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Migration and intensification of water conflicts in the Pangani Basin, Tanzania
Abstract
Migration of population in search of better sources of water is a widespread phenomenon in Africa with a long-standing history. In the case of the Pangani River Basin in the North East of Tanzania, migration has led to intensive water conflicts caused by the convergence of pastoralists and farmers, traditional irrigation systems and large scale irrigation systems; and other uses including hydropower generation in the basin. The main determinants of these water conflicts in the basin include rapid population increase of both human beings and livestock. The rapid population dynamics of both livestock and human population as a result of natural increase and migration generate additional demands for water as do the irrigation systems, which allow little water downstream for other uses such as generation of power and land alienation, resulting in poor water rights management. Measures that have been taken to resolve some of these water conflicts including the improvement of irrigation systems so they do not waste water and application of environmental impact assessment techniques wherever new projects are introduced in the basin.
... A review of research on environmental influences on migration in East Africa shows that the links are complex and not conclusive Charnley, 1997;Hirvonen, 2016;Kubik, 2017;Kubik andMaurel, 2016a and2016b;Magesa and Pauline, 2019;Mbonile, 2005;Msigwa and Mbongo, 2013;Smith, 2014;Tacoli, 2011). In some cases, environmental stress increases the propensity to migrate while in other cases migration decreases. ...
... Anecdotally, public attention to the matter continued throughout the course of this project (2018)(2019)(2020)(2021), while the movements of the traditionally pastoralist Maasai and the agropastoralist Sukuma people have been noted by scholars for decades (Birley, 1982;Charnley, 1997). The most noticeable movements have been directed towards Morogoro, Pwani and Tanga regions (Mbonile, 2005;Walwa, 2020; see the section on farmer-herder conflicts). ...
... The linkages between environmental changes, climate change and migration in the United Republic of Tanzania have been the explicit focus of a number of scientific studies Charnley, 1997;Hirvonen, 2016;Kubik, 2017;Kubik andMaurel, 2016a and2016b;Magesa and Pauline, 2019;Mbonile, 2005;Msigwa and Mbongo, 2013;Smith, 2014;Tacoli, 2011). Studies focused on other migration topics were reviewed for this report because a holistic approach to understanding environment and migration linkages requires looking at multiple facets of migration outcomes, including for migrants, sending communities and destination communities (Gemenne and Blocher, 2017). ...
Available from IOM Publications: https://publications.iom.int/books/assessing-evidence-climate-change-and-migration-united-republic-tanzania
The publication Assessing the Evidence: Migration, Environment and Climate Change in the United Republic of Tanzania attempts to comprehensively address climate change impacts in the United Republic of Tanzania, current mobility patterns and trends, and the possible linkages between them. The majority of Tanzanians live in rural areas and depend on rain-fed smallholder farms and pasture that are expected to suffer significant impacts as a consequence of climate change. This report focuses mainly on the internal, rural-to-rural migration flows that are still prevalent in the country. It provides an analysis of the existing research on both climate change and migration in the country, drawing from evidence from the wider climate and migration literature. The main findings establish a first evidence base for future policymaking and investigation in the country.
This report is a joint effort between the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK) and IOM, supported by a number of external contributors.
... Forest degradation on the southern slopes increased 1,606 ha to 5,170 ha between 1973 and 2000. Further, the land under agroforestry decreased by 25%, while that under annual crops increased by 41% (Mbonile 2005). Soini (2005) found that about 49.97 km 2 (32.8%) of shrubs and bushland were converted to agriculture and other uses from 1961 to year 2000 in Southern slopes of Kilimanjaro. ...
... Kilimanjaro slopes reported comparable LULCC trend. Mainly conversion of by 53 km 2 of shrub and grassland and sparse vegetation to maize and vegetable cultivation from 1987 to 2005 in Kahe plains (GITEC 2011) increased forest degradation on the southern slope from 1,606 ha to 5,170 ha between 1973 and 2000 (Mbonile 2005), conversion of about 39.5% of bushland to agriculture between 1973 and 2000 years (Mbonile, Misana, and Sokoni 2003), degradation of more than 41 km 2 of the forest between 1952 and 1982 (Yanda and Shishira 2001), conversion of about 49.97 km 2 (32.8%) of shrubs and bushland to agriculture and other uses from 1961 to 2000 years in Kirua Vunjo division (Soini 2005), and increased cultivated land from 54% (in 1973) to 63% in 2000 on the southern and eastern slopes (Misana, Sokoni, and Mbonile 2012). Replacement of the bushland by cultivated fields is a continual phenomenon. ...
... Reports show that the vegetation cover in the highlands is rapidly being depleted and the snow cover is being lost, posing a threat to losing Mt. Kilimanjaro's tourists attraction for the global community (Mbonile 2005). The analysis land use and cover change analysis for Mt. ...
Increasing demand for food production results in Land use and land cover (LULC) changes, which afflicts the provision of ecosystem services in high mountain areas. This work used time-series LULC and selected spatial metrics to predict the LULC changes for Kikafu-Weruweru-Karanga (KWK) watershed (on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro) for the next decade. LULC maps were generated by classifying time-series satellite images. We further predicted the implications for selected staple crop production over the next decade. The simulated LULC shows expansion in built-up (by 32.55%/27.04 km
2) and agriculture (by 39.52%/52.0 km2) areas from 2018 to 2030. These results suggest that urbanization is likely the next biggest threat to water availability and food production. Grasslands and wetlands are expected to decrease by 57.24% and 39.29%, respectively. The forest area is likely to shrink by 6.37%, about 9.82 km2, and 1.26 km2 being converted to agriculture and built-up areas, respectively. However, expansion in agricultural land shows very little increase in staple food crop production records, suggesting that farm size plays a minor role in increasing crop production. Predicting the near future LULC around KWK is useful for evaluating the likelihood of achieving development and conservation targets that are set locally, nationally and internationally
... Forest degradation on the southern slopes increased 1,606 ha to 5,170 ha between 1973 and 2000. Further, the land under agroforestry decreased by 25%, while that under annual crops increased by 41% (Mbonile 2005). Soini (2005) found that about 49.97 km 2 (32.8%) of shrubs and bushland were converted to agriculture and other uses from 1961 to year 2000 in Southern slopes of Kilimanjaro. ...
... Kilimanjaro slopes reported comparable LULCC trend. Mainly conversion of by 53 km 2 of shrub and grassland and sparse vegetation to maize and vegetable cultivation from 1987 to 2005 in Kahe plains (GITEC 2011) increased forest degradation on the southern slope from 1,606 ha to 5,170 ha between 1973 and 2000 (Mbonile 2005), conversion of about 39.5% of bushland to agriculture between 1973 and 2000 years (Mbonile, Misana, and Sokoni 2003), degradation of more than 41 km 2 of the forest between 1952 and 1982 (Yanda and Shishira 2001), conversion of about 49.97 km 2 (32.8%) of shrubs and bushland to agriculture and other uses from 1961 to 2000 years in Kirua Vunjo division (Soini 2005), and increased cultivated land from 54% (in 1973) to 63% in 2000 on the southern and eastern slopes (Misana, Sokoni, and Mbonile 2012). Replacement of the bushland by cultivated fields is a continual phenomenon. ...
... Reports show that the vegetation cover in the highlands is rapidly being depleted and the snow cover is being lost, posing a threat to losing Mt. Kilimanjaro's tourists attraction for the global community (Mbonile 2005). The analysis land use and cover change analysis for Mt. ...
Increasing demand for food production results in Land use and land cover (LULC) changes, which afflicts the provision of ecosystem services in high mountain areas. This work used time-series LULC and selected spatial metrics to predict the LULC changes for Kikafu-Weruweru-Karanga (KWK) watershed (on the southern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro) for the next decade. LULC maps were generated by classifying time-series satellite images. We further predicted the implications for selected staple crop production over the next decade. The simulated LULC shows expansion in built-up (by 32.55%/27.04 km2) and agriculture (by 39.52%/52.0 km2) areas from 2018 to 2030. These results suggest that urbanization is likely the next biggest threat to water availability and food production. Grasslands and wetlands are expected to decrease by 57.24% and 39.29%, respectively. The forest area is likely to shrink by 6.37%, about 9.82 km2, and 1.26 km2 being converted to agriculture and built-up areas, respectively. However, expansion in agricultural land shows very little increase in staple food crop production records, suggesting that farm size plays a minor role in increasing crop production. Predicting the near future LULC around KWK is useful for evaluating the likelihood of achieving development and conservation targets that are set locally, nationally and internationally.
... Water resources are over-allocated and highly contested in the Pangani Basin in northern Tanzania and southern Kenya. Conflicts have occurred between farmers and pastoralists over irrigation water for agriculture versus drinking water for cattle in a basin in which almost 90% of surface flows are used for irrigation and hydropower generation (Kashaigili et al. 2003;Mbonile 2005;Juma et al. 2007;Makoye 2013). Population growth has resulted in deforestation and expansion of cultivated land, causing fragmentation and degradation of native vegetation (Soini 2005). ...
... Meru. Historically, these two groups occupied different regions, but internal migration of semi-nomadic pastoralists in search of better water for their stock in response to drought conditions has resulted in conflicts with farmers who had developed their own customary rules over water rights (Mbonile 2005). ...
... The major conflicts exist between hydropower generation, consumptive uses and the environment. Low inflows to Nyumba ya Mungu Dam have been blamed on inefficient traditional irrigation practices upstream (Mbonile 2005), as well as widespread illegal water diversions. Storage in the dam during periods of high flows for hydropower generation during low flows changes the availability of water for all downstream uses. ...
