Article

Energy demand for selected bread making processes: Conventional versus part baked frozen technologies

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

This article presents some results on the energy demand in conventional bread baking and in the processing of frozen part baked breads, resulting from the “EU-FRESHBAKE” European project (FP6). Bread baking is one of the most energy demanding processes (around 4MJ/kg), compared with other thermal processes such as canning. However, there is a large variability of data in the literature. For partial baking, bread has to be baked twice. It may also be frozen after part baking, which will increase the total energy demand. Results obtained with equipment used by craft bakeries are presented. Conventional and frozen part baked processes are compared. The effect of occupation ratio on the overall energy demand is also assessed. It was observed that 15–20% of the total energy is used for heating up the dough and 10–20% for crust drying. Pre-heating of the oven represents another significant energy demand. The energy demand for freezing is comparable to that for baking. An Energy Efficiency Index is used to assess the ratio of energy effectively transferred to the dough during baking. Part baked frozen technology demands about 2.2 times as much energy as conventional bread making process.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... The energy requirement in the baking process is reportedly between 500 and 7300 kJ/kg. [2][3][4][5] It is normally agreed that baking, from an energy consumption point of view, is similar to drying semisolid food. 6 The inverse heat transfer problems (IHTPs) are currently generating a lot of interest in the field of science and engineering. ...
... Ureta et al. 5 estimated the energy demand during cake baking by standard heat transfer method and compared it with experimental data. Le-bail et al. 3 studied the comparison of the specific energy consumption between the conventional and part-baked frozen bread methods. However, energy estimation in the bread baking process by IHT has not been studied. ...
... The energy efficiency index (EEI) was calculated using the ratio of product energy demand to equipment energy demand. 3 The EEI was determined to be roughly 9.3% of the energy for the oven without a reflector, compared with 10.2% with a reflector in the oven. Additionally, the energy ratio index (ERI) was also estimated. ...
Article
Full-text available
Direct heat transfer problems can be solved analytically or numerically to predict the temperature profile when the thermal properties, boundary conditions, and other relevant parameters are known. Though it is common practice to measure temperature experimentally, heat transfer parameters and boundary conditions are more challenging to measure and can instead be inferred through the use of inverse heat transfer (IHT) techniques, which can be solved through optimization. In this study, the IHT method with the conjugate gradient method is used to determine the energy consumption of bread during the cooking process in a developed baking oven with and without a reflector. A complex variable differentiation method is integrated to calculate the accurate sensitivity coefficient matrix. The results demonstrated that the estimated heat flux is very close to the exact heat flux and relative error is less than measurement errors.
... Baking process is an energy intensive operation, in the bread manufacturing cycle [1]. Due to the high volume of products produced in bakeries, specialized technology has been developed to increase the effectiveness of the baking process [2]. Among all the stages (ingredients selection, mixing, storage/dosing, baking, cooling, packing, storage, distribution, and commercialization) involved in the bakery industry, the baking process is the most crucial stage. ...
... Among all the stages (ingredients selection, mixing, storage/dosing, baking, cooling, packing, storage, distribution, and commercialization) involved in the bakery industry, the baking process is the most crucial stage. The energy requirement at this stage is reportedly between 0.5 and 7.3 MJ kg −1 [2][3][4]. This large variation mainly depends on different factors such as type of products, mass of the products, source of energy and type of oven [2]. ...
... The energy requirement at this stage is reportedly between 0.5 and 7.3 MJ kg −1 [2][3][4]. This large variation mainly depends on different factors such as type of products, mass of the products, source of energy and type of oven [2]. Currently, the total energy demand quantity exceeds the total supply quantity [5,6]. ...
Article
Inverse heat transfer is a more efficient method for estimating unknown quantities of variable interest. The aim of present research work is to successfully predict the energy consumption to bake the bread at different baking oven temperatures during baking processes using the inverse heat transfer method. This inverse technique allows researchers to avoid the usage of intricate and expensive instrumentation. This study also compared different numerical techniques for estimating accurate sensitivity coefficients. The inverse heat transfer problem is presented as a multi-parameter estimation of heat flux and solved by the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm. The finite element method is applied to solve the transient standard heat transfer problem while considering nonlinear two-dimensional heat transfer. The results demonstrated that the complex variable differentiation method was given the satisfactory results than the forward difference method and central difference approximation method. In order to demonstrate the accuracy of the results, statistical analysis is performed for estimated parameters. A good agreement of results is obtained with help of the inverse heat transfer problem. This developed model provides the information to enable the energy required to cook any food product in food thermal processing accurately.
... The baking process is the final step of breadmaking, transforming dough into expanded bread, with the resulting crust colour associated with aroma, texture and appearance, which are important characteristics to consumers. Baking requires very high temperatures, typically between 160 and 250°C, it thereby needs high thermal energy (Le-bail et al., 2010). It is estimated that baking bread consumes two to five times more energy than other thermal treatments normally applied to food. ...
... It is estimated that baking bread consumes two to five times more energy than other thermal treatments normally applied to food. Another important baking parameter is the steam injection at the beginning of the baking time, which can account for 10-20% of the baking energy (Le-bail et al., 2010) and plays a major role in the quality of the crust, as well as in the global structure of the bread, particularly in the case of crispy rolls such as a French baguette (Altamirano-Fortoul, Le-Bail, Chevallier, & Rosell, 2012). However, in some cases baking is performed without steam injection (Le-bail et al., 2010). ...
... Another important baking parameter is the steam injection at the beginning of the baking time, which can account for 10-20% of the baking energy (Le-bail et al., 2010) and plays a major role in the quality of the crust, as well as in the global structure of the bread, particularly in the case of crispy rolls such as a French baguette (Altamirano-Fortoul, Le-Bail, Chevallier, & Rosell, 2012). However, in some cases baking is performed without steam injection (Le-bail et al., 2010). ...
Article
This study evaluated the impact of baking conditions (time, temperature and steam) on the local heating rate and its consequences on bread attributes. Dough was baked under different temperatures (160, 190 and 220 °C) and time (9, 12, 15 and 20 min), with the temperature rise monitored throughout the process. Macroscopic quality and macromolecular aspects of bread were analysed. A higher heating rate was observed for bread crumb baked with steam introduced at the beginning of baking and for bread crust baked without steam, at higher temperatures. Although different local heating rates were observed with the various baking conditions, the conditions which produced bread with similar quality aspects were identified. However, a similar trend was not observed for starch gelatinisation, which was unique to each baking condition. Consequently, baking aspects (time, temperature, steam) can be used to modify or to maintain bread characteristics, in which macromolecular changes are unique only due to different thermal development and mass transfer characteristics.
... Le-bail et al. [5] compared the energy consumption of two bread baking processes. Authors used a macroscopic approach that includes product and oven energy requirements to estimate an energy efficiency index which showed that part frozen baking had higher energy consumption than conventional baking. ...
... The efficiency of the process (g) is defined as the ratio of the energy demand of the product to the energy consumption of the equipment [5], with PED exp calculated at the baking time t b . ...
... Calculated OEC values are presented in Table 2, these results are in the same range reported by [5], in particular the authors informed an average value of 5.34 MJ/kg of bread considering fourteen electrical ovens. Also these values are comparable to the ones presented by [20] who measured the specific energy consumption in an industrial bakery, considering only the percentage of energy used in the baking process, the authors reported 1.27 kW h/kg processed flour for products baked in electrical oven, the average value of our results is 1.86 in the same basis. ...
Article
Baking is a high energy demanding process, which requires special attention in order to know and improve its efficiency. In this work, energy consumption associated to sponge cake baking is investigated. A wide range of operative conditions (two ovens, three convection modes, three oven temperatures) were compared. Experimental oven energy consumption was estimated taking into account the heating resistances power and a usage factor. Product energy demand was estimated from both experimental and modeling approaches considering sensible and latent heat. Oven energy consumption results showed that high oven temperature and forced convection mode favours energy savings. Regarding product energy demand, forced convection produced faster and higher weight loss inducing a higher energy demand. Besides, this parameter was satisfactorily estimated by the baking model applied, with an average error between experimental and simulated values in a range of 8.0 to 10.1 %. Finally, the energy efficiency results indicated that it increased linearly with the effective oven temperature and that the greatest efficiency corresponded to the forced convection mode.
