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Characterization, amino acid composition and in vitro digestibility of hemp ( Cannabis sativa L.) proteins
Abstract
The protein constituents and thermal properties of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) protein isolate (HPI) as well as 11S- and 7S-rich HPIs (HPI-11S and HPI-7S) were characterized by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and different scanning calorimetry (DSC), and their amino acid composition and in vitro digestibility were also evaluated, as compared to soy protein isolate (SPI). SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the edestin (consisting of acidic and basic subunits, AS and BS) was the main protein component for HPI and HPI-11S, while HPI-7S was composed of the BS of edestin and a subunit of about 4.8kDa. DSC analysis characterized thermal transition of the edestin component and the possible present form of different subunits. Except lysine and sulfur-containing amino acids, the essential amino acids of various HPIs met the suggested requirements of FAO/WHO for 2–5year old infants. The proportion of essential amino acids to the total amino acids (E/T) for HPI (as well as HPI-11S) was significantly higher than that of SPI. In an in vitro digestion model, various protein constituents of various HPIs were much easily digested by pepsin plus trypsin, to release oligo-peptides with molecular weight less than 10.0kDa (under reduced condition). Only after pepsin digestion, in vitro digestibility of HPIs was comparable to that of SPI, however after pepsin plus trypsin digestion, the digestibility (88–91%) was significantly higher than that (71%) of SPI (P
... Hemp has been shown to have an amino acid score comparable to egg white protein [8]. The digestibility of hemp proteins increases if the extraction takes place from hulled seeds, with higher values compared to soy isolates [47]. A digestibility value of 97% of hulled hemp seeds was estimated, which was comparable to that of casein [31]. ...
... Although dehulling could presumably improve the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) value of hemp seeds, the literature is still scarce on this topic, especially regarding products derived from processed hemp seed. It has been shown that the in vitro digestion of isolated hemp proteins showed greater digestibility than isolated soy proteins [47,48]. ...
... The beneficial effects of bioactive peptides obtained from hemp proteins also show other potentially beneficial effects such as antioxidant activity [71], ion scavenger activity through metal-binding [47,72] and the influence on the regulation of cholesterol and glucose concentrations [73,74]. The antidiabetic effect could be mediated by the presence of peptides with an inhibitory effect on alpha-glucosidase, whose interaction involves hydrophobic residues such as leucine and proline [74]. ...
Recently, there has been a renewed interest in Cannabis sativa and its uses. The recreational use of inflorescences as a source of THC has led to the legal restriction of C. sativa cultivation to limit the detrimental effects of psychotropic substance abuse on health. However, this has also limited the cultivation of textile/industrial varieties with a low content of THC used for textile and nutritional purposes. While previously the bans had significantly penalized the cultivation of C. sativa, today many countries discriminate between recreational use (marijuana) and industrial and food use (hemp). The stalks of industrial hemp (low in psychotropic substances) have been used extensively for textile purposes while the seeds are nutritionally versatile. From hemp seeds, it is possible to obtain flours applicable in the bakery sector, oils rich in essential fatty acids, proteins with a high biological value and derivatives for fortification, supplementation and nutraceutical purposes. Hemp seed properties seem relevant for vegetarian diets, due to their high nutritional value and underestimated employment in the food sector. Hemp seed and their derivatives are a valuable source of protein, essential fatty acids and minerals that could provide additional benefit to vegetarian nutrition. This document aims to explore the information available in the literature about hemp seeds from a nutritional point of view, highlighting possible beneficial effects for humans with particular attention to vegetarian nutrition as a supplemental option for a well-planned diet.
... The protein content of faba bean seeds varies from 26.2 to 32.8% [31]. A similar re by [11] showed that whole faba bean had protein content of 31.2 g/100 g, while the hulled form had protein content of 35.5 g/100 g, higher than that recorded for lupin, r seed, quinoa, and buckwheat. ...
... The protein content of faba bean seeds varies from 26.2 to 32.8% [31]. A similar report by [11] showed that whole faba bean had protein content of 31.2 g/100 g, while the dehulled form had protein content of 35.5 g/100 g, higher than that recorded for lupin, rapeseed, quinoa, and buckwheat. ...
... The PER value of whole faba bean and dehulled faba bean ranged between 2.53 and 2.43 g/100 g, respectively. In a similar study of Swedish fava bean cultivars, leucine ranged from 50.8 to 72.01% while lysine varied between 44.8 and 74.8 mg/g of protein [31]. Large variations in the content of amino acids were observed between the cultivars, indicating the relevance of cultivar selection based on the nutritional and antinutritional content and intended use. ...