Water resources and water-related ecosystem services are vital to social–ecological systems, yet in many parts of the world water as a finite resource is revealed by its unsustainable and inequitable use. Increased threats to water security and supply
of ecosystem services arise due to increasing and contested demand and declining supply due to climate change and other stressors. Trade-off decisions need to be made between competing sectors of food production, hydropower generation and environmental needs: the water–food–energy–environment nexus. New approaches are needed to address how water resources and ecosystem service benefits are shared among competing interests. One approach involves changes to decision contexts,
shaped by the values, rules and knowledge which decision makers draw upon when considering options. By changing decision contexts, new opportunities become available. Here, we describe Nexus Webs; a knowledge framework designed to promote collaborative exploration of synergies and trade-offs and enable changes in decision contexts for water use. As part of the process of shifting this framework from concept to operation, we apply Nexus Webs to contrasting water use scenarios in the Pangani Basin (Tanzania and Kenya), where water is over-allocated and highly contested. Under each scenario, we detail linkages between different water uses and their effects on assets (ecosystems, biodiversity and built infrastructure), the effects on assets for the supply of ecosystem services and how these affect livelihoods and wellbeing. We outline how
Nexus Webs can be developed and used to change the decision context to consider options for more socially inclusive and equitable use of water resources.
... Tout le nord de la Tanzanie dépend directement de l'eau de la montagne pour l'eau de boisson, l'eau domestique, les activités agricoles et la production d'énergie (UNEP, 2004). Or, on constate une diminution généralisée de la ressource en eau sur les pentes de la montagne, avec une baisse drastique du débit de la rivière Pangani depuis 40 ans et la ville de Moshi, pourtant au piémont, est parfois en état de stress hydrique (Mbonile, 2005). ...
... La première partie de l'article présente notre approche théorique des notions d'identité territoriale et de la ressource en eau, toutes deux à l'interface entre relations sociales et spatiales. L'eau a été choisie comme objet d'étude permettant d'appréhender les changements d'identité territoriale car pour les Chagga vivant en altitude, l'eau représente un élément central de leurs relations sociales comme des liens au territoire (Tagseth, 2002 ;Mbonile, 2005). La seconde partie présente l'approche méthodologique, le terrain d'étude, les villages ciblés, les acteurs rencontrés et l'outil utilisé intitulé l'Acteur en 4 Dimensions (A4D). ...
... La montagne se retrouve alors saucissonnée : au piémont, pour l'aéroport et les vastes plantations gouvernementales de café et de maïs (Campbell, 1999), et en altitude par le parc national et les réserves forestières ( fig. 1). Les populations se retrouvent prises en tenaille sur une étroite bande de terre, ne pouvant cultiver ni en altitude ni dans les basses terres, ce qui accélère la dégradation des sols et la pénurie d'eau (Mbonile, 2005). « Pour des raisons politiques ou économiques, la montagne s'est refermée sur ses populations comme un piège » ( Organisme gouvernemental chargé de la gestion de l'eau à l'échelle du bassin versant de Pangani. ...
Our objective is to study the evolution of a territorial identity in relation to environmental and institutional changes over a natural resource, water. Mount Kilimanjaro and its inhabitants, the Chagga, are facing two major challenges: the decline in water availability and the new water policy leading to modernization, commodification, privatization and centralization of the resource. The notion of territorial identity is understood as a socio-spatial system, embedded in social relations (relations between actors) and spatial relations (relations with natural and cultural objects). The 4-Dimensional Actor model offers a methodological support to dissect a territory in a socio-spatial system using semi-directive interviews and to differentiate between individual and collective, social and spatial identities. We test the hypothesis according to which a territorial object like water can carry social relations as well as emotional ties to the place, and that denying these attachments can change the territorial identity. On the social level, we highlight a fundamental opposition between tradition (carried by the rooted actors defending irrigation channels) and modernity (carried by the detached actors defending “modern water”). At the spatial level, water generates attachments that carry specific knowledge, practices and representations, denied by the new water managers. For a long time, the village management of the canals made the cultural specificity of the territory, but the new water rules on the Kilimanjaro today greatly disrupt the Chagga territorial identity.
... Another factor is uncontrolled fires, which cascade the ecological role and functioning of catchment forests by reducing fog collection in sub-alpine forests. The sustainable supply of hydrological services from MKF to humans is therefore intimately linked to its efficient protection and management (Grove 1993;Mbonile 2005;Kangalawe et al. 2014). Thus, maintaining the hydrological functions of MKF requires the active involvement of local communities in decisions related to their conservation and direct protection of the catchment (Woodcock 1995; Kangalawe et al. 2014;Lau 2022). ...
... A sizeable body of literature has extensively documented synergies existing between MKF conservation and the provision of hydrological services. For instance, studies assessing impacts of climate and anthropogenic pressure on hydrological services (Said et al. 2019), drivers of water discharge variability (Yanda & Mpanda 2018), factors for low flows of streams (Zemadim et al. 2011), and farmers response to shortage of water for irrigation downstream (Mbonile 2005). Other studies include assessing the linkage between forestry conservation and resource use (Yanda & Shishira 2001), water use conflicts in the Pangani Basin (Mujwahuzi 2001), and preferences for consumptive versus non-consumptive benefits (Kijazi & Kant 2010). ...
Mount Kilimanjaro Forest (MKF) is recognized as a major provider of hydrological services to people in northern Tanzania. However, little is understood in terms of the roles of upstream and downstream communities in protecting and conserving MKF. This article applies binomial generalized linear models to understand the role of the community in supporting the protection and conservation of MKF based on data collected through a questionnaire survey from 90 households on the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro. Results showed that 99% of respondents were aware of the value of MKF as a major provider of hydrological services, however, this did not vary significantly across age groups, gender, level of education, and location (upstream vs. downstream). Further results showed that, contrary to downstream communities, upstream communities play a significant role in supporting the ecological integrity and hydrological functions of MKF by planting and protecting tree cover, joining efforts through conservation clubs, donating cash to finance its protection, and adhering to bylaws governing environmental management. Hence, adopting an approach that integrates upstream and downstream communities in managing catchment forests and ensuring the sustainable flow of hydrological services is critical. The study also has unleashed water user behavior that have enlightened demand for more studies in the area.
... This change was propelled by the improvement of Lake Nyasa transport system whereby fast moving steamers opened up the pottery market to the rest of the country and neighbouring countries like Malawi (Maliyamkono & Bagachwa 1990;Mihanjo 2003;Ludewa District Report 2007, 2017. The major impact of commercialization of pottery is the increase in pottery production which almost tripled from 6,000 to more than 20,000 pots per week in 2017 which are locally and nationally sold in most weekly markets such as Matema (Kyela district) and in large urban centres markets like those in Mwanjelwa in Mbeya City (Mbonile 2005; Ludewa Annual District Report 2017). ...
... Almost the same process was experienced among the Kinga communities of Makete district who broke the vicious cycle of poverty by marketing Kisi pottery and locally made bamboo goods which dominated the commercial services in several commercial cities like Dar es Salaam (Mbonile 1996:102;Mbonile 2008). Besides this other areas in the country have attempted to break the vicious cycle of poverty by utilizing water reeds in making baskets as in the case of Njombe district (Mung'ong'o 1998) and baobab seeds in the central semi-arid areas like Dodoma and Singida regions (SUA 2006;Mbonile 2005) ...
The study investigated the impact of pottery trade in reducing poverty among the Kisi households in Ludewa district which is located very close to Lake Nyasa..The role of pottery industry in breaking the vicious cycle of poverty among the Kisi began during the Iron Age in the first millennium A.D. The Kisi people live in Ludewa District and a few have spread to neighbouring districts like Kyela and Mbinga. The main economic activity of the Kisi is fishing but after trade liberation in the 1980s fishing is overtaken by pottery industry. The data for calculation of poverty index was collected from three villages which are Lumbila, Nkanda and Nsele which had abudant raw materials for pottery making along Lake Nyasa. The calculation of various indicators of poverty and their relationship to pottery industry indicated that pottery has a reasonable impact on poverty alleviation among the Kisi in Ludewa District. This is verified by the improvement of housing whereby people involved in pottery industry had slightly better housing than others. The same was applied to income poverty where villages like Lumbila and Nkanda had a higher per capita income when compared to Nsele Village which depends more on crop marketing than pottery. As far as household asset ownership is concerned there were small differentials among the villages and this was also reflected on the utilization of improved power, health and sanitation. The main bottleneck in the alleviation of poverty among the Kisi people was lack of reliable inland transport which was hindered by steep slopes close to the Lake and unreliable motorboats which ply along the lake. Some villages like Lumbila have managed to purchase a boat but in the case of Nkanda due to management problems the boat has been abandoned. The overall indicator shows that Lumbila village with more diversified economy had higher per capita income than the other villages. Besides this the villages were vulnerable to environmental degradation and disasters related to health.
... al., 2009). These changes in economic conditions and poor environmental conditions in rural areas forced Maasai women to break traditional restrictions by migrating to urban areas (Mbonile, 2005). The study by UN (2010) showed that women are increasingly moving to urban areas as independent migrants in three distinguished categories such as those who are moving to urban areas independently as young unmarried women with little formal education and work as domestic servants; educated young unmarried women in search for commensurate employment; and as separated, divorced as well as widowed women, whose position is precarious in patriarchal societies (Blumberg, 2005;Gulger and Ludwar, 1995). ...
... Lecturer Institute of Development Studies Mzumbe diseases compel the Maasai pastoralists to adjust themselves by migrating to other better watered places in semi-arid areas or to urban areas and cities (Mbonile, 2005;. Others have remained home and adopted subsistence agriculture while others conduct petty businesses in nearby towns at their home areas (Coast, 2006). ...