... Because of this, during the last decade a big number of researchers from all over the world have become interested in studying different aspects of part-baked bread (PBB) and full-baked bread obtained from the first one. Among recent studies, it can be named those related to the effect of different ingredients on the quality of PBB and FBB (Almeida & Chang, 2012;Almeida, Chang, & Steel, 2013;Altamirano-Fortoul, Hernando, & Rosell, 2014;Jiang, Le Bail, & Wu, 2008;Majzoobi, Raissjalali, Jamalian, & Farahnaky, 2015;Ronda, Rivero, Caballero, & Quiles, 2012); on the physical properties (Altamirano-Fortoul & Rosell, 2011;Farahnaky & Majzoobi, 2008;Jury, Monteau, Comiti, & Le Bail, 2007;Hamdami, Monteau, & Le Bail, 2006;Le Bail et al., 2010;Novotni et al., 2011;Park & Baik, 2007;Primo-Martí n et al., 2006;Ronda, Gómez, & Quiles, 2010), the sensory attributes (Poinot et al., 2007) and the aging (Bosmans, Lagrain, Ooms, Fierens, & Delcour, 2014;Le Bail, Leray, Perronnet, & Roelens, 2011;Ronda, Quiles, Pando, & Roos, 2014) of these products. Refrigeration as a PBB preservation method has also been studied in the recent years (Bá rcenas & Rosell, 2006;Bá rcenas & Rosell, 2007;Bosmans et al., 2014;Karaoglu & Kotancilar, 2006;Karaoglu, Kotancilar, & Gurses, 2005;Lainez, Vergara, & Bá rcenas, 2008) because it represents an interesting alternative to freezing. ...
... Bread is a low-cost and frequent consumption product, which manufacturing cost rises with the inclusion in its production of an expensive technology, like freezing. In this aspect, Le Bail et al. (2010) calculated that the demand of required energy for bread freezing is similar to required energy for baking. Furthermore, the formation and growing of ice crystals during PBB freezing and frozen storage can damage the structure of the product (Bá rcenas & Rosell, 2006). ...
... http://jfr.ccsenet.orgJournal of Food Research Vol. 5, No. 6;2016 ...
Article
Full-text available
Part-baked bread (PBB) is a product which offers advantages to producers and consumers. The lower cost of refrigeration in comparison with freezing makes it an interesting option to preserve the PBB. The main problem of PBB stored in refrigeration is the mold occurrence on its surface. The addition of an antimicrobial agent in the formulation of PBB capable to delay the proliferation of mold would help to extend its useful life. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of potassium sorbate in comparison with calcium propionate on the number of microorganisms of PBB stored in refrigeration, as well as on the sensory quality of full-baked bread obtained from PBB. From the tests performed it was observed that there were no molds on the surface of PBB with antimicrobial agents during 28 days of storage at 5ºC, while molds were on control PBB at 15 days of storage. It was also found that calcium propionate (0.16% flour basis) was more effective than potassium sorbate (0.16% flour basis) on delaying microorganisms growing. Addition of antimicrobial agents did not affect significantly the sensory attributes of bread obtained from PBB. However, the addition of propionate caused a decrease on the specific volume of bread.
... The energy demand for a conventional baking process is around 3.7 MJ·kg −1 , although it can be higher (up to 7 MJ·kg −1 ) depending on specific products and operating conditions. In this sense, baking is similar to drying, both demanding a high amount of energy in comparison with chilling, freezing and canning, which need less than 1 MJ·kg −1 (Le Bail et al., 2010). ...
... In addition, baking ovens can be divided into batch and continuous ovens with respect to operation mode. In batch (or discontinuous) equipment, the product is placed directly onto decks (deck oven) or put in baking supports (trays, lids, pans, etc.) that are placed within a mobile rack or trolley (ventilated or rack oven) (Le Bail et al., 2010). Forced convection is used to provide a more uniform airflow to the product and thus minimises variations in quality due to spatial distribution inside the oven (Anishaparvin et al., 2010). ...
... For instance, in the case of crispy bread rolls (baguettes), steam is injected at the beginning of baking to plasticise the dough surface by steam condensation, which facilitates expansion of the bread (oven rise). Afterwards, the bread surface starts to dry and the typical crisp and browned crust is obtained (Le Bail et al., 2010). ...
... Following the mixing and fermentation step, the dough is divided, permitted to rest (initial proofing), and molded to the desired shape ( Figure 1) (Martin, 2004). The dough subsequently enters the proofing chamber (consisting of elevated temperature and humidity) to permit CO 2 production (leavening) within the dough (Mondal and Datta, 2008;Le-Bail et al., 2010). Once the dough has reached the optimum volume, it proceeds to the oven for baking in either a batch or a continuous oven. ...
... Baking is a complex process consisting of physico-chemical changes such as dehydration, protein coagulation, starch gelatinization, gas exchanges, and Maillard browning (Vanin et al., 2009). These changes occur in two major phases: (1) heating the dough and (2) the crust formation and browning (EU Freshbake, 2006;Le-Bail et al., 2010). ...
... The actual bread-baking process utilizes less than 19% of the energy required by ovens during baking (Le-Bail et al., 2010). Steam is added to the oven during baking to raise the humidity to enhance the quality of the final product, that is, volume, shape, and appearance. ...
Chapter
Energy consumption during food processing varies with the product, the degree of processing, the processes involved, and the form of energy used – thermal, electricity, or both. Of the greenhouse gases (GHGs), carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxides are primarily a consequence of burning fossil fuels and, in some cases because of the intrinsic process, for example, fermentations. Other important emissions are intended or unintended release of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) from refrigeration equipment. Because most of the food processing industries are specific to the types of products, this article explores energy consumption of selected industries and the GHGs emissions associated with the processes.
... Meanwhile, during the cooking process, the phenomenon with the highest proportion of energy demand (23%-26% of energy consumption) is weight loss due to a reduction in water content (Besbes et al., 2016;Deshlahra et al., 2009;Le-bail et al., 2010). Few studies have been conducted to model the thermal performance of ovens for baking pizzas (Nicolas et al., 2017;Pour-Damanab et al., 2014) or to evaluate the use of thermal vision systems to guarantee product quality (Ma et al., 2014). ...
... SEM micrographs of both samples (G and H) corroborate the RVA analysis. InFigure 3, micrographs of samples A, G, and H are shown.Figure 3c,f show that, in A, the starch granules are fully gelatinized and immersed in the continuous gluten network(Della Valle et al., 2012;Le-bail et al., 2010). However, for H, starch granules are still not gelatinized(Figure 3a,d). ...
Article
Full-text available
Currently, there is a growing interest in increasing productivity while reducing energy consumption and emissions of air pollutants in the restaurant industry. In this regard, we studied the use of hot air, microwaves, superheated steam, infrared and magnetic induction, and their combinations for the case of the pizza industry. Pizzas cook in hot air impingement ovens were selected as a base case scenario. The quality properties of the pizzas produced by each technology were determined using instrumental techniques. Energy consumption and CO2 emissions were measured as well. Then, we explored the combination of technologies that minimise cooking time and found that it can be reduced by 50% when using infrared in the last stage of the cooking process in hot air impingement ovens. This combination of cooking methods reduces the 27% energy consumption and 27.1% of the CO2 emissions while retaining the desired quality properties of the pizza.
... In comparison, the Carbon Trust study [17] analysed actual annual energy data for 13 bakeries, and the following energy intensities were calculated based on the amount of delivered energy a site uses each year and its annual production, with estimates of 551 kWh of fossil fuels (predominately gas) and 218 kWh of electricity, per tonne of product. Assuming a 35 % conversion rate from primary energy to electricity, this is approximately 4 MJ/kg bread of primary energy, which is very close to the estimate from a European study by Le-bail et al. in 2010 [18]. ...
... 2-3 loafs of 670 g each per batch) is adopted and gas is used as the fuel; the efficiency can however drop significantly with lower loading levels and, regardless of the loading level, with the use of electric ovens. Le-bail et al. [18], on the other hand, compared the energy demand in conventional bread baking with that in the processing of frozen part-baked breads-the option of the bake-off operations as mentioned in Sect. 3.1-and concluded that the part-baked process demands about 2.2 times as much energy as the conventional bread making process. ...
Chapter
The Local Nexus Network is addressing the intersection of two important emerging research areas, re-distributed manufacturing and the food-energy-water nexus. It is an on-going initiative which aims to develop an evidence-based comprehensive research agenda and foster an inclusive community of researchers and stakeholders for sustainable local food-energy-water nexuses. This paper presents the conceptual framing for understanding the challenges of local nexus, reports empirical findings around a particular case study, and makes initial reflections on the research and practical challenges and opportunities.
