant on each other and the whole system is an infinite cycle net. But in the traditional calculation model of input inventory, the interaction effect of production system is usually neglected. The major work of this study is to make clear the carbon emissions of provision 1kWh thermal power generation to consumers in China in 2006, since thermal power generation takes the most proportion of Chinese electricity. This study used a matrix-based model which includes interaction effect of the system to calculate the input inventory of electricity generation, and then the carbon emissions of thermal electricity generation in China in 2006 can be calculated. The final result of this paper can be used in carbon footprint, Life Cycle Assessment or some other related fields.
... According to a paper by Johnson (2), charcoal grilling, which has a higher heating value, has a footprint of 998 kg CO 2 e, which is almost three times that for grilling with LPG, 348 kg CO 2 e. Grilling with LPG has a fuel consumption that is relatively close to the amount of food cooked as the fuel consumption using LPG can be easily regulated compared with charcoal. ...
Objectives: We studied respiratory problems among vendors exposed to cooking fumes in an open-air hawker center. Exposure to cooking fumes from either the use of fossil fuels or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has been shown to be associated with adverse respiratory health effects.
Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study among 67 food vendors exposed to cooking fumes as well as 18 merchandise sellers at an open-air hawker center in Brunei Darussalam. Past medical and smoking history and exposure to cooking fumes were obtained. The validated American Thoracic Society Questionnaire with a translated Malay version was used to ask for respiratory symptoms.
Results: Compared to merchandise sellers (n = 18), cooking vendors (n = 67) had a higher self-reported respiratory symptoms (50.7% for those cooking and 33.3% for merchandise sellers). Cough (28.3%) was the main respiratory symptom experienced in cooking vendors and breathlessness (22.2%) among merchandise sellers. Half (50.0%) of cooking vendors who worked for more than 10 years had cough and 27.3% had phlegm. Those cooking with charcoal were two times more likely to have cough than those cooking with LPG. Cooking vendors with a job duration of more than 10 years were thrice more likely to have cough.
Conclusion: Cooking vendors in the open-air hawker center exposed to cooking fumes had more respiratory symptoms compared to non-exposed merchandise sellers. The type of fuel used for cooking and duration of work was associated with increased prevalence of cough.
... -This process is common to all pathways involving pellet production, case 3. Engineering AG;2009. 2 GEMIS v. 4.9, 2014, wood-pellet-wood-industry-heat plant-DE-2010. ...
The Renewable Energy Directive (RED) (2009/28/EC) and the Fuel Quality Directive (FQD) (2009/30/EC) fix a threshold of savings of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for biofuels and bioliquids, and set the rules for calculating the greenhouse impact of biofuels, bioliquids and their fossil fuels comparators. To help economic operators to declare the GHG emission savings of their products, default and typical values are also listed in the annexes of the RED and FQD directives.
The Commission recommended Member States to use the same approach for other bioenergy sources in the report from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on sustainability requirements for the use of solid and gaseous biomass sources in electricity, heating and cooling (COM(2010)11). Typical and default GHG emission values for solid and gaseousbioenergy pathways were reported in the report.
SWD(2014) 259 updates the values defined in the COM(2010)11 to account for the technogical and market developments in the bioenergy sector.
This report describes the assumptions made by the JRC when compiling the updated dataset used to calculate default and typical GHG emissions for the different solid and gaseous bioenergy pathways and the results of such calculations in terms of typical and default GHG emission values . In the annexes the comments/questions received from JRC as reaction to the presentation of the data in stakeholders/experts consultations are reported together with their relative answers/rebuttals.
The dataset can be used to get a better, detailed insight into the default values proposed by the SWD(2014) 259. Furthermore, stakeholders can use the dataset in combination with proprietary data to calculate GHG emissions associated to their bioenergy pathway. Regulators and governmental bodies can use the proposed default values in local or national bioenergy sustainability legislations.
A few corrections are applied in this Version 1a.
... 16 However, under such conditions subsidized LPG use due to its energy density may represent an even higher user benefit. 47,49 The results further emphasize the importance of investigating and documenting the carbon storage effect and the agricultural benefit in biochar production-utilization systems for sustainable use. Without these two components in place, the use would be neither environmentally friendly nor socioeconomically beneficial. ...