This paper examined female migration and control over resources in Tanzania. The main objective was to investigate how migration has influenced access to and control over resources among Maasai women. The study was conducted in Dar es Salaam city and in Bagamoyo District in the Coast Region. Coast Region was selected because the respondents (Maasai women) who were found in the city mentioned it as their home areas (place of origin). The study selected purposively eighteen (18) wards in the city and four (4) wards in the rural areas. Respondents were obtained by interviewing all those who were found in business areas. Snowball technique was used by moving from one group to the next until the desired number of 400 respondents was attained. The findings showed that major economic activities in rural areas were livestock keeping alongside with crop cultivation and some petty businesses. In the City, the main economic activities were petty businesses where goods like traditional medicine, beaded jewellery, earrings, tobacco and beards were sold in combination. The determinants of migration for Maasai women were both pull and push factors like reduction of livestock due to diseases and drought, culminating to difficulties in earning income in the rural areas, the demand for Maasai goods and presence of friends and relatives in the city. The study concluded that migration of Maasai women to the city enabled them to access and control resources in their families. The study recommended that migrant Maasai women in the city be assisted to improve the quality of their goods so as to increase their incomes. Local Government Authority should ensure security in the informal sector particularly for women and protect their goods. In the rural areas, more efforts should be done by the government and NGOs to help Maasai practice dairy cattle so as to get more milk and money for their family up- keep. Also there should be interventions of entrepreneurship training in rural areas for rural females who are doing petty businesses by ensuring convenient places to conduct their businesses.
... This situation and the increasing demand for water resource has generated water conflicts between various users. Sarmett et al. (2005) and Mbonile (2005) classify these conflicts as conflicts of scale (users of different sizes), conflicts of tenure (water rights) and conflicts of location (upstream and downstream users) depending on the power and position of the various users on the river basin (Box 1.1). ...
... (Source: Sarmett et al., 2005;Mbonile, 2005). ...
... This change was propelled by the improvement of Lake Nyasa transport system whereby fast moving steamers opened up the pottery market to the rest of the country and neighbouring countries like Malawi (Maliyamkono & Bagachwa 1990;Mihanjo 2003;Ludewa District Report 2007, 2017. The major impact of commercialization of pottery is the increase in pottery production which almost tripled from 6,000 to more than 20,000 pots per week in 2017 which are locally and nationally sold in most weekly markets such as Matema (Kyela district) and in large urban centres markets like those in Mwanjelwa in Mbeya City (Mbonile 2005; Ludewa Annual District Report 2017). ...
... Almost the same process was experienced among the Kinga communities of Makete district who broke the vicious cycle of poverty by marketing Kisi pottery and locally made bamboo goods which dominated the commercial services in several commercial cities like Dar es Salaam (Mbonile 1996:102;Mbonile 2008). Besides this other areas in the country have attempted to break the vicious cycle of poverty by utilizing water reeds in making baskets as in the case of Njombe district (Mung'ong'o 1998) and baobab seeds in the central semi-arid areas like Dodoma and Singida regions (SUA 2006;Mbonile 2005) ...
Abstract
The study investigated the impact of pottery trade in reducing poverty among the Kisi
households in Ludewa district which is located very close to Lake Nyasa..The role of
pottery industry in breaking the vicious cycle of poverty among the Kisi began during
the Iron Age in the first millennium A.D. The Kisi people live in Ludewa District and a
few have spread to neighbouring districts like Kyela and Mbinga. The main economic
activity of the Kisi is fishing but after trade liberation in the 1980s fishing is overtaken
by pottery industry. The data for calculation of poverty index was collected from three
villages which are Lumbila, Nkanda and Nsele which had abudant raw materials for
pottery making along Lake Nyasa. The calculation of various indicators of poverty and
their relationship to pottery industry indicated that pottery has a reasonable impact on
poverty alleviation among the Kisi in Ludewa District. This is verified by the
improvement of housing whereby people involved in pottery industry had slightly
better housing than others. The same was applied to income poverty where villages
like Lumbila and Nkanda had a higher per capita income when compared to Nsele
Village which depends more on crop marketing than pottery. As far as household asset
ownership is concerned there were small differentials among the villages and this was
also reflected on the utilization of improved power, health and sanitation. The main
bottleneck in the alleviation of poverty among the Kisi people was lack of reliable
inland transport which was hindered by steep slopes close to the Lake and unreliable
motorboats which ply along the lake. Some villages like Lumbila have managed to
purchase a boat but in the case of Nkanda due to management problems the boat has
been abandoned. The overall indicator shows that Lumbila village with more
diversified economy had higher per capita income than the other villages. Besides this
the villages were vulnerable to environmental degradation and disasters related to
health.
... Extensive research has revealed that water, as a vehicle for survival, is consumed by many users in a particular area and therefore has a tendency of inviting conflicts regarding the way it is allocated and distributed (Hendrix & Saleyhan, 2012;Mbonile, 2005;Mulwafu et al., 2003;Ross, 2004). Consequently, water is an indispensable resource, and the moment it becomes increasingly inadequate in relation to demand within the communal areas, the rights to its access are aggressively guarded (Kidd, 2011). ...
... Madulu (2003) posits that in Pangani River, basin conflicts involve smallholder farmers and commercial farmers as well as between upstream and the downstream farmers (see also Mjwahuzi, 1999). According to Mbonile (2005), in Tanzania, commercial farmers and pastoralists view water as being overused by highlands residents. Therefore, proper organisation is mandatory to ensure that every community member's right to access water is respected. ...
Peace as a concept has been relatively under-researched in view of its conception within the rural knowledge system and especially in connection to water access. This study used a sequential exploratory design to gather and analyse qualitative data in the form of semi-structured interviews from 20 village residents. In addition, quantitative data, drawn from a questionnaire, was used to validate the findings from the semi-structured interviews. This research showed that cooperation in the management of common water resources harmonises relations and brings unity and peace. The results also revealed that in as much as the rural Zimbabweans desire peace, corruption in water management increases the likelihood of grievance-based conflicts. Collaborative activities improve community relations and create a space for collective resolution of conflicts. The researchers recommend using local peace institutions to absorb macro-conflicts.
... In the Republic of Tanzania, a diverse series of drivers, including population growth, has led to water conflicts (Mbonile 2005). Water scarcity can also provoke migration, as documented throughout Africa (Mwang'ombe et al. 2011;Grote and Warner 2010;Mbonile 2005). ...
... In the Republic of Tanzania, a diverse series of drivers, including population growth, has led to water conflicts (Mbonile 2005). Water scarcity can also provoke migration, as documented throughout Africa (Mwang'ombe et al. 2011;Grote and Warner 2010;Mbonile 2005). ...
The scale, spread and rate of change of global drivers are without precedent. Burgeoning populations and growing economies are pushing environmental systems to destabilizing limits. The idea that the perturbation of a complex ecological system can trigger sudden feedbacks is not new: significant scientific research has explored thresholds and tipping points that the planetary system may face if humanity does not control carbon emissions. Understanding feedbacks from the perspective of drivers reveals that many of them interact in unpredictable ways. Generally, the rates of change in these drivers are not monitored or managed, and so it is not possible to predict or even perceive dangerous thresholds as they approach. Critically, the bulk of research has been on understanding the effects of drivers on ecosystems, not on the effects of changed ecosystems on the drivers – the feedback loop.
... NMD was constructed in the 1960 s for hydropower generation, irrigation, and flood control. Agriculture and livestock are the main socioeconomic activities practiced in the RRB over the past decades [31,32]. These human-induced activities accelerate sediment generation within the river basin, particularly on mountainous slopes where ≥ 80% of the population resides [33]. ...
Streamflow simulation along with soil erosion hotspot identification is crucial for effective basin management; however, limited observed data pose challenges for modelers. This study tested the performance of the three satellite-based precipitation products (SPPs), namely (1) Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS), (2) Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM)-Integrated Multi-satellite Retrievals for GPM (IMERG), and (3) African Rainfall Climatology (ARC2), against observed data in the data-constrained transboundary Ruvu River Basin (RRB), Tanzania. Correlation coefficient (CC), root mean square error (RMSE), mean error (ME), and bias were used as evaluation statistics for SPPs. CHIRPS precipitation outperformed others by achieving the CC of 0.67 or higher, and was then combined with observed rainfall into the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model to simulate streamflow. The SWAT model was calibrated (2007–2014) and validated (2015–2018) for streamflow at daily time intervals using SWAT-CUP with the SUFI-2 algorithm. Model performance was evaluated using statistical indices. The SWAT model performed well, achieving R² values of 0.83 and 0.85 during calibration and validation, respectively, as well as NSE values of 0.76 and 0.81. Simulated sediment yield from the SWAT model was analyzed to identify areas prone to soil erosion. The average annual sediment yield from the entire basin was estimated at 1434 tons yr⁻¹ with a spatial average of 43 tons⁻¹ ha yr⁻¹. Approximately 10.94% of the RRB requires urgent mitigation measures as critical erosion-susceptible areas. These findings confirm that integrating SPPs into the hydrological model can effectively simulate streamflow and facilitate soil erosion analysis using the model outputs.
... Qualitative methods include tools such as game theory analysis and participatory surveys. Mbonile (2005) noted that combining on-site investigations with interviews can uncover conflicts between urban expansion and agricultural land during urbanization processes. Quantitative methods utilize mathematical statistics and spatial analysis. ...