... Sin duda es un producto que forma parte de la mayoría de las culturas del mundo, pero tiene un costo energéticamente elevado. El proceso de horneado requiere del 49% de la energía consumida en una panadería [4], diversos autores estiman que la energía requerida para hornear pan va desde aproximadamente de 0.45 -7.26 MJ/kg de masa [5]. El uso de calor solar para cocinar no es nuevo, hay diversos diseños de estufas solares e incluso hornos solares como el diseño de Moseme & Madyra [6] cuyo horno solar tiene una capacidad de abastecer una demanda térmica de 2.182 kW. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Resumen Se aborda la aplicación de la tecnología solar térmica en un proceso milenario que ha acompañado a la humanidad y que probablemente lo hará por muchos años más, el horneado de pan. Se propone un sistema de cocción de pan de 47 kW de potencia térmica con energía solar suministrada por concentradores de canal parabólico y transferida hacia el horno mediante intercambiadores de calor agua/aire para calentar al aire a 250°C. Se encontró que el sistema propuesto puede reducir el costo operativo diario en 53% generando un ahorro anual de 129,800.00MXNenelcostodelcombustible.ElsistemacuentaconrespaldoauxiliardegasL.P.paragarantizarelsuministroenergeˊtico.SesimulaenTRNSYSelsistemapropuestoconlascondicionesclimaˊticasdelaciudaddeDurango,Meˊxicoyconlosparaˊmetrosrequeridosparatransferirelcalornecesarioalhorno,despueˊsseoptimizaelsistemautilizandoeloptimizadorGenOptconlafuncioˊndevalorpresenteparaestimarelconsumoenergeˊticodegasL.P.ylaamortizacioˊndelsistemaen20an~os.Laoptimizacioˊnpermiteobtenereldimensionamientodelsistemaparaqueseaconformadopor19colectoresy3.1m3devolumendetermotanque.Conestaconfiguracioˊn,setieneuncostooptimizadodelproyectoa20an~osde129,800.00 MXN en el costo del combustible. El sistema cuenta con respaldo auxiliar de gas L.P. para garantizar el suministro energético. Se simula en TRNSYS el sistema propuesto con las condiciones climáticas de la ciudad de Durango, México y con los parámetros requeridos para transferir el calor necesario al horno, después se optimiza el sistema utilizando el optimizador GenOpt con la función de valor presente para estimar el consumo energético de gas L.P. y la amortización del sistema en 20 años. La optimización permite obtener el dimensionamiento del sistema para que sea conformado por 19 colectores y 3.1m3 de volumen de termotanque. Con esta configuración, se tiene un costo optimizado del proyecto a 20 años de 2,240,720.45 MXN. Abstract We assess the application of solar thermal technology in a millenary process that has accompanied humanity and will probably do so for many years to come: bread baking. A bread baking system with 47 kW of thermal power is proposed to work with solar energy supplied by parabolic trough concentrators and transferred to the oven through water/air heat exchangers to heat the air to 250 °C. It was found that the proposed system can reduce the daily operating cost by 53%, generating annual savings of $129,800.00 MXN from the fuel cost. The system has backup auxiliary gas L.P. to ensure heat supply. The system
... According to the Global Food Report (Institute of Mechanical Engineers, 2013), 1608 L of water are needed to produce 1 kg of bread. Baking is an energy-intensive process that consumes between 5.5 and 1.3 MJ of energy to produce 1 kg of dough (Le-bail et al., 2010). Growing cereals also requires water and energy. ...
... Besides, baking required more energy compared to steaming. According to Le-bail et al. (2010), baking is concerned by energy demand as it is estimated that baking demands two to five times more energy than any other food processing. ...
Article
Full-text available
Durian known as the King of Fruit is a prominent, common native Southeast Asian fruit and very popular among the local Malaysians. Nowadays, there are various types of durian-based products available in the market such as ice-cream, cakes, chips, chocolate bars, and pre-mixed powders. There are also traditional dessert products produced using fresh durian filling such as ‘dodol’, ‘lempuk’ and ‘bingka’. However, as time goes on, traditional desserts are increasingly forgotten. The aim of this study was to diversify durian-based products into Ready-To-Eat (RTE) durian stick. The stick production technique began with the process of grinding the durian paste, mixing the ingredients, stuffing the mixture into the sausage casing, steaming the mixture and chilling the RTE durian stick. Next, the firmness and moisture content of the RTE durian stick production were also analyzed. Apart from that, sensory evaluation is conducted to determine the consumer acceptance of the RTE durian stick that has been produced. Based on the results obtained, the best firmness for this RTE durian stick is 10.42 N. The value of the moisture content obtained is high, which is between 52.05% to 61.89%. The overall acceptability of RTE durian stick resulted 3.7 out of its full score which is 5. For the RTE durian stick, where the RTE durian stick was satisfactory to the panellists, the overall acceptability showed a score of 74%. In conclusion, this method can be used to increase the added value and uniqueness of the RTE durian-based stick produced, however, improvements such as product formulations and freezing methods to extend the product’s shelf life is necessary for the future to produce better RTE dessert products. The RTE durian stick has potential to be commercialized for local and international markets based on the overall acceptability in terms of the texture, appearance, smell and taste.
... Regardless, conventional baking is the most energydemanding method, with an energy consumption that can reach 6 MJ/kg for bread dough and less than 40% of the energy directly used for dough baking and water loss of the bread. [1,12] This highenergy consumption increases production costs; accordingly, auditing energy consumption in bread baking can significantly reduce production costs. The bakery industry needs to provide answers to market demand given a low investment in time, equipment, or extra labor costs. ...
Article
Full-text available
Microwave heating (MW) is the most important method in bread baking owing to its efficiency in terms of space, speed, and ability to produce crustless bread. However, MW has some unfavorable effects on breadcrumb and staling. Additives are a promising solution to reduce the negative impacts of MW. In this review, the impact of MW baking on bread characteristics is investigated in terms of starch properties, mechanical properties, the staling phenomenon, crust formation, and bread aromas. Additionally, the effects of the addition of enzymes and technical enhancers in MW bread baking are studied in terms of bread properties, quality, and texture.
... In line with standard EN ISO 50006, facility's energy performance indicator can be expressed as absolute value of energy consumption (e.g. in GJ, kWh), specific energy consumption (SEC) (e.g. in kWh/unit) etc. It is common to express SEC as a ratio of consumed thermal and/or electric energy per one tonne of product [9] or per tonne of raw material (white flour in the analysed case) [16]. In order to ensure the energy performance indicators benchmarking, in this analysis it is chosen to use specific energy consumption expressed as total energy consumption per tonne of flour (SEC 1) and per tonne of product (SEC 2). ...
Article
Full-text available
Energy saving potentials related to steam generation and its usage in the medium size bakery are analyzed and presented. Input data needed for the investigation are gathered through detailed energy audit. Four energy savings measures are analysed in detail: 1) change of heat generator for space heating and domestic hot water preparation from steam boiler to condensing boiler, 2) reduction of heat losses from steam and condensate distribution lines, 3) heat utilization of return condensate and 4) replacement of the old, low efficiency steam boiler with high-efficient one. Implementation of these measures will result in substantial reduction of energy costs, ranging from 2.900 to 26.200 € annually. Interaction of all measures is analysed through energy efficiency improvement scenario, whose implementation will ensure significant energy cost savings, estimated at 40.793 € annually, with simple payback period shorter than 4 years. Implementation of presented measures will improve facility’s energy efficiency, represented through reduction of annual energy performance indicators by 6,14 %. Presented analysis revealed that steam generation and its usage in the industrial facilities offer a substantial potential for reduction of energy use and energy related cost.
... For deck ovens, heat transfer is dominated by conduction and radiation; natural convection occurs but is of minor importance (Brennan & Grandison, 2012;Walker, 2004). Depending on the oven geometries, chosen baking process and baking good, only 45% to 64% of the applied energy is available for baking the bread (Le-bail et al., 2010). Therefore, energy utilization and increase of energy efficiency are the key research fields for the baking industry. ...