Biochar is the product of incomplete combustion (pyrolysis) of organic material. In rural areas, it can be used as a soil amendment to increase soil fertility. Fuel-constrained villagers may however prefer to use biochar briquettes as a higher-value fuel for cooking over applying it to soils. A systems-oriented analysis using life cycle assessment (LCA) and cost benefit analysis (CBA) was conducted to analyze these two alternative uses of biochar, applying the study to a rural village system in Indonesia. The results showed soil amendment for enhanced agricultural production to be the preferential choice with a positive benefit to the baseline scenario of -26 ecopoints (LCA) and -173 USD (CBA) annually pr. household. In this case, the positive effects of carbon sequestration to the soil and the economic value of the increased agricultural production outweighed the negative environmental impacts from biochar production and the related production costs. Use of biochar in briquettes for cooking fuel yielded negative net effects in both the LCA and CBA (85 ecopoints and 176 USD), even when positive health effects from reduced indoor air pollution were included. The main reasons for this are that emissions during biochar production are not compensated by carbon sequestration, and that briquette making is labor-intensive. The results emphasize the importance of investigating and documenting the carbon storage effect and the agricultural benefit in biochar production-utilization systems for a sustainable use. Further research focus on efficient production is necessary due to the large environmental impact of biochar production. In addition, biochar should continue to be used in those soils where the agricultural effect is most beneficial.
... If bioenergy crops displace forest or grassland, the carbon re- leased from soils and vegetation, plus lost future sequestration, gen- erates carbon debt, which counts against the carbon the crops absorb." The approach was applied to a specific wood product, char- coal, by Johnson (2009a). ...
As biofuel usage has boomed over the past decade, so has research and regulatory interest in its carbon accounting. This paper examines one aspect of that carbon accounting: the baseline, i.e. the reference case against which other conditions or changes can be compared. A literature search and analysis identified four baseline types: no baseline; reference point; marginal fossil fuel; and biomass opportunity cost. The fourth one, biomass opportunity cost, is defined in more detail, because this is not done elsewhere in the literature. The four baselines are then applied to the carbon footprint of a wood-fired power plant.The footprint of the resulting wood-fired electricity varies dramatically, according to the type of baseline. Baseline type is also found to be the footprint's most significant sensitivity. Other significant sensitivities are: efficiency of the power plant; the growth (or re-growth) rate of the forest that supplies the wood; and the residue fraction of the wood. Length of the policy horizon is also an important factor in determining the footprint.The paper concludes that because of their significance and variability, baseline choices should be made very explicit in biofuel carbon footprints.
This paper evaluates the impact of distributing high-cost LPG stoves to urban households through subsidy and on credit in a randomized controlled trial setup on charcoal consumption, CO2 emission, and cooking time. The paper finds that the treatment group (credit and subsidy combined) reduced charcoal consumption by 28.7 percent 15 months after the intervention, corresponding to an average aversion of 3.78 MT of CO2/household/year. The two treatments are not statistically significantly different. However, a social cost-benefit analysis suggests that the benefit of the stoves is 30-fold larger than their cost under credit and 18-fold larger under subsidy, which indicates that credit is the most socially effective instrument for supporting LPG interventions. The paper also documents that LPG stoves reduced cooking time by 68.5 percent 15 months after the interventions. The findings suggest that access to micro-finance is a promising avenue for promoting energy transition and addressing the adverse effects of biomass fuel use in developing countries.
Bauran energi primer di Indonesia masih didominasi oleh energi fosil, salah satunya batubara. Indonesia tercatat memiliki sumber daya batubara sebesar 110,07 Milyar Ton dan cadangan sebesar 36,28 Milyar Ton, yang didominasi oleh batubara kalori rendah dan sedang. Sekitar 72% dari produksi batubara dalam negeri dilakukan ekspor. Saat ini Pemerintah tengah mendorong pemanfaatan batubara untuk peningkatan nilai tambah (PNT) melalui gasifikasi batubara menjadi Dimetil Eter (DME). DME memiliki karakteristik yang serupa dengan Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) sebagai bahan bakar untuk memasak rumah tangga. Pemanfaatan batubara melalui gasifikasi batubara menjadi DME diharapkan mampu mengurangi impor LPG yang pada tahun 2021 mencapai 6,33 juta ton (75,84%). Melalui beberapa regulasi dan insentif yang telah disiapkan oleh Pemerintah, gasifikasi batubara diharapkan dapat menekan import LPG hingga 1,9 juta ton pada tahun 2050. Selain terciptanya ketahanan energi nasional, upaya ini juga berkontribusi terhadap peningkatan bauran energi baru sebesar 3% pada tahun 2025 dan 1,9% pada tahun 2050, serta berkontribusi pada penurunan gas rumah kaca hingga 14,03% pada tahun 2025 dan 33,35% pada tahun 2050 pada pembakaran DME sebagai bahan bakar memasak rumah tangga. Untuk mengurangi timbulan emisi CO2, perlu dilakukan beberapa pengembangan dalam produksi DME diantaranya menggunakan biomassa sebagai bahan baku, penangkapan CO2, dan yang baru-baru ini dikembangkan adalah memanfaatkan CO2 yang ditangkap sebagai bahan baku untuk memproduksi DME.