The rapid expansion of global urbanization has amplified the complexity and fragility of regional land resource utilization, leading to frequent land use conflicts that hinder sustainable development. This study examines the spatial conflicts of land use (SCLU) in the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration through an ecological lens. A Spatial Composite Conflict Index (SCCI) was developed by integrating the Conflict Risk Index (CRI) and Ecological Value (EV) to quantify and analyze SCLU, while the Geo-detector model identified key driving factors. Moreover, the Potential Conflict Risk Index (PCRI) was developed by integrating the Patch-generating Land Use Simulation (PLUS) model with the Risk Matrix Approach (RMA), aiming to pinpoint areas with potential future conflict risks. Results indicate that from 2000 to 2020, SCLU in the Chengdu-Chongqing region decreased overall, with mild conflicts predominating. Conflict zones were primarily located on the urban periphery and dispersed within central areas, with intense conflicts concentrated in built-up zones. Key drivers of SCLU include GDP, population, temperature, and elevation, with human activities playing an increasingly prominent role. Predicted conflict risk warning zones for 2020–2030 encompass approximately 473.18 km², concentrated in the Chengdu-Deyang-Mianyang and Chongqing urban cores. The spatial pattern of conflict areas is expected to shift from scattered to more concentrated formations. This study underscores the importance of incorporating ecological perspectives into land use planning, offering valuable insights into the spatial–temporal dynamics of SCLU. The findings provide actionable policy recommendations for mitigating conflicts and fostering sustainable urban development in the Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration.
... Henderson (2005) combined field investigation with interview methods to explore the conflicts between urban construction land and agricultural land in the process of urban development in Australia. Mbonile (2005) used a questionnaire survey method to analyze the issue of water and soil use conflicts in its research area. Khatiwada (2014) used the Moran's I index to detect spatial correlation in conflict areas in Nepal, and showed that there were many socio-economic issues in high conflict areas. ...
... There are certainly examples of population movements leading to tensions and conflict over more scarce resources, often linked to competing livelihoods and/or ethnic groups with histories of tension. For example, Mbonile (2005) noted how people moving to the Pangani River Basin in Tanzania, partially in search of water, led to intensive McLeman et al. (2016) note that resource-related mobility can be linked to political instability (see Figure 4), but the security literature cautions against overly simplistic assumptions about cause and effect. Similarly, Dalby (2002) noted that deterministic claims about the relationship between environmental change, instability and migration are implausible given that conflict and mobility are complex socioecological phenomena. ...
As seen in the recent war in Ukraine and earlier wars and crises within the past decade in Afghanistan, Syria, Yemen, Iraq and Venezuela the management of migration remains urgent, complex and sensitive policy question. The recent floods in Pakistan have also demonstrated how internal displacement from natural disasters can cause acute resource stress with loss of agricultural crops and livelihoods linked therein.
This International Resource Panel report, “Human Migration and Natural Resources: Global assessment of an adaptive complex system” contributes to the global discussion by moving the discussion of natural resources and migration from being based primarily around environmental determinism to one which recognizes the co-evolutionary nature of society and the environment. The report covers the conceptual and empirical connections between resources and human mobility, the role and significant influence that natural resources exert both directly and indirectly on people’s needs, abilities and motivations to migrate – either temporarily or permanently. The report advocates focusing on the complex adaptive system where resource drivers and impacts of human mobility are considered as part of connected system of feedback loops. Adopting such a system understanding of the linkages between natural resources and mobility the with the inclusion of the socio-psychological, financial, demographic, environmental and political dimensions can help policymakers identify points of entry for national and local policy to ensure the wellbeing of those affected by natural resource stress and shocks and the natural resources that they depend on.
This report makes it clear that natural resources define the impact scale and scope of forced displacement for the most vulnerable populations. Voluntary migration can be triggered by resource rushes and can also create a safety net in some specific ecological contexts as well. Well-designed policies within the resource-mobility nexus can enhance the possibility of adaptation, greater sustainability of resources, and socioeconomic and environmental resilience. As the global community considers ways of operationalizing international efforts to govern human mobility through instruments such as the Global Compact on Migration, this report provides a well-researched compendium of tangible guidance.
... For example, Ntilicha et al. (2012) reported that water use conflicts were a serious problem between farmers in the Hai district in Kilimanjaro region due to human population increase and water scarcity. Similarly, Mbonile (2005) reported water conflicts in the Pangani river basin, which were mainly caused by rapid population dynamics of both human and livestock, which in turn increased the demands for water. Thus, food production systems should preferably be designed for an efficient use of water in order to meet future challenges of water scarcity and food insecurity (Mancosu et al., 2015). ...
Sustainable agriculture intensification is an urgent challenge in developing countries including Tanzania. One potential solution is to adopt farming systems that increase farm production by optimizing resource use efficiency, and integrated aquaculture system, which involves farming of fish and crops, is an example of such systems. This study investigated the impact of Integrated agriculture and aquaculture (IAA) farming on water use efficiency, fish and vegetable production and overall system profitability, and how these parameters are affected by fish stocking densities. Oreochromis niloticus (2.5 g average initial weight) were cultured at low stocking density (five fish m⁻³, LSD), medium stocking density (eight fish m⁻³, MSD), and high stocking density (12 fish m⁻³, HSD) for 205 days. Brassica rapa pekinensis and Amaranthus hybridus cultivated adjacent to the fish tanks were irrigated with; (i) fish tank water, without any fertilizer inputs; (ii) fish tank water, partially fertilized; (iii) tap water, fully fertilized (farmers’ practice); and (iv) tap water without any fertilizer inputs. Although the use of tank water from the high fish stocking density resulted in significantly higher vegetable yield, high fish stocking resulted in lower fish growth, profitability and water use efficiency compared to the other fish stocking densities, probably because of low survival rates (28%) at high stocking densities. The integration of fish at a medium stocking density with vegetables resulted in significantly higher net income than when fish and vegetables were grown separately.
... Empirical studies investigating this area focus on migration leading to social tensions with host populations over limited or depleting natural resources or conflicts over competing livelihoods. For example, Mbonile (2005) writes how in-migration to the Pangani River Basin in Northeast Tanzania, partially in search of water, has led to intensive water conflicts between pastoralists and farmers and has increased overall demand for water, affecting water availability in downstream areas. Ecological decline in Northern Nigeria is driving herders to embark on a north-south migration in search of forage and water for their cattle. ...
Pressures on natural resources, such as from environmental change, have influenced the global human mobility landscape. In this article, we review the scientific evidence on the interlinkages between natural resources, human migration and sustainability. Drawing on a review of the existing literature in combination with the authors’ research experience, we consider a range of conceptual perspectives and empirical studies covered in the literature since the turn of the millennium. Our analysis considers the broad mobility spectrum—from adaptive migration to forced displacement and immobility. Climate change both acts as a natural resource threat in this context as well as having the potential to influence mobility drivers, which, in turn, can influence natural resource availability. The review aims to provide scholars of sustainability science with a coherent curation of the research thus far on the topic for charting a way forward for more constructive and original investigations. To overcome scientific gaps identified, finally we suggest that the multiplicity of linkages and feedbacks between natural resources and migration across different spatial, temporal and social scales lends itself to a complex adaptive (sub)system (CAS) framing within larger socio-ecological systems. As a CAS, the outcomes of migration and natural resources linkages are highly non-linear and can be emergent: the sustainable management of them, therefore, requires flexible, robust and equitable approaches.
... For example, the migration of people in search of better sources of water is a widespread phenomenon in Africa. In the northeast of Tanzania (Pangani River Basin) migration has led to the convergence of pastoralists and farmers and to rapid population increases of both human beings and livestock (Mbonile 2015). Intensive water disputes were caused, in which different irrigation systems (traditional and modern large-scale types) and uses of water (as hydropower generation) also played roles. ...
Ecological disputes have emerged as basic challenges challenging local, regional, national and global security. Ecological crises and problems throughout the world are widespread and increasing rapidly. In relation to these concerns, the article discusses the following aspects: people and the environment, ecological disputes, climate change and ecological disputes, and management repercussions. The section on people and the environment illustrates the range of ecosystems services provided, interactions, relationships and challenges pertaining to access. Specific basic types of disputes as well as the main manifestations and repercussions of these disputes were examined, which includes biodiversity, ecological air quality, forestry, water, land and natural resource management disputes. This is followed by a discussion of the impacts of climate change in relation to ecological disputes. Finally, the discussion focuses on managing ecological disputes. Basic aspects of the final section pertain to available tools and approaches, and recommendations arising from the articles in this issue.
... Although the decrease in glaciers corresponds with the previous studies, the cloud cover in the top of the mountain may have influenced the classified image interpretation from which the spectral signatures from the Landsat images obscure the parts of the glacier, thus affecting the training samples as a result and impacting the absolute classification accuracy [59]. [61], the conversion of about 39.5% of bush land to agricultural land between 1973 and 2000 [34], the degradation of more than 41 km 2 of the forest between 1952 and 1982 [62], the conversion of about 49.97 km 2 of shrubs and bush land to agriculture and other uses from 1961 to 2000 in the Kirua Vunjo division [59] and increased cultivated land from 54% (in 1973) to 63% in 2000 on the southern and eastern slopes [63]. ...