Article
The present work aims to validate mid-infrared imaging as a promising method for evaluating oven systems. Therefore, a novel approach by analyzing mid-infrared radiation patterns captured by a thermal camera and subsequent image processing was developed. A thermal camera was adapted to two different oven systems: a standard electric deck oven and a novel gas-fired baking oven with integrated volumetric ceramic burners (VCBs). The baked goods were analyzed and key indicators describing the final product quality were determined. Specific volume, surface browning and mid-infrared image processing demonstrated a comparable performance of both oven systems. Furthermore, the determined surface heat homogeneity of the items to be baked was 0.65 ± 0.05 (–) for the electronic oven and 0.70 ± 0.03 (–) for the VCB oven. The proposed approach proved its fundamental qualification for comparing and evaluating different oven systems.
... Rough estimations on the basis of temperature, thermal capacity, mass, baking losses, and water vapor indicate an energy demand from 550 to 650 kJ/kg. However, experimental values given in the literature illustrate a strong variety from about 2 MJ/kg over 3.7 MJ/kg ( Le-Bail, Dessev, Jury, Zuniga, Park, & Pitroff, 2010) up to 5 MJ/kg (Fellows, 1996;Dinçer, 1997). ...
Preprint
Full-text available
This study aimed at evaluating the theoretical background of a simulation tool for modeling the bread baking process. Three partial differential equations, an additional ordinary differential equation, and a system of eleven ordinary differential equations have been used to describe a model of the bread baking process. The solutions for those equations implement temperature, water vapor concentration, and liquid water density as functions of time. Additionally, gelatinization in the center of the crumb and browning of the crust were also used as functions of time. So, the total energy content of the whole system consisting of the bread and the baking oven can be deduced at every time point. It was found that time functions of water vapor concentration and oven temperature could be replaced by their mean values. Water vapor concentration of the oven atmosphere plays a dominant role in the gelatinization of the crumb in the center of the bread, whereas oven temperature plays a dominant role for the browning of the crust. When adjusting vapor concentration and temperature in a way that gelatinization in the center and browning in the crust occur at the same time, energy demand of the baking process can be minimized.
... In the case of bread, Beech (1980) analyzed the energy used in producing standard, white, sliced bread in three UK bakeries, and reported values between 4 MJ and 16 MJ per kilogram of baked bread. In a more recent investigation, Le-bail et al. (2010) studied the energy demand in conventional bread baking in France, which ranged between 1.3 and 5.5 MJ/kg, depending on the oven capacity used. For cooking pasta, in Italy Bevilacqua et al. (2007) found an average of 3 MJ/kg, and an equal value was reported in Sweden by Carlsson-Kanyama and Boström-Carlsson (2001). ...
Article
Full-text available
Energy and carbon footprints of foods are of much concern, since food systems account for nearly one third of energy use and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions worldwide. Due to the complexity of mass variations in food processing and the diversity of appliances used in household cooking, most studies on energy and carbon footprints were performed from cradle to farm gate or wholesale stages. However, life cycle studies considering food preparation are important to assess environmental impacts related to both consumer practices and food characteristics. In the present work, we performed an experimental study that involved cooking of 18 foods consumed in Argentina; we report the energy consumption, GHG emissions and mass changes associated with the process. We also defined a nutritional footprint indicator, which allowed us to obtain the energy use and GHG emissions per unit of nutrient content instead of per unit of weight (e.g. per kg of food). We studied the cases of beef, wheat-based bread and soybeans, which represent the three analyzed food groups, to assess the impact of cooking on the cradle-to-table energy and carbon footprint. Our results showed that the relative impact of including the cooking stage in the energy and carbon footprints depends on the analyzed food item, with the impact being more important for plant-based than for meat products. Thus, a reduction in the footprint gap between plant-based and animal-based foods was found.
... Primary energy consumption in baking bread in MJ/kg, for large industrial, smaller scale and home baking. Data include measurements and results from LCA studies from various literature sources(Masanet, Therkelsen, and Worrell 2012;Espinoza-Orias, Stichnothe, and Azapagic 2011;Thomsson 1999;Carbon Trust 2010;Andersson and Ohlsson 1999;Braschkat et al. 2004;Beech 1980;Le-bail et al. 2010). The number of cases is shown below each boxplot, with the number of literature sources shown within brackets. ...
Article
Full-text available
Addressing the intersection of two important emerging research areas, re-distributed manufacturing (RDM) and the food-energy-water (FEW) nexus, this work combines insights from engineering, business and policy perspectives and explores opportunities and challenges towards a more localized and sustainable food system. Analysis centred on two specific food products, namely bread and tomato paste reveals that the feasibility and potential of RDM vary with the type of food product and the supply chain (SC) components. Physically, energy efficiency, water consumption and reduction of waste and carbon footprint may be affected by scale and location of production activities and potentials of industrial symbiosis. From the business perspective, novel products, new markets and new business models are expected in order for food RDM to penetrate within the established food industry. Studies on policies, through the lens of public procurement, call for solid evidence of envisioned environmental, social and economic benefits of a more localized food system. An initial integrated framework is proposed for understanding and assessing food RDM and the FEW nexus.
... According to the results of ''EU-FRESHBAKE'' European Project, baking is one of the most energy demanding processes. In conventional baking, the energy consumption related to the evaporation of water represents about 23-26% of (Le Bail et al., 2010). In consequence, reducing WL, and more particularly the duration of stage II is crucial to reduce energy consumption. ...
Article
The impact of the baking temperature on the moisture profile (in terms of water content), during bread baking was analyzed using a convection oven (three oven temperatures and different baking times). During baking, local water content and temperature were measured at different regions of the crust and crumb. There was found an increase in water content at the core. Water content reached a maximum level (at about 2.5%), with no effect of the baking temperature, and decreased slowly at advanced baking times. Regarding the crust, a theoretical model relating water flux to the driven force (temperature difference between the oven environment and the vaporization front) and the crust thermal resistance was validated with experimental values. Water losses were also reported. The water lost by bread contributes significantly to the energy consumption by this process and its reduction is of concern for conducting the process in a more sustainable manner. A better optimization of heat transfer between the surface (for coloration purposes) and the core (for inflation purposes) could help in this way, together with shorter baking duration and hence higher yield.
... Both processes consuming a lot of energy compared to the processes of cooling, freezing and preservation, processes that require less energy. (Le Bail et al., 2010;Islam et al., 2015) In most cases, the cost of electricity exceeds the cost of other resources, such as the cost of raw material, human resources, or equipment maintenance. (Fadare, 2003) E-M Stefan et al (2014). ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The purpose of the article is to study electricity consumption in the baking process. The determination of the electrical energy consumed in the baking process was carried out, from the dough in the oven to the output of the finished product from the baking chamber. A Zanolli SYNTHESIS 06 40V E electric oven was used. The results showed that the highest value of the electricity consumed was recorded for a dough containing 55% water and 10% sunflower oil, compared to a dough containing 45% water and 10% sunflower oil. This study provides information on electricity consumption for baking different types of bagels that can be used by processors and bakery workers. REZUMAT Acest articol are scopul de a studia consumul de energie electrica in procesul de coacere a covrigilor. S-a realizat determinarea energiei electrice consumate in procesul de coacere, de la intrarea aluatului in cuptor pana la iesirea produsului finit din camera de coacere. S-a utilizat un cuptor electric Zanolli SYNTHESIS 06 40V E. Rezultatele au aratat ca cea mai mare valoare a energiei electrice consumate a fost inregistrata pentru un aluat cu continut 55% apa si 10 % ulei de floarea soarelui, in comparatie cu un aluat cu continut 45% apa si 10 % ulei de floarea soarelui. Acest studiu ofera informatii privind consumul de energie electrica pentru coacerea diferitelor tipuri de covrigi, care pot fi utilizate de procesatorii si lucratorii din panificatie. INTRODUCTION In the bakery industry, the baking process is a key step in obtaining finite quality products, both in texture, color and flavor. The qualities of the final product result from several reactions which happen during the heating process of baking, such as starch gelatinization, water evaporation, volume expansion, crust formation, etc. (Therdthai et al., 2003; Gundu et al., 2012). Many physical and chemical reactions that happen in this stage are only partially, understood undoubtedly the quality of the baked products is influenced by the cooking time, the temperature applied and the speed of application of the heat. (Noël Haegens, 2018). Baking temperature can affect the texture of the bread and the color of the shell. The color formation of bakery products is widely known as browning. (Sabovics M. et al., 2014) Besides the qualities of the finished products, important attention is paid to the energy consumption in the manufacturing process, especially for the energy consumption during the baking process, which represents 2/3 of the total energy consumption of the whole production unit. (Zorn B., 2012) The baking process is considered an intense process due to the evaporation of water from the dough, and for this reason baking is considered similar to the drying process. Both processes consuming a lot of energy compared to the processes of cooling, freezing and preservation, processes that require less energy. (Le Bail et al., 2010; Islam et al., 2015) In most cases, the cost of electricity exceeds the cost of other resources, such as the cost of raw material, human resources, or equipment maintenance. (Fadare, 2003) E-M Stefan et al (2014). and Constantin G.A (2013) demonstrate that energy consumption research is treated even in units of wheat processing in flour, not just in units of processing of fine flour into finished products. This aspect indicates that energy consumption research is a topic of interest in the food industry.