Grill-specific footprints for common fuels/grill types in the USA are estimated from public information and data from a major grill manufacturer. These are a function of both 1) a fuel’s footprint and 2) a grill’s efficiency of cooking. In 2022, grill-specific footprints vary by 9:1. A typical gas grill is highest at 3.6 lb CO2e/grill session, nine times that of a wood-pellet grill, lowest at 0.4 lb. Charcoal briquettes, electricity and super-efficient gas grills come in-between. Pellets are lowest, because they are made from waste wood and their production burden is modest. Electricity has the highest fuel footprint, yet the second-lowest grill-specific footprint, thanks to its high efficiency. Briquettes come in fourth, because their production involves fossil gas, and they contain some fossil coal. Grill efficiency is key for gas (natural gas or propane): a typical gas grill has twice the footprint of a super-efficient one. In 2027, with bio substitution, the super-efficient gas grill would move ahead of pellets. Electricity and charcoal could improve but would still place fifth and sixth. The range of grill-specific footprints could fall to 4.5:1, within a much-lower range, the highest footprint in 2027 almost 60% lower than 2022’s highest.
To evaluate CO2 emission mitigation potential and cost effectiveness of rice husk utilization, Life Cycle Analysis was conducted for 9 scenarios. The results showed that, gasification is the most efficient CO2 mitigation. From cost analysis, the cost mitigation can be achieved by replacing the current fossil fuels in cooking scenarios. Among the power generation scenarios, it was found that 30MW combustion and 5MW gasification power generations were the most economically-efficient scenarios. The briquette combustion power generation appeared less cost-competitive than direct combustion, whilst the large-scale gasification scenarios and the pyrolysis scenarios give the increase in cost from the baseline. From the viewpoints of both CO2 and cost, it was indicated that the win-win scenarios can be the rice husk use for cooking, for large-scale combustion power generation, and for small-scale gasification. Để đánh giá tiềm năng giảm thiểu phát thải CO2 và hiệu quả chi phí của việc sử dụng trấu, phương pháp đánh giá vòng đời sản phẩm đã được thực hiện cho 9 kịch bản. Kết quả cho thấy, khí hóa trấu để sản xuất điện có tiềm năng giảm phát sinh khí CO2 nhiều nhất. Kết quả phân tích chi phí cho thấy việc giảm thiểu chi phí có thể đạt được khi thay thế sử dụng nhiên liệu hóa thạch trong kịch bản dùng trấu cho nấu ăn. Giữa các kịch bản về sản xuất điện, hiệu quả kinh tế cao nhất trong trường hợp đốt trực tiếp trấu để sản xuất điện ở quy mô công xuất lớn (30MW) và khí hóa ở quy mô trung bình (5MW). Trường hợp dùng củi trấu không mang lại hiệu quả kinh tế so với dùng trực tiếp trấu để phát điện. Hai trường hợp dùng trấu để sản xuất dầu sinh học và khí hóa gas công suất lớn (30MW) cho thấy chi phí tăng cao so với điều kiện biên. Kịch bản cho kết quả khả thi về hiệu quả kinh tế và giảm phát thải CO2 là dùng trấu để nấu ăn, đốt trực tiếp để phát điện công suất lớn và khí hóa công suất trung bình.
China’s rapid economic development has initiated the deterioration of its ecological environment, posing a threat to the sustainable development of human society. As a result, an assessment of regional sustainability is critical. This paper researches China’s most forested province, Fujian Province, as the study area. We proposed a grid-based approach to assess the regional carbon footprint in accordance with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) carbon emission guidelines. Our method of assessment also introduced carbon emission indicators with our improved and published Net Primary Production (NPP) based on process simulation. The carbon footprint in Fujian Province from 2005–2017 was calculated and examined from a spatiotemporal perspective. Ecological indicators were used in the sustainability assessment. The research draws the following conclusions: 1) the carbon footprint in the eastern regions of Fujian Province was higher due to rapid economic development; 2) that of the western regions was lower; 3) an uptrend in the carbon footprint of Fujian Province was observed. All five ecological indicators based on carbon emissions and economic and social data showed an ecologically unsustainable trend over 13 years in the research area due to unsustainable economic development. Therefore, it is urgent to balance the relationship between economic development and environmental protection. Our research provides scientific references for achieving ecological civilization and sustainability in a similar region.