Land use conversion is generally accompanied by large changes in soil organic carbon (SOC). SOC influences soil erodibility through its broad control on aggregate stability, soil structure and infiltration capacity. However, soil erodibility is also influenced by soil properties, clay mineralogy and other human activities. This study aimed to evaluate soil organic carbon as proxy of soil erosion risk in the Nyumba ya Mungu (NYM) catchment in Northern Tanzania. Soil organic carbon (SOC) was measured by an AgroCares scanner from which the soil organic matter (SOM) was derived using the conversional van Bemmelen factor of 1.72. A regression analysis performed between the measured loss on ignition (LOI) values and SOM from the AgroScanner showed a strong positive correlation in all land use classes (LOIFL R2 = 0.85, r = 0.93, p < 0.0001; LOICL R2 = 0.86, r = 0.93, p = 0.0001; LOIGL R2 = 0.68, r = 0.83, p = 0.003; LOIBS R2 = 0.88, r = 0.94, p = 0.0001; LOIBL R2 = 0.83, r = 0.91, p = 0.0002). This indicates that SOC from the soil scanner provided a good representation of the actual SOM present in soils. The study also revealed significant differences in the soil aggregate stability (WSA) and SOM stock between the different land use types in the Upper Pangani Basin. The WSA decreases approximately in the following order: grassland > forest land > bare land > cultivated > bush land. Land use change can thus potentially increase the susceptibility of soil to erosion risk when SOC is reduced. Since WSA was directly related to SOM, the study indicates that, where formal measurements are limited, this simple and inexpensive aggregate stability test can be used by farmers to monitor changes in their soils after management changes and to tentatively assess SOC and soil health.
... However, given that local communities were previously allowed consumptive activities in the Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve (now part of the National Park), some women are permitted to collect dead stems for firewood within a half-mile strip next to the park boundary on the southern slopes (personal observation, 2020). Water that originates from the National Park is used not only for cultivation on the mountain slopes but also for irrigated rice, maize and tomato farms in the lowlands, flower cultivation around Arusha and hydropower plants at Nyumba ya Mungu and Hale and Pangani Falls [50]. ...
Mountain environments and communities are disproportionately impacted by climate change. Changes in temperature are greater than at lower elevations, which affect the height of the cloud base and local rainfall patterns. While our knowledge of the biophysical nature of climate change in East Africa has increased in the past few years, research on Indigenous farmers’ perceptions and adaptation responses is still lacking, particularly in mountains regions. Semi-structured interviews were administered to 300 farmers on Mount Kilimanjaro (n = 150) and the Udzungwa Mountains (n = 150) in Tanzania across gender and wealth groups. Respondents in both mountains reported not only changes in rainfall and temperature, corresponding with meteorological data, but also a greater incidence of fog, wind, frost, and hailstorms—with impacts on decreased crop yields and increased outbreaks of pests. The most common adaptation strategies used were improved crop varieties and inputs. Wealthier households diversified into horticulture or animal rearing, while poorer households of Hehe ethnicity diversified to labour and selling firewood. Despite being climate change literate and having access to radios, most respondents used Indigenous knowledge to decide on planting dates. Our findings highlight how context and culture are important when designing adaptation options and argue for greater involvement of local stakeholders in adaptation planning using a science-with-society approach. Place-based results offer generalisable insights that have application for other mountains in the Global South.
... Mapitio ya utafiti juu ya athari za mazingira katika uhamiaji kwa Afrika Mashariki unaonyesha kuwa ni vigumu kutambua vyanzo kwa kuwa si dhahiri Charnley, 1997;Hirvonen, 2016;Kubik, 2017;Kubik andMaurel, 2016a and2016b;Magesa and Pauline, 2019;Mbonile, 2005;Msigwa and Mbongo, 2013;Smith, 2014;Tacoli, 2011). Katika baadhi ya visa, changamoto za mazingira huongeza tabia ya kuhama wakati katika hali zingine uhamiaji hupungua. ...
Kutathmini ushahidi: Mabadiliko ya tabia nchi na uhamiaji katika jamhuri ya muungano wa Tanzania
Available from IOM Publications: https://publications.iom.int/books/assessing-evidence-climate-change-and-migration-united-republic-tanzania-executive-summary
This summary brief in Swahili accompanies the English-language publication Assessing the Evidence: Migration, Environment and Climate Change in the United Republic of Tanzania and is intended for use by policymakers and practitioners.
This brief provides an executive summary of the report as well as detailed explanations of the key conceptual graphics and climate change projection outputs presented. The publication attempts to comprehensively address climate change impacts in the United Republic of Tanzania, current mobility patterns and trends, and the possible linkages between them. The majority of Tanzanians live in rural areas and depend on rain-fed smallholder farms and pasture that are expected to suffer significant impacts as a consequence of climate change. This report focuses mainly on the internal, rural-to-rural migration flows that are still prevalent in the country. It provides an analysis of the existing research on both climate change and migration in the country, drawing from evidence from the wider climate and migration literature. The main findings establish a first evidence base for future policymaking and investigation in the country.
This report is a joint effort between the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK) and IOM, supported by a number of external contributors.
... These strategies are aimed at increasing per capital production and discourage the opening up of more land for agriculture [34]. Shrinking in the forest area along the mountain landscapes has also been reported in several studies [42,43]. However, the quantitative estimates of water losses due to deforestation in the Pangani basin are scanty or missing [44]. ...
This study provides a detailed assessment of land cover (LC) changes on the water balance components on data constrained Kikafu-Weruweru-Karanga (KWK) watershed, using the integrated approaches of hydrologic modeling and partial least squares regression (PLSR). The soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model was validated and used to simulate hydrologic responses of water balance components response to changes in LC in spatial and temporal scale. PLSR was further used to assess the influence of individual LC classes on hydrologic components. PLSR results revealed that expansion in cultivation land and built-up area are the main attributes in the changes in water yield, surface runoff, evapotranspiration (ET), and groundwater flow. The study findings suggest that improving the vegetation cover on the hillside and abandoned land area could help to reduce the direct surface runoff in the KWK watershed, thus, reducing flooding recurring in the area, and that with the ongoing expansion in agricultural land and built-up areas, there will be profound negative impacts in the water balance of the watershed in the near future (2030). This study provides a forecast of the future hydrological parameters in the study area based on changes in land cover if the current land cover changes go unattended. This study provides useful information for the advancement of our policies and practices essential for sustainable water management planning.
... In addition, LULC might be associated with the increased water demand for irrigation and hydropower generation, which is met through increased diversions and impoundments (Vitousek et al. 1997). Expansion of crops can also push smallholders and Indigenous and traditional communities to marginal lands with scarce resources, which can lead to conflicts and disputes (Mbonile 2005;Sauer 2018). ...
The development of strategies that conciliate anthropogenic activities with nature conservation is becoming increasingly urgent, particularly in regions facing rapid conversion of native vegetation to agriculture. Conceptual modelling enables assessment of how anthropogenic drivers (e.g. land use/land cover change and climate change) modify natural processes, being a useful tool to support strategic decision-making. The present work describes a conceptual model to evaluate water-related ecosystem service provision under different land use scenarios in the Matopiba region of the Brazilian Cerrado, the world’s most biodiverse savanna and an agricultural frontier. Model variables were determined (direct drivers, indirect drivers, focal components and responses) and the Nature Futures Framework was consulted to incorporate socio-ecological components and feedbacks. Future scenarios were developed considering potential trajectories of drivers and governance responses that may impact land use in the region, including the possibility of full compliance with Forest Code and implementation of the Soy Moratorium in the region. The conceptual model and scenarios developed in the present study may be useful to improve understanding of the complex interactions among anthropogenic drivers, water-related ecosystem services and their potential repercussions for natural and social systems of the region. Governance decisions will be critical to maintaining the ecosystems of the region, the services it provides and the culture and tradition of the people historically embedded in the landscape. In acknowledgment of humanity’s dependence on nature, the importance of inverting the way scenarios are used is highlighted. Rather than using scenarios to measure the impacts of different policy options on nature, scenarios representing the desired outcomes for biodiversity and ecosystem services can be used to inform how policies can guarantee ecosystem integrity into the future.
... The middle and lower reaches consist of savanna bushland, small and large scale irrigated agriculture (common grown crops are rice, maize, beans, sisal, sugarcane, vegetables and fruits), herding, fishing and small industries (UNDP, 2014;Mathew et al., 2016). Mbonile (2005) and PBWO/IUCN (2007) reported higher population density in the upper Pangani River Basin because of more favorable living conditions and the availability of fertile soils for agriculture, in particular. Approximately 80% of the population is engaged in agriculture and irrigation consumes most (up to 64%) of the available freshwater resources (Kiptala et al., 2013). ...
Population growth and economic development have resulted in increased water demands, threatening freshwater resources. In riverine ecosystems, continuous monitoring of the river quality is needed to follow up on their ecological condition in the light of water pollution and habitat degradation. However, in many parts of the world, such monitoring is lacking, and ecological indicators have not been defined. In this study, we assessed seasonal variation in benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in a tropical river catchment in northeastern Tanzania, which currently experiencing an increase in agricultural activities. We examined the potential of in-stream environmental variables and land-use patterns to predict the river macroinvertebrate assemblages, and also identified indicator taxa linked to specific water quality conditions. Macroinvertebrate abundance, taxon richness and TARISS (Tanzania River Scoring System) score were higher in the dry season most likely due to higher surface runoff from agricultural land and poorer water quality in the wet season. In the wet season macro invertebrates seem to be limited by chlorophyll-a, oxygen and phosphorous while in the dry season, when water flow is lower, nitrogen and turbidity become important. Substrate composition was important in both seasons. Given the fact that different selective filters limit macroinvertebrate assemblages in both seasons, a complete picture of water quality can only be established by monitoring in both seasons. Riparian buffer zones may help to alleviate some of the observed negative effects of agricultural activities on the river system in the wet season while limiting irrigation return flows may increase water quality in the dry season.
... Land use is dominated by irrigation agriculture (maize, beans, rice, tomatoes, and other vegetables), shrubland and grassland (Fig.2). Free grazing is highly practiced in lower reaches, which results in overgrazing and soil erosion (Mbonile, 2005). ...