... The application of vacuum cooling also reduces both baking and cooling time, saves on energy, and optimizes bread quality in terms of crumb softness and crust crispiness. Further, freezing with a cold air freezer with a set-point temperature of À30 C demands around 50% less energy than at À20 C ( Le-Bail et al., 2010). Dynamic freezing can be ended when the temperature of bread center is around À15 , and then frozen stored. ...
... In this study, the data is available only to be expressed by eight districts instead of blocks and towns in detail. For the selection of evaluation index, the factors of some new variables such as water supply, food (agriculture), or energy resources [32,33] are not considered in this study. At present, the study area is a rapid economical developing megacity in China, thus water and food supplies are sufficient and shall not influence the ULCC of Hangzhou in the short term. ...
Article
Full-text available
In this study, we present the evaluation of urban land carrying capacity (ULCC) based on an ecological sensitivity analysis. Remote sensing data and geographic information system (GIS) technology are employed to analyze topographic conditions, land-use types, the intensity of urban development, and ecological environmental sensitivity to create reasonable evaluation indicators to analyze urban land carrying capacity based on ecological sensitivity in the rapidly developing megacity of Hangzhou, China. In the study, ecological sensitivity is grouped into four levels: non-sensitive, lightly sensitive, moderately sensitive, and highly sensitive. The results show that the ecological sensitivity increases progressively from the center to the periphery. The results also show that ULCC is determined by ecologically sensitive levels and that the ULCC is categorized into four levels. Even though it is limited by the four levels, the ULCC still has a large margin if compared with the current population numbers. The study suggests that the urban ecological environment will continue to sustain the current population size in the short-term future. However, it is necessary to focus on the protection of distinctive natural landscapes so that decision makers can adjust measures for ecological conditions to carry out the sustainable development of populations, natural resources, and the environment in megacities like Hangzhou, China.
... Procedural and behavioural changes that include avoiding wastages can save about 30% energy without capital investment (Fischer et al., 2007). Some reported work on energy utilization in food industry are sugar-beet production (Mrini et al., 2002), bread baking (Jekayinfa, 2007), cassava products processing operations (Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007), palm-kernel oil processing operations (Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2007), bread making processes (Le-bail et al., 2010), sugar production factory (Abubakar et al., 2010), and cashew nut processing mills (Atul et al., 2010). ...
Article
Full-text available
Traditionally, method of producing pounded yam by pounding cooked yam using pestle and mortar is time and labour consuming, thus discouraging consumption of the food among urban elite. Conversion of yam tubers to instant-pounded yam flour requires quantifiable magnitudes. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine energy conservation potentials of the established three instant-pounded yam flour methods of production. Data were collected from nine instant-pounded yam flour producing factory using structured questionnaires, oral interview, and direct measurement of processing parameters. The data were fit into standard equations to estimate energy demand. Energy required for processing 1000 kg of yam to instant-pounded yam flour using cooking method, steaming method and wet-milling methods were 6720.15MJ, 6934.48MJ and 4296.56MJ respectively, equivalent to 6.7 MJ/kg, 6.9 MJ/kg and 4.3 MJ/kg respectively. Energy intensity for peeling, washing, slicing and packaging were 0.0055 MJ, 0.003 MJ, 0.0076 MJ and 0.2 MJ respectively, and are the same for all the methods studied. Drying consumed more than half of the total energy requirements in each method; cooking (66.26%), steaming (79.04%) and wet-milling methods (76.57%). Using energy demand as criterion, wet-milling method is recommended.
... (conventional) drying, both demanding a high amount of energy in comparison with chilling, freezing, and canning, which need less than 1 MJkg -1 (Le Bail et al., 2010). ...
Article
Full-text available
The main aim of the present work is to study and evaluate baking process energy requirements which considered the most consumable energy of bread baking stages. This was achieved by determining the moisture content, baking time, productivity and three types of energy (electrical, human and thermal) at four different belt speeds for two different types of baladi-breads, namely Magr and Mawi. Those four speedswere1.18, 1.97, 2.40 and3.55 ms-1. The results show that initial moisture content of dough was 42.12% for Magr but 62.02% for Mawi, while after baking it were 24.32, 24.61, 26.09 and 29.25% for Magr and 34.25, 39.50, 40.98 and 41.66% for Mawi at each speed, respectively. The results also indicated that the average baking time were 1.65, 1.10, 0.86 and 0.81minkg-1 andproductivity were 36.54, 54.63, 70.11and73.80 kghr-1 for Magr Baladi bread while the average baking time were 1.87, 1.13, 0.89and 0.84minkg-1 andproductivity were 32.62, 53.10, 67.48and 71.33 kghr-1 for Mawi baladi-bread at each speed, respectively. The specific energy requirements consumed were3.57, 2.92, 2.54 and 1.93 kWhkg-1 for Magr, while it were 4.35, 3.54, 3.11 and 2.53 kWhkg-1 for Mawi bread at speeds 1.18,1.97, 2.40 and 3.55 ms-1 , respectively. The results also indicated that the total costs of baking stage per 1kg of bread baking stage were 1.14, 0.86, 0.71 and 0.59 LE kg-1 for Magr while it were 1.34, 0.98, 0.82and 0.71LE kg-1 for Mawi bread, respectively at the same speeds.
... The energy demand for a conventional baking process is around 3.7 MJ kg -1 , though it can be higher (up to 7 MJ kg -1 ) depending on specific products and operating conditions. In this sense, baking is similar to (conventional) drying, both demanding a high amount of energy in comparison with chilling, freezing, and canning, which need less than 1 MJ kg -1 (Le Bail et al., 2010). ...
Article
Full-text available
The main aim of the present work is to study and evaluate energy consumption in bread baking. This was achieved by determining the energy consumed in each stage of bread baking processing to assess the most consumable stage of bread baking process. Magr baladi, Mawi and French bread baking were evaluated processes. Thermal, electrical and human energy sources were determined. The results indicated that the total specific energy consumed were 3038.11, 2831.85 and 4823.53 kJ kg-1 for magr baladi bread, mawi baladi bread and French bread, respectively. The specific electrical energy consumed were 42.21, 40.33 and 59.92 kJ kg-1 for magr baladi bread, mawi baladi bread and French bread, respectively. The specific human energy consumed were 5.35, 5.42 and 10.72 kJ kg-1 for magr baladi bread, mawi baladi bread and French bread, respectively. The specific thermal energy consumed were 2990.50, 2786.10 and 4752.89 kJ kg-1 for magr baladi bread, mawi baladi bread and French bread, respectively, which represent 98.43, 98.38 and 98.54% of the total energy consumed. The Total costs of different types of bread baking were 2.32, 1.76 and 4.80 LE kg-1 for Magr baladi, Mawi baladi and French bread, respectively.
... Other considerations included: partial baking requires two stages baking, and the energy demand might be supplemented with the energy required for freezing. Globally, part baked frozen technology demands about 2.2 times as much energy as conventional bread making process ( Le-Bail et al. 2010). ...
Chapter
Bakery products are the most consumed foods worldwide. There are great differences exist for the types of baked products, depending on raw materials, tradition, processing technologies, and life-style. Bakeries have been responding to the consumers’ demands and changes in society, and shift their production processes, products and even distribution channels. Fresh bread as well as other varieties of baked products contained diversified flavours, shapes and sizes. A decade ago, one of the food market drivers was the development of convenience food for satisfying the consumers demand for fresh like products (Rosell 2009). Convenience bakery products are solving the constraints in food preparation and limited time for shopping due to change in lifestyles and due to the increase in the number of women entering in the workforce, fragmentation of the traditional family and growing single-occupancy households.
... A second difficulty was the disagreement of energy value and product quantity standards. This was observed within prior studies, having some detailing individual thermal and electrical energy demand [4,18,19,24,27,29], while other just calculated a primary energy value [2,17,20,23], which provided the reader with no information if the process is more electrically or thermally intensive. ...