The Commission's legislative proposal for a recast of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED-recast) (COM(2016) 767), in Art. 26(7), specifies the minimum greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions saving thresholds that bioenergy must comply with in order to count towards the renewables targets and to be eligible for public support. Annex V (liquid biofuels) and Annex VI (solid and gaseous biomass) of the RED-Recast describe the methodology for GHG savings calculations needed to comply with the GHG criteria. They also provide a list of Default GHG emission values, aggregated and disaggregated, that operators can use to demonstrate compliance of their product with the GHG criteria. This report describes the input data, assumptions and methodological approach applied by the JRC when compiling the updated dataset used to calculate GHG emissions for the different biomass pathways. The GHG emissions resulting from the application of the methodology from COM(2016) 767, and presented in Annex VI of the document, are also shown. The report aims to provide operators, stakeholders ,and the scientific community all the necessary information to explain the assumptions chosen as well as to guarantee reproducibility of the results. Additional analysis to test the sensitivity of the results to various assumptions is presented in the final section of the report.
Introduction: Carbon footprint is a set of greenhouse gas emissions from a service or product throughout their
lifespan, and a scale for measure the impact of human activities on the environment. In this study, the carbon
footprint of Abyek cement plant was measured.
Methods: the carbon footprint measurements in Abyek cement plant (by Testo 350 XL) and finally reduction
strategies were developed. Sampling methods based on US EPA and environmental protection agency in Iran
methods.
Results Based on the results of this study, the temperature and velocity outlet gas is effective on the carbon
footprint of the plant. As the outlet gas temperature increases, speed increases too, thus, increase the amount of carbon footprint. Based on equations IPCC, emission rate from plant is about 412674 tons as carbon dioxide per year. The amount per hour is 47109 kg as carbon footprint approximately.
Conclusion: This study showed that the detection process can be created short route for codify contrast policies to deal with greenhouse gases. Because carbon dioxide is not a pollutant gas, thus, national and international standards is not defined for its.
Keywords: Greenhouse, Footprint, Cement
https://sites.google.com/site/hozanjournalcom/volumes-and-issues/volume-1-issue-2-may2016
In order to develop low-carbon industry and low-carbon economy, adopt carbon label which has been used in international trade, and promote sustainable economic development, it is necessary to analyse the carbon footprint. Based on discussion of the significance, progress and developing trend of carbon footprint calculation in papermaking industry, the goal, content and key points of the were presented; furthermore, the tools, principle, rules, methods and technical paths to be adapted for carton footprint study in papermaking industry according to international Greenhouse Gas Emission Protocols related to carbon footprint research were discussed; finally, the standardization of quantifying and qualifying carbon footprint in papermaking industry as well as reporting the results were summarized. This paper provides the guidance of carbon footprint calculation in papermaking industry.
There have been increased attention on how man’s activities affect the environment negatively
especially in developed countries. However, there are countless number of activities such as
charcoal production and electricity generation from oil in developing countries that have
potential carbon related social cost. In this study, the Arrellano Bond dynamic panel
generalised method of moments is applied to estimate the relationship between social cost of
carbon emissions and electricity generation from oil sources, GDP, charcoal consumption,
energy resource depletion and population in oil producing African countries. The findings
suggest the predictors have either positive or negative effect on the social cost of carbon
emissions. The study recommends in order combat global warming, there should be efficient
and modernised charcoal production and electricity production from non-fossil sources.
The present study aims at assessing environmental and energy compatibility of different solutions of thermal insulation in building envelope. In fact a good insulation results in a reduction of heating/cooling energy consumptions; on the other hand construction materials undergo production, transformation and transport processes, whose energy and resources consumptions may lead to a significant decrease of the environmental benefits. The paper presents a detailed carbon footprint of a product (CFP, defined as the sum of greenhouse gas emissions and removals of a product system, expressed in CO2 equivalents), which is a reflective foil conceived and produced by an Italian company. CFP can be seen as a Life Cycle Assessment with climate change as the single impact category; it does not assess other potential social, economic and environmental impacts arising from the provision of products. The analysis considers all stages of the life cycle, from the extraction of raw materials to the product's disposal, i.e. "from cradle to grave"; it was carried out according to UNI EN ISO 14040 and 14044, and LCA modelling was performed using SimaPro software tool. On the basis of obtained results, different measures have been proposed in order to reduce emissions in the life cycle and neutralize residual carbon footprint. The results allowed to make an important comparison concerning the environmental performance of the reflective foil in comparison with other types of insulating materials.