Understanding the influence of land-use activities on river quality has been a key focus of river monitoring programs worldwide. However, defining which land-use spatial scale is relevant remains elusive. In this study, therefore, we contrasted the influence of land use on river quality using three types of land-use estimators, namely circular buffers around a monitoring site, circular buffers upstream of the monitoring site and the entire watershed area upstream of the monitoring site. The land-use percentage compositions within the Usa-Kikuletwa River catchment in northeastern Tanzania were quantified using Landsat-8 satellite images with a maximum mapping resolution of 30 m. Redundancy analysis models and generalized linear models were used to evaluate the influence of land use on macroinvertebrate assemblages and physico-chemical water quality at different spatial scales in the dry and wet seasons. Overall, a substantial fraction of variation in physico-chemical water quality, macroinvertebrate taxon richness, Chao-1 and TARISS (Tanzania River Scoring System) score could be explained by land use of the entire watershed area upstream of the monitoring site in the dry and wet seasons. However, macroinvertebrate abundances showed strong links with more local land-use patterns within 100 m and 2 km radii. Circular buffers upstream of monitoring sites were more informative for macroinvertebrate assemblages than circular buffers around the monitoring sites. However, the latter did correlate well with physico-chemical water quality variables. Land-use variables correlated across spatial scales (i.e., 100 m up to 2 km radii), but not with the land use in the entire watershed area above the monitoring site. Our results indicate that physico-chemical water quality variables and macroinvertebrates may respond differently to land-uses at different scales. More importantly, our results illustrate that the choice regarding spatial land-use metrics can bias conclusions of environmental impact studies in river systems.
... Researchers have devised numerous models to assist the UN in devising transboundary water sharing and clash resolution laws (Giordano et al. 2007;Mbaiwa 2004;Kilgour et al. 1987;Murphy and Sabadell 1986). Mass migrations and the rise of water wars were noticed in Pakistan during the August 2010 floods, and in Tanzania over the last decade (Mbonile 2005). Thus, migration of talent also results in severe setbacks to the economies of developing countries (Beechler and Woodward 2009). ...
Hydropower dams on rivers in the Indus Basin are becoming new elements in power geopolitics due to the threat of “aqua bombs” to downstream regions. Water law may limit such perceived water wars. The transboundary river water sharing agreements that bind bordering states are overstretched, particularly between Pakistan and India. Meanwhile, factors such as the expansion in industry and population, global warming, and reduction in oil and gas resources diminish scarce natural water resources. In addition, due to water pumping at levels above natural recharge rates, the underground water table has reached a state of continual free fall in the Indian and Pakistani Punjab. This work points out the dire need to reform international law to address such transboundary river conflicts, as water conflicts may become fully fledged armed conflicts with the current approach. The concurrence of power, energy, food, and water crises may wreak havoc on international river agreements if not addressed in international law. However, the laws that define rights among developed states may not be suitable for developing countries, and water and food security are critical issues for sovereign nations. Water sustains life, effectively determining all other geopolitical issues. The aim of this work is to investigate how international law could be adjusted with regard to international water sharing in order to resolve issues such as the energy crisis, economic collapse, global warming, and climate change.
... Due to the asymmetry, there is also high interannual variability when EOF1 magnitudes are large. The Pangani basin has experienced high levels of population growth, and therefore water demand, coinciding with water conflict issues between small-scale and industrial-scale agriculture irrigation projects and hydropower (Mbonile, 2005). It is also coincident with one of the most water-stressed aquifers in Tanzania with demand exceeding recharge (Richey et al., 2015). ...
Water management approaches have historically optimized water for human use and placed lower emphasis on the relationship between ecosystems and humans. Despite efforts to balance human and ecosystem needs, existing management approaches tend to prioritize some needs, knowledges, and values over others. Natural and anthropogenic changes pose challenges to water governance institutions due to policy inflexibility, and may lead to ecosystem degradation, water stress, and conflict among water users. This work seeks to redress these shortcomings through three scholarly contributions. First, a conceptual framework for Water Resources Stewardship is developed in support of equitable and adaptive solutions under changing conditions. Key elements include attention to the structure of governance, opportunities for stakeholder inclusion, knowledge production and use, and adapting to changes in risk. A meta-analysis of prominent water sector approaches identifies gaps and informs future perspectives. Next, a historical analysis of Maine’s in-stream flow policy is presented. The analysis approach comprises of a) delineation of the rulemaking structure including the sequence and co-evolution of processes therein, b) characterization of events and conditions leading to rulemaking, and c) identification of opportunities and constraints to integrate adaptive policymaking in a water use context undergoing change. Opportunities for learning, integration of diverse stakeholder needs, and infusion of knowledge are needed to enable adaptive processes. Lastly, methodological advancements for assessing precipitation change enables a reassessment of risk to human and ecological systems. A quantile regression approach is used to a) assess annual precipitation relationships with oceanic indices at river basin scales, and b) identify asymmetries with mean precipitation trends at the global scale. Notably, significant land area and populations are overlooked by conventional methods. An extension to rainfed agriculture underscores the need for more accurate appraisal of change and uptake into risk management approaches.
... Water governance has also been linked to critical social issues, such as population growth, environmental conflicts and livelihood sustainability (Mbonile, 2005;Derman & Hellum 2007), while water scarcity, a phenomenon resulting from both human and natural causes (Tekken & Kropp, 2012), remains one of the pressing modern-day problems globally. Conflicts between the goals of meeting basic human needs, economic development, and ecological sustainability in water systems are also not uncommon (Baptista, 2010;Baron & Bonnassieux, 2011;Kotzé, 2012). ...
Africa has not received adequate attention in the growing number of studies on water governance. Using the Scopus database, 492 peer-reviewed articles published since 2000 on water governance across the continent were reviewed and informed the perspectives presented in this study. In addition to characterizing temporal and topical trends, our analysis highlights three dominant conceptual themes in existing studies – institutional, discursive and technical – and three crosscutting challenges of systemic, socio-environmental and research–policy divides. The study provides baseline information that can stimulate the development of scale-appropriate and policy-relevant research in the context of Africa’s unique water challenges.
... Nevertheless, we argue that informal practices need to be thoroughly explored in respect of their processes, in the interest of water social justice and peace among rural communities with less developed, formal resource management systems. Previous research on traditional water management focused on community linkages, conflict resolution (Edossa et al. 2005) community development (Katsi et al. 2007), and clashes between customary regulations and government water policies (Chikozho and Latham 2005;Mbonile 2005;Rurai 2007). Edossa et al. (2005, 6-8) for instance, focused on traditional practices and conflict resolution around water points among the Oromo people of Ethiopia-a more homogenous group. ...
Informal practices to manage water resources are widely utilised in subsistence economies. However, there is a need for a more nuanced insight in respect of their processes for water social justice and peace among rural communities, with the less-developed formal resource management systems. This study explored peace-based informal practices, used in managing scarce natural water resources in a Zimbabwean rural setting. The study was guided by the qualitative methodology and employed semi-structured interviews and observations to establish how informal practices for sharing water resources have implications for peace in rural Mhondoro-Ngezi, Zimbabwe. Thematic analysis was employed in analysing the data, and procedures for formulating themes, by Creswell, were followed. The findings revealed the existence of several informal practices, anchored on the foundations for social justice. Cooperation around water resources was achieved through adherence to common rules, anchored on the philosophy of Ubuntu. The use of myths was an indirect way of conserving water for equity purposes by proscribing certain behaviour around shared water sources. We conclude that it is important for policy makers to observe these customary regulations in order to encourage and strengthen peaceful community co-existence.
... Since then, Pangani became a strategic location in the colonial political economy, with colonialists scrambling for its control, and vigorously pursuing plantation farming such as sisal. With intensifying climate variability in recent years, populations on the highlands in and around the Kilimanjaro region, who are experiencing severe droughts, migrate towards Pangani for farming and pastoralism, and as a result has lead to increasing pressure and conflict over land and water resources in the locality (Mbonile, 2005). ...
One question that has remained unexplored in the global land rush debate is how large-scale land acquisitions affect health and wellbeing of local populations. As part of a larger study, this study advances our understanding in this area by applying the concept of therapeutic landscapes to analyze interviews conducted in two coastal communities in Tanzania where land investments have been prevalent. Our analysis found that local populations perceived traditional lands with sacred sites as therapeutic spaces, which embodied cultural values, and promoted health and wellbeing when protected. Intrusion into these spaces through large-scale land investment is believed to remove their therapeutic attributes, thereby turning them into unhealthy landscapes. Dispossession of these spaces is perceived to heighten community distress resulting in poor psychosocial health. Based on our findings, we suggest that health consequences of land investments should move to the center of the large-scale land acquisition discourse. Health policy should refocus on the psychosocial health impacts of global land investments in Tanzania and other low-income countries. Ultimately local participation in land governance should be strengthened through land reforms in Tanzania and similar contexts, as this may provide a buffer to poor psychosocial health.
... In the City of Arusha, which is situated in southern slopes of Mt. Meru, Northern Tanzania, the main source of water supply is groundwater (Mbonile 2005). The contribution of surface water (rivers) to the total amount of water abstracted is high only during rainy season. ...