Article
Basic and detailed audits of small and medium sized food and beverage enterprises were conducted in six European Union countries to determine product specific energy consumption and measures to reduce energy use and carbon emissions. Collected results showed that the companies’ products had similar specific energy consumption as prior studies, but due to no standard metrics, the range was rather large. Auditors primarily recommended energy savings measures (process optimization and heat recovery), due to their low payback periods. Lower carbon energy sources were also recommended (solar thermal and combined heat/power), but often at higher costs, supported through government incentive programs. Through these measures, energy savings of up to 45% and carbon to 30% (∼30,000 t CO2 equivalent in the audited companies) were possible, dependent on the type, size of company, and fuel choice. Typically, very small companies and those using coal showed the greatest margin for improvement, though it varied greatly depending on the type of product produced and the installed heating and cooling equipment. Auditors noted significant barriers toward the implementation of measures, e.g. companies found the costs too high, did not know of efficient technologies and their performance, or did not have managerial support to implement efficiency measures.
... Therefore, the freezing equipment has a lower COP in comparison to the frozen storage. According to the criterion proposed by the IIR, a product can be considered as frozen if, either: 80 percent of the freezable water is effectively frozen or the temperature of the product is -12 °C Le-Bail et al., 2010 for fresh seafood, the criteria of -12 °C (to be reached at the end of the freezing process) can be considered as sufficient. Frozen food can then be transferred to frozen storage. ...
Conference Paper
Long term preservation of food has been a major challenge for human being for centuries. The development of food refrigeration and in particular of food freezing is relatively recent and has driven innovation in refrigeration technology. Food freezing addresses strong advantages in particular it stops all microbial growth and slows down or stops most biochemical reactions in food. However, water to ice transition results in substantial damage of biological tissues undergoing freezing. Fast freezing is generally recommended even though in some cases a slow freezing yields better results (e.g. in the case of frozen bread dough). This review paper will present an over view of some selected innovations related to food freezing and phase change in food at this condition. These innovations are either based on physical disturbance (static or fluctuating pressure such as ultra sound, external electric field, pulsed electric field …) and/or on implementation of ice nucleating agent with the objective of minimizing the freeze damage. Expectations and drawback of these techniques will be outlined. The energy demand for freezing process, which may also be a concern, will also be discussed.
... At the same time, oven cooking is a highly demanding energy process (Hager et al., 2013;Khatir et al., 2012;Le-Bail et al., 2010;Purlis, 2012). This is due to the fact that most foods have a high level of water content, which is partially evaporated during the cooking process. ...
Chapter
Oven cooking of food is a traditional and widely used technology, both at a household and industrial level, which confers to foods unique organoleptic properties, which can not be accomplished using other available technologies. At the same time, it is a highly energetic intensive process, due to the fact that most foods have a high level of water content, which is partially evaporated during roasting. Any attempts to minimize energy consumption of the process must be done carefully, since the quality of the product should not be negatively affected and, on several occasions, there are security and legislative standards to comply. In this chapter the energy consumption during roasting of beef semitendinosus muscle samples has been estimated, using an electric oven. The samples were cooked at oven temperature between 172 and 223 °C until they reach a core temperature of 72 °C. A simple procedure to determine the effective power of the oven from experimental measurements is proposed, which can be applied to other situations and processes. Then, from the experimental results, energy consumption of the oven between 4 to 6.3 MJ/kg of raw sample was found, while energy consumption of sample varies between 484 to 780 kJ/kg of raw sample. So, the ratio of sample energy consumption to oven energy consumption, provide a simple estimation of the energy efficiency of the process, which was found to be between 7.7 to 18.3%. Furthermore, a mathematical model of the beef roasting process has been used to estimate the actual energy consumption of the samples, which fit well with the experimental results.
... Procedural and behavioural changes, which include avoiding wastages, can save about 30% energy without capital investment (Fischer et al., 2007). Available literature on estimation of energy input in food processing include sugar-beet production (Mrini et al., 2002), bread baking (Jekayinfa, 2007), cassava products processing operations (Jekayinfa and Olajide, 2007), palm-kernel oil processing operations (Jekayinfa and Bamgboye, 2007), bread making processes (Le-bail et al., 2010), sugar production factory (Abubakar et al., 2010) and cashew nut processing mills (Atul et al., 2010). ...
Article
Full-text available
Pounded yam is a highly valued staple food in many African countries. However, the traditional method of processing the food using pestle and mortar is discouraging consumption among elite. Instant-pounded yam flour is a developed product to solve the problem. Therefore, this study quantified energy utilization in the preparation of yam flour for the production of instant-pounded yam and developed energy conservation processing method.. Data were collected from six instant-pounded yam producing factory using structured questionnaires, oral interview, and direct data recording of processing parameters. Data obtained were used to energy requirements and distribution pattern. Energy input for peeling, washing, slicing, cooking, drying, milling and packaging were quantified using standard equations. In attempt to conserve energy, thickness and shape of the yam to be dried were varied, and energy input estimated. Estimated energy inputs for processing 1000 kg of yam into instant-yam flour were 55.36MJ, 3.06MJ, 6.89MJ, 1490.13MJ, 4313.50MJ, 406.02MJ and 200.11MJ for peeling, washing, slicing, cooking, drying, milling, and packaging operations, respectively. Total energy expended in converting raw yam into instant-pounded yam flour was 6.4MJ/kg. Variation in thickness and shape of sliced yam did not affect magnitude of energy required for peeling, washing, and packaging. However, reducing yam thickness by 5 mm and changing shape from cylindrical to diagonal, reduced energy requirements for cooking, drying, and milling by 4.59%, 18.42%, and 2.60% respectively. The conservation approach reduced total energy utilization from 6425.07 to 4779.42 MJ. Finding of the work revealed that it is possible to conserve energy during production of instant-pounded yam using procedural and behaviour approach.
... In the wheat and rye bread production, the baking oven has the capacity of 100 kg/h and power of 10.8 kW and the energy utilization is 648 MJ/ton bread ( Table 7). The duration of baking is assumed as 45 min; the wheat and rye breads loss 13% of their weights in the oven during the baking process [70], the weight loss is assumed to be 40% in hamburger buns [6]. After the baking process the loaves are cooled on the racks that allow the air to circulate around them and prevent the crusts from becoming soggy. ...
... However, only the successive baking of full batches (8 dough rolls) will allow determining the energy saving achieved with precision. The total energy demand may then be compared with results available in the literature [23]. ...
Article
The objective of this study is to improve energy efficiency of an oven used for the conventional baking of French bread. Experiments performed to validate a numerical model and test different infrared emitters are presented. In order to provide a relevant experimental database, we first instrumented an industrial electrical static oven. The modifications made to the oven and instrumentation installed allows monitoring baking kinetics. The quantities measured are bread mass, temperature field, volume expansion and pressure. An energy balance is calculated to define the energy necessary to cook one “baguette”. Heat is provided by natural convection, direct conduction and mainly by infrared radiation to the dough. To improve energy efficiency, short infrared emitters are arranged on the vault instead of traditional electrical resistances made of reinforced metal alloy. These emitters allow increasing radiation heat transfer. Then, baking under short infrared emitters is carried out at lower air temperature, for the same total baking time. Energy consumption is analyzed and compared in both cases.