The food industry, academia, food technologists, and consumers have become more interested in using faba bean seeds in the formulation of new products because of their nutritional content, accessibility, low costs, environmental advantages, and beneficial impacts on health. In this review, a systematic and up-to-date report on faba bean seeds' antinutrients and bioactive and processing techniques is comprehensively presented. The chemical composition, including the oil composition and carbohydrate constituents, is discussed. Factors influencing the reduction of antinutrients and improvement of bioactive compounds, including processing techniques, are discussed. Thermal treatments (cooking, autoclaving, extrusion, microwaving, high-pressure processing, irradiation) and non-thermal treatments (soaking, germination, extraction, fermentation, and enzymatic treatment) are identified as methods to reduce the levels of antinutrients in faba bean seeds. Appropriate processing methods can reduce the antinutritional factors and enrich the bioactive components, which is useful for the seeds' efficient utilization in developing functional foods. As a result, this evaluation focuses on the technologies that are employed to reduce the amounts of toxins in faba bean seeds. Additionally, a comparison of these methods is performed in terms of their advantages, disadvantages, viability, pharmacological activity, and potential for improvement using emerging technologies. Future research is expected in this area to fill the knowledge gap in exploiting the nutritional and health benefits of faba bean seeds and increase the utilization of faba bean seeds for different applications.
... Hemp (Cannabis sativa L) is a widely grown plant for food, fibre, and medicinal use. Industrial hemp is cultivated for the hemp fibre, which is utilised to make durable textiles, rope, home furnishing instruments and speciality papers in some countries, especially in Europe and China (Tang et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2008). During the processing of hemp fibre, the hempseeds in turn are separated and pressed to produce hempseed oil. ...
... It has been utilised as entire hempseed (as a nut), hempseed oil, press cake, flour, and protein powder for human and animal consumption (Samard et al., 2019). Hempseed has high concentrations of a variety of nutrients, including lipids (25-35% of which are unsaturated fatty acids), proteins (20-25%), dietary fibres (10-15%), vitamins, and minerals (Wang et al., 2008). Hempseed meal or press cake is a secondary side-stream received from the cold-press hempseed oil production. ...
... Different approaches have been developed in order to make use of hempseed press cake in food applications. One such method is to extract and concentrate the protein fraction from the hempseed press cake (Helstad et al., 2022;Tang et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2008) for further use in dairy and meat analogues (Dabija et al., 2018;Rajendra et al., 2023;Zahari et al., 2020). ...
... Based on the FAO/WHO, the amino acid score of the hemp seed proteins fulfills the recommendations for children between 2 and 5 years. The very high levels of arginine and glutamic acid highlight in the amino acid profile of these proteins, however, they present moderate content of sulfur-containing amino acids and a limitation in the content of lysine (55)(56)(57). The high level of arginine is especially interesting due to the important role of this amino acid in the body, for example for ammoniadetoxification, fetal growth, and reducing insulin resistance functions (27). ...
... They detected peptides with amino acid fragments associated with bioactive sequences like bioctive peptides, which can be responsible for the reported antioxidant properties of HPI (53). Wang et al. reported a digestibility of 88%−91% of the HPI, which was higher than the soy-isolated proteins (71%) (56). The digestibility of different products derived from the hemp seeds was evaluated by House et al. ...
... On the other hand, Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate-Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) is very common for the analysis of hemp seed proteins (53, 55,56,59). A proteomic evaluation of the hemp seed was analyzed by LC-MS (MS/MS) using reversed-phase separation mode and an Orbitrap MS as an analyzer. ...
For many years, Colombia was one of the countries with the largest illegal cultivation of cannabis around the world. Currently, it is going through a period of transition with a new government law that recently allows the cultivation, transformation, and commercialization of such plant species. In this sense, the identification of strategies for the valorization of products or by-products from Cannabis sativa represent a great opportunity to improve the value chain of this crop. One of these products is hemp seeds, which are exceptionally nutritious and rich in healthy lipids (with high content of three polyunsaturated fatty acids: linoleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, and gamma-linolenic acid), good quality protein, and several minerals. In addition, hemp seeds contain THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) or CBD (cannabidiol) in traces, molecules that are responsible for the psychoactive and therapeutic properties of cannabis. These low terpenophenolic contents make it more attractive for food applications. This fact, together with the constant search for proteins of vegetable origin and natural food ingredients, have aroused an important interest in the study of this biomass. Some bioactivities of phytochemical compounds (polyphenols and terpenoids, mainly) present in hemp seeds have provided antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. This review summarizes and discusses the context of hemp use in Latin-American and the new opportunities for hemp seeds culture in Colombia considering the valuable nutritional value, main functional bioactivities, and recent advances in food market applications of hemp seeds.