Micropollutants in freshwater, e.g., pharmaceuticals such as contraceptives, are a source of increased concern for human health and wildlife. Even after excretion, some of these compounds are pharmaceutically active in aquatic environment and they are found to cause endocrine disruption in both human and wildlife populations. In this study we analyzed a membrane system, coated with enzymes, which removes endocrine disrupting chemicals or micropollutants from surface water used for drinking. In order to help a membrane manufacturer in product development, we conducted a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment. Water purification with two membrane systems, based on membrane coating covalent binding versus adsorption, were analyzed and compared with granulated activated carbon made from coal and wood. It was found that the membrane with covalent binding can have much lower environmental impacts than activated carbon made from coal. A sensitivity analysis showed that operational electricity use, the source of electricity and membrane coating frequency influence the results significantly. Scenario analysis indicates that a membrane system with covalent binding which uses operational electricity lower than 0.2 kWh per m3 of filtered water and with monthly enzyme coating frequency can perform better than conventional activated carbon systems irrespective of the electricity source. These findings can be used to guide the optimization of the membrane parameters. This study provided an understanding of the membrane modification for micropollutant removal and its impacts on environment. Finally, we describe how environmental sustainability can be integrated into business decisions, such as process and material selection and design optimization, with the help of life cycle assessment.
The research tool of Carbon Footprint was brought forward to formulate Low-Carbon City Proper Planning better. In order to accommodate the long range and uncertainty in Low-Carbon City Proper planning, for example, Beijing Shijingshan District, all kinds of Carbon Footprint and the capacity of Carbon sink of city proper were calculated and analyzed by the computing method of Carbon Footprint, then, the Low-Carbon City Proper planning ideas of Shijingshan District was proposed. The result showed that the Carbon Footprint of Shijingshan District was relatively large, especially the Carbon Footprint of production had reached 17008722 ton, and the Carbon Footprint of life had reached 2144.33 ton. To reduce the carbon emissions of city proper, the traditional economy development mode should be changed, the industrial structure should be adjusted, the energy conservation technology should be developed, the Carbon sink resource should be expanded, and the buildings with Low-Carbon , transportation with Low-Carbon, and life of Low-Carbon should be developed. Keywords�÷ Carbon Footprint; Low-Carbon City Proper; Planning; Shijingshan District
The use of energy for cooking is one of the most important sectors for the energy consumption in India. Results of a life cycle inventory are presented for the use of kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas as cooking fuels. The situation in India was investigated through life cycle inventories for the following stages of the life cycle: Extraction of crude oil and natural gas, processing in refineries and fractionating plants, distribution, product transports (including energy imports) and cooking. Environmental impacts are summarized with final calculated ecological profiles for cooking with the two fuels in different cooking scenarios. These results are analysed regarding the origin of the environmental impacts in the life cycle. A direct comparison shows in the majority of the investigated indicators an ecological advantage in the use of liquefied petroleum gas over kerosene. In addition, a reflection on the economic conditions and the social consequences of both life cycles is made.
The use of energy for cooking is one of the most important sectors for the energy consumption in India. Results of a life cycle inventory are presented for the use of kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas as cooking fuels. The situation in India was investigated through life cycle inventories for the following stages of the life cycle: Extraction of crude oil and natural gas, processing in refineries and fractionating plants, distribution, product transports (including energy imports) and cooking. Environmental impacts are summarized with final calculated ecological profiles for cooking with the two fuels in different cooking scenarios. These results are analysed regarding the origin of the environmental impacts in the life cycle. A direct comparison shows in the majority of the investigated indicators an ecological advantage in the use of liquefied petroleum gas over kerosene. In addition, a reflection on the economic conditions and the social consequences of both life cycles is made.
Thesis (Ph.D. in Energy and Resources)--University of California, Berkeley, Fall 2005. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 335-357).