... Therefore, the freezing equipment has a lower COP in comparison to the frozen storage. According to the criterion proposed by the IIR, a product can be considered as frozen if, either: 80 percent of the freezable water is effectively frozen or the temperature of the product is -12 °C Bail et al., 2010 for fresh seafood, the criteria of -12 °C (to be reached at the end of the freezing process) can be considered as sufficient. Frozen food can then be transferred to frozen storage. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The challenge of preserving seafood after capture is most of the time associated with refrigeration and the cold chain. Depending on the place of capture, different technologies can be used. This paper presents an overview of selected technologies, mostly used on land. Freezing addresses different issues, particularly in terms of energy demand; consideration of the recommendations of the international institute of refrigeration, can result in substantial energy savings. Focus is then placed on recently developed technologies: superchilling, high pressure processing and freezing under static electric field (electro-freezing). Superchilling consists of preserving products at temperatures close to the initial freezing temperature; such a strategy permits reduction of water activity and potentially leads to extension of shelf life (gelation). High pressure processing can be used to freeze products and also to process seafood. High quality frozen foods can be obtained with pressure shift freezing process with refined ice crystallization. More recently, freezing under an electric field has been developed and applied to seafood; recent results demonstrate the advantages of electro-freezing in terms of microstructure. Résumé Le defi de la conservation des produits de la mer est le plus souvent étroitement lié à la réfrigération et à la chaîne de froid. Différentes technologies peuvent être mises en oeuvre selon le lieu de capture. Cet article présente une vue d'ensemble de quelques technologies destinées à un usage à terre. La congélation est associée à des enjeux de consommation d'énergie ; la mise en oeuvre des recommandations de l'Institut International du froid est à même de conduire à des économies d'énergie substantielles. Le focus des technologies présentées porte sur des technologies récentes ; le surefroidissement, le procédé haute pression et la congélation sous champ électrique (électrocoagulation. Le procédé de surefroidissement consiste à préserver des produits à une température proche de la température de congélation ; cette stratégie permet de réduire l'activité de l'eau et conduit à un accroissement de la durée de conservation. Le procédé de traitement à haute pression peut être mis en oeuvre pour congeler des produits ou pour les traiter (gélification, texturation). Des produits congelés de haute qualité peuvent être obtenus par congélation par détente haute pression avec une microstructure de cristaux de glace accrue (cristaux fins). Plus récemment, la congélation sous champ électrique a été développée et appliquée aux produits de la mer; des résultats récents ont mis en évidence des avantages en termes d'affinement de la microstructure des cristaux de glace.
... This technique allows for storage for long periods, but is an expensive process due to the high maintenance costs (Lainez et al., 2008). A comparison between the frozen par-baked bread process and conventional bread showed that, under industrial conditions, the frozen par-baked bread process demands about 2.2 times more electrical energy than the conventional process (without considering the energy used to cool the par-baked bread, for frozen storage and for thawing of the frozen par-baked bread before the final baking (Le Bail et al., 2010). ...
Article
Full-text available
ABSTRACT Extending the shelf-life of bakery products has been an important requirement resulting from the mechanization of this industry and the need to increase the distance for the distribution of final products, caused by the increase in production and consumer demand. Technologies based on the interruption of the breadmaking process represent an alternative to overcome product staling and microbiological deterioration. The production of par-baked breads is one of these technologies. It consists of baking the bread in two stages, and due to the possibility of retarding the second stage, it can be said that the bread can always be offered fresh to the consumer. The technology inserts logistics as part of the production process and creates the "hot point" concept, these being the locations where the bread is finalized, such as in the consumers' homes or sales locations. In this work, a review of the papers published on this subject was carried out, and aspects related to both the formulation and the process were considered. This technology still faces a few challenges, such as solving bread quality problems that appear due to process modifications, and these will also be considered. The market for these breads has grown rapidly and the bakery industry searches innovations related to par-baked bread technology.
Article
This study investigates the potential of using Jerusalem artichoke (JA) and bakery waste (BW) for biogas and biohydrogen production through dark fermentation. The experiment included four series with different ratios of JA to BW (100:0, 0:100, 50:50, 75:25) under mesophilic conditions at 39 ◦C. The highest biogas (1.46 L/L.d) and hydrogen production (0.508 L/L.d) was achieved with BW alone. A synergistic effect was observed with the 50:50 mixture, resulting in the highest production of volatile fatty acids (VFA), which reached up to 22252 mg/L. This shows the advantages of combining these substrates for optimized energy production. Spearman rank correlation analysis identified ammonium-nitrogen (N-NH4) as the most influential factor and showed a strong positive correlation with butyric acid/acetic acid (B/A) ratio (ρ =0.85, p < 0.001). This indicates that maintaining optimal ammonium-nitrogen levels is critical for maximizing yields. In addition, total solids (TS) and volatile solids (VS) showed moderate positive correlations with specific VFAs, indicating their significant role in VFA dynamics. These results highlight the importance of substrate optimization and maintaining stable fermentation conditions for sustainable and efficient energy production.
Chapter
Bread has been considered to be an easiest processing from wheat flour that suits our modern world. Bakery goods are an integral component of a modern lifestyle. Bread contains all the required sources as much as possible for a diet including calcium, potassium, iron, and magnesium. Bread may be leavened by naturally occurring bacteria, chemicals, yeast developed industrially, or aeration at high pressure. This article presents a detailed note on production of bread at small and large scale level also the economic analysis. The investment and cost for production all comprised under economic analysis.
Article
Full-text available
Objective (s): Bread as a staple food, especially wheat bread is a main source of energy consumption in large number of population in the globe as well as Iran. Some researches stated that the amount of bread wastage is about 30% in Iran. there isn’t any general research with comprehensive picture of bread wastage in Iran. It is necessary to design a systematic review study to bring holistic figure on substantial reason of bread waste for policy makers to improve the Iranian food security. Methods: A systematic review was performed with key words of bread wastage, quality, type, traditional, industrial production, Iran in the international PubMed, Google Scholar) and Iranian scientific information data base-SID, CIVILICA، GANJ in 2021. The inclusion criteria were: focusing on bread wastage, the relevance of the articles with the title, the language of articles English or Persian, full text availability. The quality of manuscript also was evaluated Results: Out of 441 articles ,25 articles (1 in English and 24 in Persian language) get good quality to extract the data during (2001-2021) years printed in scientific local and international sources. 48% of studies conducted in laboratories and 52% was performed in community at both consumer’s part an d bakeries or Industrial producers. The most proportion of bread waste in all types was seen in bakeries that received subsides to buy flour. community investigation demonstrated the considerable effect of consumers’ knowledge in transport, preserve and bread consumption on diminish the amount of bread waste. Conclusion: According to the consumers’ behavior the willingness to pay showed upward rate for high quality breads which is the principal reason for decreasing bread waste. These consequences primarily observed in private bakeries. The findings elucidate the need for a reform by policymakers in bread production and behavior change in consumers in Iran.
Chapter
This chapter presents an overview of the different methods used to produce bake-off products, known collectively as bake-off technology (BOT). The bake-off concept involves the manufacture of semifinished products in factories, which are then finished in baking stations situated at the point of retail. Freezing permits the extension of the shelf life of food and is very often a part of the bake-off process. The bake-off processes most commonly used are the partially baked frozen and unfrozen dough methods and the unfermented frozen dough method. In addition, other methods are being developed such as the prefermented frozen dough process.
Article
Re-distributed manufacturing (RDM) is of high economic and political interest and is associated with rapid technological, environmental, political, regulatory and social changes in the UK. RDM of food raises opportunities and questions around the local nexus of food, energy and water. Considering these together can provide opportunities for rationalising resource utilisation, production, and consumption while contributing to shared prosperity between business, society and natural ecosystems. This paper concentrates on the energy–food aspects of the nexus for RDM by focusing on the case study of bread manufacturing and transportation in the UK. A detailed analysis of the energy requirements and environmental impacts of centralised bread production and transportation compared with localised options for re-distributed bread manufacturing is undertaken. This is achieved by building on existing literature and developing a series of bread-energy system configurations to model energy usage and green-house gas (GHG) emissions at the large (centralised), medium and small scales. Results from the analysis indicate that energy use and emissions can in some instances increase as a result of losing economies of scale through downscaling bread manufacturing. However, the analysis shows that overall energy use and emissions along the bread supply chain are dominated by transportation stages. Thus, RDM opens up new opportunities for reductions in overall energy consumption and emissions, for example by using low carbon vehicles for the transportation of bread and flour at the medium and small scales. Major energy use and emission reductions could also be achieved by reducing car usage if more consumers buy in local bakeries. The configurations also consider energy use for various bread wastage conditions. Assuming that buying more frequently in local bakeries only the bread that is consumed helps avoiding bread wastage, this would lead to reduced bread purchasing and bread manufacturing, which translates to reductions in energy use and emissions in the modelled configurations. Existing data demonstrate that there is a wide diversity across different manufacturing sites in the energy use and associated emissions per loaf of bread produced. The study highlights the opportunities for improvement in the sector if plant move towards the best available manufacturing technologies and practices, and this may be more practical for smaller scale operations. Two hypothetical bread production scenarios show that a greater share of the UK’s bread being produced locally could result in a reduction in overall energy consumption and emissions.