... Hemp protein contains all nine essential amino acids, generally with high levels of glutamine and arginine (Leonard et al., 2020). The amino acid profile is comparable to that of soy, but with better enzyme digestibility (Wang et al., 2008). Given its rich amino acid profile, hemp seed is proposed as a good matrix for the development of functional food products with the nutritional claims "source of/high in" protein. ...
... The amino acid profile of Futura 75 (Table 3) hemp seed consistent with previous research on different varieties (Callaway, 2004;Wang et al., 2008). ...
Current trends in the snack bar market emphasize the incorporation of alternative protein sources while simultaneously addressing the criteria of being both “high in fiber” and “high in protein”. Hemp seed, the seed of non-psychoactive Cannabis Sativa L, stands out as a significant source of protein, dietary fiber, minerals, and unsaturated fats. This study aims to explore the nutritional potential of hemp seed to develop a functional food that responds to the needs of such a market highly demanding of plant-based alternatives. Along with seeds protein nutritional quality analysis and lipid profile characterization, three snack bar samples containing hemp seed as a functional ingredient were formulated, according to nutritional claims regulations. Two products with 20% hemp met sensory acceptability criteria. This study suggests hemp seed as a potential functional food ingredient to meet the demand for plant-based alternatives, offering quality protein, digestive benefits due to its high fiber content and an optimal omega 6 to omega 3 ratio. However, there appears to be an upper limit for hemp seed in product formulations due to sensory issues. This study showed that adding more than 40% to a snack bar significantly reduced consumer acceptability and purchase intent.
... The 11S and 7S protein types, which may be distinguished by pH changes. Wang et al. [41] used the pH-shifting method to investigate the parts of hempseed edestin and found that the two most prevalent forms of hempseed edestins are 11S and 7S. Subunits of 11S edestins (molecular weight 320 kDa) account for approximately 65% of total proteins and 93% of edestins, while 7S globulin (molecular weight 48 kDa) accounts for approximately 5% of total proteins and 7% of edestins [42,43]. ...
... The acidic subunit is about 34.0 kDa and is mostly made up of one subunit. The basic subunit, on the other hand, is mostly made up of two subunits that are about 18 and 20 kDa [41]. In contrast, albumin (2S, 10 kDa) is made up mostly of two polypeptide chains, one with 27 amino acid residues and the other with 61; it also contains 18% of sulphur-containing amino acids which are cysteine and methionine [45]. ...
... When analysing the ratios of EAA relative to the content of TAA of the isolates (EAA/TAA (%)), the values of the different hempseed protein isolates generated in this study ranged between 30.45 and 32.86%, similar to those described in soya protein isolates, suggesting that these protein isolates are nutritionally beneficial. Similar results comparing the EAA/TAA between hempseed and soya protein isolates were also reported in previous studies emphasizing the nutritional benefits and possible applications of hempseed proteins [40,42]. Furthermore, the ratio of Arg/Lys of the hempseed protein isolates of this study ranged between 3.78 and 5.34, higher than those described in casein and soya and similar to previous reports of hemp protein ingredients [40]. ...
... Edestin is composed of an acidic and a basic subunit linked by one disulfide bond with an estimated molecular weight of approximately 300 kDa [23]. The presence of 20 and 33 kDa protein bands corresponding to edestin have been previously described in studies characterising hempseed proteins using SDS-PAGE [20,41,42]. The other two main proteins of hempseed are albumin (up to 20% of the total proteins of hempseed) and other polypeptides [22] that are normally described in SDS-PAGE by molecular weight bands at 18 kDa and 48 kDa, respectively [20,41]. ...
Hemp seeds are currently used mainly for oil extraction, generating waste that could be potentially exploited further as a source of proteins and other bioactives. This study aims to valorise hemp waste (Cannabis sativa, L.) from previous oil extraction as a source of protein by analysing the effect of high-pressure processing (HPP) pre-treatments (0–600 MPa; 4–8 min) combined with conventional or ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) methods on protein recovery/purity, amino acid composition, and protein structure. Overall, maximum protein recovery (≈62%) was achieved with HPP (200 MPa, 8 min) with UAE. The highest protein purity (≈76%) was achieved with HPP (200 MPa, 4 min) with UAE. Overall, UAE improved the extraction of all amino acids compared to conventional extraction independently of HPP pre-treatments. Arg/Lys ratios of the protein isolates ranged between 3.78 and 5.34, higher than other vegetable protein sources. SDS-PAGE did not show visible differences amongst the protein isolates. These results seem to indicate the advantages of the use of UAE for protein recovery in the food industry and the need for further studies to optimise HPP/UAE for an accurate estimation of processing costs and their effects on the composition and structure of proteins to contribute further to the circular economy.