Arusha aquifers have been exploited intensively serving as the main source of domestic water supply in the city. But the quality of groundwater is not clearly documented for future planning and management. Hydrogeochemical assessment was carried out to establish groundwater quality and its spatial distribution with the aid of geostatistical techniques. Groundwater samples were collected and analyzed for major cations and anions using conventional methods of water analysis. Well lithology and geological map were considered for hydrogeological interpretation of the area. The results of piper diagram revealed Na–K–HCO3 water type with sodium and bicarbonate ions dominating in all samples. High fluoride concentrations and general groundwater chemistry are mainly controlled by aquifer lithology than anthropogenic activities. The levels of anthropogenic pollution indicators such as nitrate, chloride and sulfate in deep wells are generally low and most likely coming from natural sources. The geological sections indicate two potential aquifers (volcanic sediment and weathered/fractured formation) both yield water containing significant concentration of fluoride. Fluoride concentrations were higher than WHO guidelines (1.5 mg/l) and Tanzanian standards (4.0 mg/l) by 82 and 36% of the analyzed groundwater samples, respectively. The southern part of the study area yields groundwater of better quality for human consumption than northern zones which is at high elevation on the foot of Mt. Meru. With exception of fluoride, the quality of groundwater in the study area is generally suitable for drinking purpose and other socioeconomic uses.
... Meru, the Pare and Usambara Mountain ranges and the springs emerging from Kenya. These streams join to create the main Pangani river and flow into the Indian Ocean at the coastal town of Pangani [61][62][63]. Pangani river basin climate is generally closely related to topography with flatter lowland southwest half of the basin being semiarid, whereas the mountain ranges are cooler and wetter with the highaltitude slopes above Mt. Meru and Mt. ...
Tanzania is among the countries with the fastest growing economy in Africa and therefore the need for affordable, clean, and most importantly sustainable electrical energy to meet her ever growing demands is pressing. In recent years, the country’s electricity needs have been largely dominated by thermal generations despite the fact that Tanzania is gifted with huge hydropower resource potential approximated at 38,000 MW with only a very small portion exploited to date. However, the exploited potential is expected to grow by commissioning of identified large and medium-scale hydropower projects with a total installed capacity of 4,765 MW currently under various stages of implementation. Moreover, the geographical location of Tanzania has several benefits to support development of small hydropower projects essential for appropriate utilization of available water resources as a way of mitigating climate challenges effects. Over the last decade, the country electricity demand along with end-use of energy has witnessed significant increases as economic development spreads towards achieving Vision 2025 goals. Proposed hydropower developments are projected to have enormous benefits in the acceleration of economic growth while contributing to greenhouse gas emissions reduction. In this paper, hydropower, which is one of the domestic options for clean energy development path, its present and future potential status, and water resources are explored based on a comprehensive review of energy sector relevant documents and polices.
... Ayrıca "Uluslararası Göç Örgütü"nün yayınladığı bir raporda, son yıllarda önemli ölçüde artan çevresel bozulmaya paralel olarak çok sayıda insanın yer değiştirdiğine ve bu tür göçmenlerin sayısının iklim değişikliğinin bir sonucu olarak gelecekte daha da artabileceği vurgulanmıştır (IOM, 1992). İklim değişikliği, doğal afetlerin etkisini arttırmakta; tarımsal üretimi ve temiz suya erişimi sıcaklık artışı ve kuraklık yoluyla zorlaştırmakta; yükselen deniz seviyeleri kıyı alanlarını yaşanmaz hale getirmekte ve ek olarak doğal kaynaklar üzerindeki rekabet, çatışmaları tetikleyerek insanların zorunlu yerinden edilmesine ön ayak olmaktadır (Martin, 2009;Mbonile, 2005). Birleşmiş Milletler, 2020 yılında dünyada 60 milyon, 2050'de 200 milyon çevresel göçmen olabileceğini tahmin etmektedir(UN, 2014c). ...
Scholars, who are interested in population, address the connections between population, environment and sustainability and desire to reveal more details about this relation. This article aims to investigate how global population dynamics affect environmental deterioration and sustainable development and thereby to provide a new initiative for new researches. In line with this purpose, population data published by the United Nations is evaluated together with body of literature in this article. Findings show that population dynamics are highly associated with human-induced environmental changes and sustainable development. In this context findings reveal that world population continues to increase rapidly especially in underdeveloped regions of the world and is aggregated in these regions and major urban areas of the world. This study asserts that population dynamics increase poverty, hamper access to resources and trigger migration in underdeveloped societies by causing environmental deterioration at global and local scale, depletion of resources and an unsustainable development. Results point out that many environmental and developmental problems are eventually global since ecosystems are not obligated to accord with national borders; that consumptions patterns together with population dynamics and their spatial differences must be considered in political agenda and that there an increasing need for interdisciplinary studies in order to understand complex interaction between the population dynamics, environment and sustainability
... This contention brings both parties into contact with a consequent escalation of conflicts. The rapid population dynamics of both livestock and human populations have triggered herders' migration that has, consequently, led to resources-use conflict by the convergence of pastoralists and farmers [7]. ...
This study aimed to examine the argument of environmental resource-use conflict as the primary cause of crop farmers and agropastoralists conflicts in Tabora Region, Tanzania. It explored the multiple interdependent phenomena that affect livelihoods relationships between crop farmers and agropastoralists and the nature of their continuing conflicts over the ecozonal resources. A primary dataset of the two groups’ conflicts was used. An ex post facto and multistage sampling design was adopted. A total of 252 respondents were interviewed in three separate villages drawn from agroecological zones fringing the miombo woodland where such tensions are high. Data were analyzed using logistic regression. Results indicate that education ( β = −1.215, .297; p=.050 ), household size ( β=.958 , 2.607; p=.017 ), herd size ( β = 4.276, 7.197; p=0.001 ), farm size ( β = -1.734 , .048; p=.176 ), the police ( β = -.912 , 4.582; p=.043 ), and village leaders ( β = -.122 , .885; p=.012 ) were the most potent predictors of causes of conflicts. The study found no support for demographic variables, like age, sex, marital status, income, duration of residence, and distance to resource base. The study recommends population growth control and strengthening of local institutions and recommends local communities to sustain management of natural resources base in the area.
... The savannah is the natural ecosystem of the colline zone. Because the population in the Kilimanjaro area is increasing continuously, arable land is required urgently (Mbonile, 2005). Therefore, the savannah ecosystem is being transformed into agricultural fields for maize cultivation. ...
Visible–near‐infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (vis– NIR DRS ) has been widely used to predict soil organic carbon ( SOC ) in the laboratory. Predictions made directly from soil spectra measured in situ under field conditions, however, remain challenging. This study addresses the issue of incorporating in‐situ reflectance spectra efficiently into calibration data when a few field measurements only are available. We applied the synthetic minority oversampling technique ( SMOTE ) to generate new data with in‐situ reflectance spectra from soil profiles. Subsequently, we combined existing spectral libraries with these new synthetic data to predict SOC by partial least squares regression ( PLSR ). We found that models with added synthetic spectra always outperformed models based on the spectral libraries alone and in most cases also those with added in‐situ spectra only. We used the models to predict the distribution of SOC in soil profiles under five different land uses at M ount K ilimanjaro ( T anzania). Based on our results, we propose a framework for predicting SOC with a limited number of in‐situ soil spectra. This framework could effectively reduce the costs of developing in‐situ models for SOC at the local scale.
Highlights
We compare predictions of soil organic carbon from spectra of dried and sieved samples, field samples and calculated spectra.
We use the synthetic minority oversampling technique (SMOTE) to calculate new soil spectra.
Models with SMOTE outperform models with dried and field spectra in most cases.
SMOTE can be used to reduce prediction errors when a few field data only are available for calibration.
... The watershed provides water for large and small scale irrigation, domestic and industrial use, hydropower production (at Nyumba ya Mungu Dam); for ecological processes along Pangani River and for nutrient cycling at Kirua Swamp (Mwamila et al., 2008). Nevertheless, the increase of population along the PRB (Mbonile, 2005) triggered the change of prior land uses to new ones in search for ES to support the growing population. Rampant population influx in PRB accelerated urbanization which called for more area for human settlement, agriculture and supply of water for the increased domestic and industrial uses. ...
This paper synthetizes, although within the limits of Italian planning perspective, the enormous opportunities emerging from the application of complex forms of knowledge for the benefit of water culture (especially in this period of significant climate changes) interdisciplinary/transdisciplinary for the purpose of stimulating proper cultural behaviors of the inhabitants in terms of water. The implementation of tools of participatory democracy, as set forth for example in the River Contracts, for governing the territory, soil, water, biodiversity, landscape and existing historical and architectural heritage, gives rise to awareness that the land is a common good. Even starting with minor land disputes, inhabitants and manufacturers regain the awareness of place and with this environmental understanding which is useful for overcoming, reducing and settling conflicts between different uses of resources – the common goods, starting with water. As an example, this paper sets out the synthesis of the ecohydrological results of the interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research carried out to support preparations of the Environmental Plan for the Adige Park in the meander of the River Adige immediately downstream of the city of Verona, Italy. It aims to demonstrate how, through active participation of the population, the protection and renewal of the natural, cultural, historical – environmental – landscape qualities existing there as a whole, together with the sustainable management of the river flow for the protection of biodiversity and of the river's self-purifying capacity have been achieved.
... The watershed provides water for large and small scale irrigation, domestic and industrial use, hydropower production (at Nyumba ya Mungu Dam); for ecological processes along Pangani River and for nutrient cycling at Kirua Swamp (Mwamila et al., 2008). Nevertheless, the increase of population along the PRB (Mbonile, 2005) triggered the change of prior land uses to new ones in search for ES to support the growing population. Rampant population influx in PRB accelerated urbanization which called for more area for human settlement, agriculture and supply of water for the increased domestic and industrial uses. ...