Article
Full-text available
The baking process has received quite attention during the last three decades, due to its economic and industrial relevance, and since it is associated with staple foods like bread. Because of the composition and structure of dough, a series of complex, simultaneous and coupled phenomena occur in the product inside the oven, which make very difficult the design, control and optimization of the process. For these tasks, the use of mathematical models appears as an adequate solution, although they still represent a complex approach for industrial purposes and their use is limited. In this paper, we focus on prediction of water loss, which is relevant for different aspects of the process, for example, texture and sensory properties, economic impact, energy demand. Two simple models are developed based on knowledge about transport phenomena of bread baking. Both methods involve the estimation of a mass transfer coefficient, which can be related to operating conditions. Good prediction performance is found in both cases, in a common range of baking conditions. Finally, the use of water loss as a design and control variable of the process is discussed, and we propose the construction of a baking diagram with moisture loss as independent variable. Practical applications Overall, there is a lack of simple and accurate prediction methods for baking, in contrast with other traditional food process operations, since the complexity of the process makes very difficult the task of developing user‐friendly models. This work proposes two simple models to predict water loss variation during bread baking, based on knowledge about transport phenomena of the process. Implementation of the proposed methods needs simple adjustment of parameters, which can be related to operating conditions (oven temperature and apparent heat transfer coefficient). Besides, the construction of a baking diagram is discussed.
Article
To reduce energy consumption, the optimization of oven operating conditions requires a thorough understanding of the influence of heat input on the baking kinetics. The objective of this study is to simulate the hydrothermal behaviour and the deformation of bread dough during the baking stage. The complete baking process is simulated in a 2-dimensional model including conductive transfer with hearth, steam injection and convective and radiative heat transfer. In this article, the simulations are realized with the use of experimental boundary conditions (infrared flux, air temperature and vapour pressure, hearth and wall temperature). The numerical evolutions of different variables are compared to measured data: temperature (product and hearth), mass loss, local moisture content, total volume and gas pressure in the dough. A sensitivity analysis is performed to understand the impact of carbon dioxide generation and heat transfer on the process. Finally, the simulated energy required during baking is evaluated, observing direct conduction with the hearth, and the impact of the transfer of convective and radiative heat.
Chapter
Baked or bakery products are very wide in varieties, including breads, rolls, cookies, cakes, pies, muffins, biscuits, doughnuts and pastries. It is an important part of a balanced diet and a wide variety of such products can be found in the supermarket shelves (Stanley et al. 2007). Bakery products, especially bread, cake, rolls, muffin, pastry, and other similar products have a limited shelf life. Physicochemical changes such as staling and firming, and microbiological spoilage such as yeast, mould, and bacterial growth reduces the shelf life of these products. Staling in these products results decreased consumer acceptance and thereby great economic losses. Because bakery products are an important part of the diet of people in many countries, the economic losses arising from staling are extremely important. For this reason, considerable attention has been given on staling of bakery products. Several studies have been reported to extend the quality and shelf life by retarding staling (Karaoglu and Kotancılar 2006).
Article
The effect of using mechanical equipment for the unit operations involved in gari (cassava flakes) processing on individual and total energy demands were studied. The data used to estimate energy demand were the quantity of cassava processed, time taken for each operation, number and gender of labour, method of processing, quantity, and source of energy. Of the seven unit operations for gari production, one, three and five operations were mechanized in low, medium and high-level, respectively. Garification (simultaneous cooking and dehydrating operation of gari) accounted for 97.38, 97.70 and 47.39% of total energy consumption in low, medium and high levels of mechanization, respectively. Total energy requirements for processing 100 kg of cassava root into gari were found to be 771.0 ± 83.71 MJ for low-level mechanized factory, 684.53 ± 26.98 MJ and 73.97 ± 1.84 MJ for medium and high-level mechanized factories, respectively. Energy demand by all unit operations significantly differed (p<0.05) between low and high levels of mechanization.
Article
Full-text available
Partially baked bread or partly baked bread can be frozen to extend its shelf life. Freezing can also be responsible for damage such as crust flaking. This paper presents a study aimed at identifying the process parameters that can interact with crust flaking. The study used a French baguette as a model system. The effect of proving condition (50% and 90% air humidity at 27 °C), chilling condition after partial baking (50–55% and 90–95% air humidity at 20 °C) and freezing condition (blast air freezer with the centre bread temperature at the entrance in the freezer of 35 °C, 45 °C or 55 °C) on part baked bread was studied. The chilling condition after partial baking appears to be the most influent parameter on crust flaking followed by proving condition that also had a significant but not so strong impact on crust flaking. Generally, higher air humidity during the process tends to minimize crust flaking. The size of the piece of crust flakes seems to increase with increasing crust flaking. A higher temperature of the partially baked bread at the entrance of the freezer (55 °C vs. 35 °C in our conditions) seems to enhance the crust flaking phenomenon; nevertheless, this trend was not always significant in all our tests. These results have been used to define to process conditions that can provoke or minimize crust flaking of French baguette.
Article
Full-text available
Few data are available on the thermophysical properties of the frozen partly baked breads. In this paper, thermophysical properties, including apparent and true densities, specific heat, enthalpy and effective thermal conductivity were determined separately for crumb and crust of partly baked bread. Total enthalpy of fusion, unfrozen water and solid specific heat were determined by differential scanning calorimetry. The apparent specific heats were estimated in base of the unfrozen water at −40 °C and initial freezing point. The effective thermal conductivity was measured with a line source probe in the range −35 to 25 °C. Four predictive models of the effective thermal conductivity of porous food were developed (parallel, series, Krischer and Maxwell models). The effective thermal conductivity predicted by Krischer model was in good agreement with the experimental data.
Article
The freezing process is widely used in the food industry. in the 70s, French regulation authorities have created in collaboration with the food industry the concept of "surgelation" process with the objective of improving the image of high quality frozen foods. The process of "surgelation" which could be translated as "super freezing" corresponds to a freezing process for which a final temperature of -18 degrees C must be reached "as fast as possible". This concept was proposed in opposition to a conventionally "freezing" process for which no specific freezing rate is expected and the final storage temperature can be of -12 degrees C only. The objective of this work is to propose a methodology to evaluate the mean amount of frozen ice in a complex food as a function of temperature and to deduce a target temperature that must be considered as the temperature for which the food may be considered as "frozen". Based on the definition proposed by the IIF-IIR red book, this target temperature has been defined as the temperature for which 80% of the freezable water is frozen. A case study is proposed with a model food made of two constituents.
Article
A mathematical model was set up to predict browning kinetics of bread crust during baking. A bread dough was placed into a cylindrical steel mould and baked in a pilot forced-convection oven at 200 and 250°C. The sample surface temperature was measured using both a type J thermocouple and an infrared thermometer. Surface browning (ΔE) of bread crust during baking was measured by a tristimulus colorimeter. The kinetic model for bread crust browning was obtained by instant heating of dried crumb on contact with a refractory plate at 140, 150, 165, 185, 210, 235 and 250°C. At all temperatures ΔE tended asymptotically to ΔE∞ = 52, which corresponded to the burnt sample. The colour difference varies as a function of first-order kinetics. The rate constant k depends on temperature according to the Arrhenius equation (ko = 42,000 s−1; Ea = 64,151 J/mol). Kinetics was validated under dynamic temperature conditions: the experimental results were compared with those obtained from a mathematical model for heat and mass transfer during baking connected to the kinetic model for browning.
Article
Good knowledge of thermophysical characteristics of a wide range of foodstuffs has a major importance for the accurate prediction of their unsteady-state temperature distribution, the process duration and energy consumption in cooling and freezing (heating and thawing). Such information is necessary to predict the microbiology and biochemistry of spoilage and to control the product safety and quality, as well as for the design, optimisation and efficient operation of refrigerating and thermal systems in the food and biotechnological industries. The purpose of this paper is to present reliable unified equations for determination of the specific heat capacity, enthalpy, thermal conductivity, Kirchhoff function, etc. on the basis of generalised parameters (moisture content, actual and initial freezing temperatures). The relationship between the volumetric specific enthalpy and the Kirchhoff function is also derived. The proposed formulae have large areas of application. They cover practically all industrially processed food materials except those consisting mainly of fats. The equations may easily be used for both simple and rapid engineering calculations and for implementation in more sophisticated mathematical models and computer software, including the cases in which advanced enthalpy methods for numerical heat transfer simulations are involved.
Energy consumption in the baking industry
  • Christensen
Christensen, A., Singh, R.P., 1984. Energy consumption in the baking industry. In: Mckenna, B.M. (Ed.), Engineering and Food, Processing Applications. Elsevier – Applied Science Publishers, London, pp. 965–973.
Bilans thermiques des fours de cuisson de produits céréaliers fonctionnant au gaz naturel
  • G Trystram
  • P Brunet
  • B Marchand