... The authors demonstrated how, following in vitro digestion, only a few peptides withstood the digestive process. This finding is also confirmed by Wang et al. (2008) [33]. They not only observed that HS protein was highly digestible, but that the level of digestibility was also higher than that of soy. ...
... The authors demonstrated how, following in vitro digestion, only a few peptides withstood the digestive process. This finding is also confirmed by Wang et al. (2008) [33]. They not only observed that HS protein was highly digestible, but that the level of digestibility was also higher than that of soy. ...
The growth of the world population has prompted research to investigate new food/feed alternatives. Hemp-based products can be considered excellent candidates. Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is an environmentally sustainable plant widespread worldwide. Following the reintroduction of its cultivation, hemp is attracting interest, especially in the food/feed industry. To date, scientific research has mainly focused on its nutritional aspect. Therefore, the aim of the work was also to investigate the functional profile (total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (Ferric- reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS)) of hemp-based products (hempseeds (HSs), flowers, and HS protein extract), following methanol extraction and in vitro digestion, to study the behaviour of the molecules involved. The results show an interesting nutritional value, even when compared to matrices used in the food/feed industry, such as soy and flaxseeds. The functional profile revealed a very interesting TPC following methanol extraction for HSs, flowers, and HS protein extract, respectively, (550.3 ± 28.27; 2982.8 ± 167.78; and 568.9 ± 34.18 mg Tannic Acid Equivalent (TAE)/100 g). This trend was also confirmed for FRAP (50.9 ± 4.30; 123.6 ± 8.08; and 29.73 ± 1.32 mg Ascorbic Acid Equivalent (AAE)/100 g), recording values similar/higher than soy protein extract and flaxseeds (17.4 ± 1.55; and 10.4 ± 0.44 mg AAE/100 g). The results were also maintained following physiological digestion. These results, although promising, need further investigation, confirming what has been observed with different antioxidant activity assays and identifying individual molecules involved in functional pathways. This information will be necessary to gain a better understanding of the functional characteristics of these matrices for use in food/feed formulations.
... Thus, the biological system needs antioxidant defenses to protect the body against oxidative attacks [3]. In general, antioxidants can be classified into three categories: (1) Hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants [5]; (2) Endogenous and exogenous antioxidants [6][7][8]; and (3) Synthetic and natural antioxidants. In recent decades, some antioxidants are being developed as therapeutic agents, nutrition supplements, and food additives to enhance human health [9][10][11][12][13][14]. ...
... Moreover, health professionals have been increasingly interested in the phytotherapy efficacy of hemp seed such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-hypertension due to its strong antioxidant ability. This offers a wide range of potential pharmacology for chronic diseases involving inflammatory diseases, cancer, and hypertension [7,40,67,68,[91][92][93][94][95]. ...
As one of the oldest plants cultivated by humans, hemp used to be banned in the United States but returned as a legal crop in 2018. Since then, the United States has become the leading hemp producer in the world. Currently, hemp attracts increasing attention from consumers and scientists as hemp products provide a wide spectrum of potential functions. Particularly, bioactive peptides derived from hemp proteins have been proven to be strong antioxidants, which is an extremely hot research topic in recent years. However, some controversial disputes and unknown issues are still underway to be explored and verified in the aspects of technique, methodology, characteristic, mechanism, application, caution, etc. Therefore, this review focusing on the antioxidant properties of hemp proteins is necessary to discuss the multiple critical issues, including in vitro structure-modifying techniques and antioxidant assays, structure-activity relationships of antioxidant peptides, pre-clinical studies on hemp proteins and pathogenesis-related molecular mechanisms, usage and potential hazard, and novel advanced techniques involving bioinformatics methodology (QSAR, PPI, GO, KEGG), proteomic analysis, and genomics analysis, etc. Taken together, the antioxidant potential of hemp proteins may provide both functional food benefits and phytotherapy efficacy to human health.