The values of watershed services from watersheds has for many years been neglected, underestimated and not factored in land use decisions for sustainable management. Sustainable management of watersheds and environmental friendly economic activities are vital for sustained water flow, steady supply of ecosystem services for societal needs and enhancement of aquatic vegetation and animal species. The problem of the failure to capture actual values of ecosystem services from watersheds and incorporate them in the national income accounting is profound in developing countries which are characterized with constrained budget for financing conservation programs. To resolve this problem attention has moved to market based instruments such as payment for watershed services (PWS). However, the approach to elicit the necessary information for PWS to kick off is still lacking. Furthermore, the application of market-based approaches in watershed conservation is vital as it advocates ecohydrology discipline, i.e. the integrative science linking the interaction between hydrology, biota and natural processes as management tools to reinforce ecosystem services on a broad range of landscapes. This study investigated small holder farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for watershed services in Pangani River Basin. A contingent valuation method was employed to elicit the willingness to pay for watershed conservation. A probit model was used to determine respondents’ response to WTP and factors conditioning the maximum amount they are WTP. Findings indicates that majority of respondents are willing to pay for watershed services. Similarly, result reveals that marital status, household size and distance from the water source positively influence smallholder farmers’ WTP and the maximum amount to be paid. Equally important occupation, household size, income from irrigation, and amount paid for irrigation were found to negatively influencing smallholder farmers’ WTP. The result also revealed that education level, total land size and yield from irrigated farm plot positively influence smallholder farmers’ WTP. These results therefore, indicate that establishment of PWS is feasible.
Understanding the decision-making mechanisms of stakeholders in land use changes within wetland areas is critical for managing land resources effectively and mitigating conflicts. This study applies a game-theoretic approach to examine the strategic interactions among key stakeholders—managers, developers, and residents—within the Caohai National Nature Reserve (CNNR) in China. By integrating real data on land use changes, ecological quality indices, and economic incentives, this study identifies the driving forces behind stakeholder behavior and land use evolution from 2000 to 2020. The land use changes and ecological effects in the CNNR can be divided into two main stages: From 2000 to 2010, the primary direction of land use change was the conversion of grassland into construction land and farmland, resulting in the deterioration of ecological environment quality. From 2010 to 2020, the main direction of land use change shifted to the conversion of farmland into grassland and forest land, leading to an improvement in ecological environment quality. Game-theoretic analysis demonstrates that managers play a decisive role in shaping stakeholder strategies through regulatory mechanisms, such as land rent adjustments, penalties, subsidies, and ecological compensation. Stronger enforcement of penalties and incentives significantly enhances cooperative behavior among stakeholders, reducing land use conflicts and promoting ecological recovery. These findings emphasize the necessity of targeted governance strategies to align stakeholder interests and balance ecological conservation with socio-economic development. The insights from this study provide valuable guidance for policymakers and land managers in designing effective land use policies and improving conservation efforts in wetland-protected areas.
Water scarcity has caused humans to lose their ability to produce food and energy and caused conflicts to access water in agricultural, industrial, and municipal sectors at international, regional, national, and local levels. The water crisis disrupts water resources’ ecological, social, and economic values and functions. These issues have gradually endangered people’s food security and social satisfaction and have emerged in migrations, social conflicts, and violence. In recent years, we have witnessed protests in different areas as a result of the water crisis and policies related to it. Indeed, the water crisis has led to public dissatisfaction. Water conflicts arise when there is a limited and unequal distribution of water resources, leading to tension between different stakeholders such as local communities, governments, and industries. Achieving sustainable development requires the effective management and allocation of water resources to ensure equal access to water is provided for all and to reduce any negative effects that come with water usage on the environment. The impacts of water conflicts can be environmental, resulting in water scarcity, water pollution, loss of aquatic biodiversity, and damaged ecosystems. There are also socioeconomic impacts such as reduced access to water, displacement of communities, and conflict amongst user groups. Different management approaches proposed to address water conflicts and promote sustainable development include sustainable water governance, integrated water resources management, and community-based management. These approaches aim to balance water use, promote efficient and sustainable water use, and enhance the resilience of water systems amidst environmental and socioeconomic changes. In general, managing water resources sustainably is crucial for promoting economic, social, and environmental well-being. Addressing water conflicts is an essential step in achieving sustainable development. The chapter systematically reviews and explains the concepts, causes, different categories, and impacts of water conflicts and their relations with sustainable development. It also argues for water conflict management approaches and policy implications for sustainable development.
At the end of the chapter, students should be able to understand:
• The concept of environmental conflict;
• Categories of environmental conflict;
• Climate change: definition and cause(s);
• The relationship between climate change and environmental conflict in
Nigeria;
• Other Factors of increasing environmental conflicts; and
• Managing environmental conflicts.
Connections between resources and migration operate as a complex adaptive system rather than being premised in linear, causal mechanisms. The systems thinking advocated within this Element increases the inclusion of socio-psychological, financial, demographic, environmental and political dimensions that mediate resource-(im)mobility pathways. The Earth Systems Governance paradigm provides a way to manage global migration flows more effectively, allowing for consideration of networks and interdependencies in addition to its inherent adaptiveness. Resource rushes, hydropower displacement, and climate-induced retreat from coastal areas are all examples of circumstances linking resources and human mobility. Movement can also ameliorate environmental conditions and hence close monitoring of impacts and policies which harness benefits of migration is advocated. Green remittance bonds, and land tenure policies favoring better arable resource usage are key ingredients of a more systems-oriented approach to managing mobility. The Global Compact on Migration offers an opportunity to operationalize such adaptive governance approaches in the Anthropocene.
Indigenous conflict management has been a key feature of pre-and post-colonial African societies in managing varied community disputes related to natural resources. In Zimbabwe, the Dare, the traditional court works similarly. However, there have been few insights on the effectiveness of indigenous community-based mechanisms in managing primary water conflicts. The paper argues that although there are widespread and varied water conflicts within the rural setting, the grassroots nature, combined with simple and clear procedures of the traditional court systems makes it a viable option in managing emergent primary water conflicts at the community level. There is a need to synchronise this indigenous community-based conflict management mechanism with the state-run judicial system. However, the operation of the indigenous conflict management mechanism within the framework of competitive African politics has made it vulnerable to political intrusions. Water governance, using traditional court systems would likely benefit from equal gender representation in the decision-making structures.
To optimise water as a “vehicle” for development, strategies are necessary that are appropriate in a situated African setting. On the one hand, many African scholars advocate public governance that is rooted in African philosophy and culture. This type of governance is viewed as potentially capable of employing indigenous knowledge systems that are familiar to African people and local communities. On the other hand, some scholars posit that Africanisation should not be a total rejection of certain progressive western concepts. This article, in turn, attempts to demonstrate the importance of community-based water resource governance as a resource for Africanisation and the basis for community development, while acknowledging the challenges to the realisation of this goal. Using rhizomatic discourse analysis, the article connects seemingly diverse arguments to suggest the efficacy of Africanising water resource governance. Citing several examples from the African continent, the article argues for using locally available indigenous and scientific methods of water use and distribution. The article provides a rationale for using storytelling to shape the narratives and actions that enable communities to solve their water conflicts or challenges. The article concludes that while localising water governance and peacebuilding is key, due to technological advances it is practical to merge some western methods of water governance with locally based initiatives.
This review presents research evidence of climate change and anthropogenic impacts on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro and its implications on water, food and energy production (WFE nexus). While there exist divided scholarly opinions on the impacts of climate change on the Mt. Kilimanjaro glacier, consistent decreases in precipitation amounts are evident throughout the existing literature. The 2050 projections indicate increases in the precipitation amounts by approximately 16–18%. However, it is also stated that there will be a concomitant increase in water deficit of about 71%, 27% and 1% in agriculture, hydropower and livestock production respectively. Despite a large number of researches on impacts of climate and anthropogenic pressure on WFE along Mt. Kilimanjaro slopes, there are still limited long-term, good-quality and high-resolution altitudinal precipitation, temperature records and observation network. Moreover, there is limited information on groundwater recharge areas and their stability under changing environment. It is not clear how the interdependence and interaction between climate change, irrigation, vegetation and river discharges affect groundwater recharge process. Also, there is scarce information on future land use/cover changes. Very limited studies focused on fog water deposition for Mt. Kilimanjaro forest and East Africa, despite its relevance as the water tower of the mountain streams. The review further highlights how both climate and anthropogenic impacts may affect ecosystem services in the region. There is a need for developing adaptive strategies for responding to climate change and anthropogenic impacts on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro now and into the future.
The study of spatial land use and land change is inevitable for sustainable development of land use plans. Environmental transitions analysis was done in part of the land on the slopes of the foothills of Mount Meru in thirty (30) years’ time from 1986 to 2016 using satellite-derived land use/cover maps and a Cellular Automata (CA) spatial filter under IDRISI software environment and assessed the important land use changes. Also, the future land use for 2026 which is the next ten (10) years was simulated based on Cellular-Automata Markov model. The results showed significant land use transitions whereby there is a huge land use change of bush land (BL) and agriculture land (AG) into human settlement (ST) which resulted into conversion of Arusha town into a City. In addition, the changes have caused slight changes in water bodies into mixed forest. Moreover, the future land use/land cover (LULC) simulations indicated that there will be unsustainable LULC changes in the next ten years since most of bush land and part of agriculture land will be used for building different structures thus interfering with fresh water and food availability in the City. These changes call upon the relevant planning authorities to put in place the best strategies for good urban development.
This paper looks at the water policy of Tanzania, and makes comparisons with the situation in Kenya. It focuses especially on recent attempts to move towards a participatory, demand-management approach to rural water supply. The paper is based on research conducted by the author for the African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS) in the Arusha Region of Tanzania, and the case studies from this specific area are then set in the context of national water policies.
The world is becoming increasingly aware that water supply is a basic need for the poor who form the largest proportion of most societies, yet receive the smallest share of scarce supplies, and often are unable to pay for services. Therefore, any technical and financial designs for water resources development should specifically address as priority the resolution of their problems.-from Authors
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