Most guidance for carbon footprinting, and most published carbon footprints or LCAs, presume that biomass heating fuels are carbon neutral. However, it is recognised increasingly that this is incorrect: biomass fuels are not always carbon neutral. Indeed, they can in some cases be far more carbon positive than fossil fuels.This flaw in carbon footprinting guidance and practice can be remedied. In carbon footprints (not just of biomass or heating fuels, but all carbon footprints), rather than applying sequestration credits and combustion debits, a ‘carbon-stock change’ line item could be applied instead. Not only would this make carbon footprints more accurate, it would make them consistent with UNFCCC reporting requirements and national reporting practice.There is a strong precedent for this change. This same flaw has already been recognised and partly remedied in standards for and studies of liquid biofuels (e.g. biodiesel and bioethanol), which now account for land-use change, i.e. deforestation. But it is partially or completely missing from other studies and from standards for footprinting and LCA of solid fuels.Carbon-stock changes can be estimated from currently available data. Accuracy of estimates will increase as Kyoto compliant countries report more land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) data.
The Himalaya in India is one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. Various scientific studies have reported and proven that many factors are responsible for the tremendous decline of the Himalayan forests. Extraction of wood biomass from the forests for fuel is one of the factors, as rural households rely entirely on this for their domestic energy. Efforts continue for both conservation and development of the Himalayan forests and landscape. It has been reported that people are still looking for more viable solutions that could help them to improve their lifestyle as well as facilitate ecosystem conservation and preservation of existing biodiversity. In this direction, we have documented the potential of the introduction of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), which is one of the solutions that have been offered to the local people as a substitute for woodfuel to help meet their domestic energy demand. The results of the current study found dramatic change in per capita woodfuel consumption in the last two decades in the villages where people are using LPG. The outcome showed that woodfuel consumption had been about 475 kg per capita per year in the region, but after introduction of LPG, this was reduced to 285 kg per capita per year in 1990–1995, and was further reduced to 46 kg per capita per year in 2000–2005. Besides improving the living conditions of the local people, this transformation has had great environmental consequences. Empirical evidence shows that this new paradigm shift is having positive external effects on the surrounding forests. Consequently, we have observed a high density of tree saplings and seedlings in adjacent forests, which serves as an assessment indicator of forest health. With the help of the current study, we propose that when thinking about a top-down approach to conservation, better solutions, which are often ignored, should be offered to local people.
LPG should play a greater role in road-transport-fuel policy in Western Europe, because (1) it is more secure than conventional and most alternative road-transport fuels; (2) it is superior to most road-transport fuels with respect to public health and environmental impact, and (3) it is available commercially today, which most alternatives are not. Policy makers should target a 2010 market share for LPG (known as Autogas when used as an automotive fuel) at 3–5% of road-transport fuel, up from its current level of about 1%.
In this paper, primary energy use and carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions from the construction of a multi-storey building, with either a wood or a concrete frame, were calculated from life-cycle and forest land-use perspectives. The primary energy input (mainly fossil fuels) in the production of building materials was found to be about 60–80% higher when concrete frames were considered instead of wood frames. The net greenhouse gas (GHG) balance for wood materials will depend strongly on how the wood is handled after demolition of the building. The nrt GHG balance will be slightly positive if all the demolition wood is used to replace fossil fuels, slightly negative if part of the demolition wood is re-used, and clearly positive if all wood is deposited in landfills, due to the production of CH4. However, if the biogas produced is collected and used to replace fossil fuels, the net GHG emissions will be insignificant. If concrete frames are used, the net GHG emissions will be about those when demolition wood from the wood-framed building is deposited in landfills and no biogas is collected. We have considered that the CO2 released from the chemical processes in the production of cement will be re-bound to the concrete by the carbonisation process. Otherwise, the net GHG emission would be more than twice as high when concrete frames are used. If forest biomass is used instead of fossil fuels, the net area of forest land required to supply both raw material and energy for the production of building materials, will be about twice as high when wood frames are used instead of concrete frames. However, the GHG mitigation efficiency, expressed as CO2 equivalents per unit area of forest land, will be 2–3 times higher when wood frames are used if excess wood waste and logging residues are used to replace fossil fuels. The excess forest in the concrete frame alternative is used to replace fossil fuels, but if this forest is used for carbon storage, the mitigation efficiency will be higher for the first forest rotation period (100 yr), but lower for the following rotation periods. Some of the data used in the analyses are uncertain, but an understanding of the complexity in comparing different alternatives for utilising forest for GHG mitigation, and of the fact that the time perspective applied affects the results markedly, is more important for the results than the precise figures in the input data.
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