... Its amino acid composition is distinguished by extremely high concentrations of arginine and glutamic acid and a considerable amount of amino acids containing sulphur. (Wang et al. 2008) [21] compared the amounts of sulphurcontaining amino acids in hemp protein isolate to those in soy protein isolate and discovered that hemp protein isolate had greater ratios of essential to total amino acid content and improved enzyme digestibility. Compared to whole wheat (40), pinto beans (57), and lentils (52), the protein isolated from dehulled hempseed exhibited higher protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (61) but was still substantially lower than that from egg white (100) or beef (92) (House et al. 2010) [22] . ...
... Its amino acid composition is distinguished by extremely high concentrations of arginine and glutamic acid and a considerable amount of amino acids containing sulphur. (Wang et al. 2008) [21] compared the amounts of sulphurcontaining amino acids in hemp protein isolate to those in soy protein isolate and discovered that hemp protein isolate had greater ratios of essential to total amino acid content and improved enzyme digestibility. Compared to whole wheat (40), pinto beans (57), and lentils (52), the protein isolated from dehulled hempseed exhibited higher protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (61) but was still substantially lower than that from egg white (100) or beef (92) (House et al. 2010) [22] . ...
The present work was undertaken to study the physicochemical and nutritional properties of hemp seeds. Hemp, a wild plant, is scantly cultivated for fibre and its seeds are an undervalued co-product resulting from the cultivation of industrial hemp. The underutilized seeds of hemp can be used to enhance the nutritional value of staple foods in terms of plant-based protein, good quality fat and fibre. Different physicochemical and nutritional characteristics of whole hemp seed were analyzed. The seed weight, seed volume, hydration and swelling capacity, bulk density and pericarp color were found to be 19.29 g, 18.66 ml, 0.03 g/seed, 0.07 ml, 0.56 g/ml, and light olive brown color respectively. The nutritional composition results revealed that whole hemp seed has good quality of crude protein (20.40%) and crude fat (28.70%). Whole hemp seed has good amount of dietary fibre (26.83 g/100 g) and fair amount of in vitro protein digestibility (66.69%) whereas, total phenolic content was very high (221.31 mgGAE/100 g) and a very little amount of -tocopherol (0.05 mg/100 g) was present.
... Hemp proteins have been provided with legumin-type globulin edestin and globular-type albumin, which are marked by good quality, easy digestion and abundant EAAs [21,22]. Edestin (7S and 11S) is a hexamer of around 300 kDa, consisting of six acid subunits and six alkali subunits connected by disulphide bonds [23]. The 11S protein had a superior nutritional value for its surprising levels of sulphur-containing amino acids, arginine and EAAs. ...
... Albumin (2S) is mainly composed of two polypeptide chains containing 27 and 61 amino acid residues, respectively, of which 18% by weight are sulphur-amino acids, methionine and cysteine [24]. The solubility of hemp proteins at acidity is lower than that of soybean proteins, probably because of the formation of intermolecular covalent disulfide bonds of edestin, leading to the aggregation of insoluble protein [23]. As for another vital physiochemical property, the denaturation temperature of hempseed proteins is 92 °C. ...
Owing to its nutritional and medicinal value, hemp has been cultivated to provide since ancient times. This review aims to map the scientific literature concerning the main functional components and the chemical composition of hemp plant. It is generally acknowledged that each organ of the hemp plant embodies a valuable source, and among them the most pivotal part is the edible fruits hempseeds. Hempseeds are rich in easily digestible proteins, fats, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and insoluble fiber, which are of high nutritional value. Furthermore, the beneficial effects have increased researchers’ interests in hempseeds-containing foods. Developed as an indispensable ingredient, hempseed is also a significant supplement in various products, such as bakery food, drinks, snacks and culinary products. Overall, this review intends to promote the further in-depth investigation of approved hemp plants and expand the range of hempseeds adoption in the functional foods field.
... Consumption of commercial protein supplements has increased over the past few decades to potentially augment the gains in muscle mass and strength and enhance recovery from resistance training (Thomas et al. 2019). While plantbased proteins have been considered inferior to animal or dairy-based proteins in the past due to sub-optimal amino acid profiles (Pinckaers et al. 2021;Shaw et al. 2022), recent evidence suggests plant-based protein to be no different than consuming whey protein for improving measures of body composition or strength when the plant-based protein contains a variety of sources to match the amino acid profile of whey (Nichele et al. 2022;Teixeira et al. 2022 be an interesting plant-based protein to choose as a singlesource protein or as the base for a plant-based protein due to a high concentration of branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine; BCAAs) (Wang et al. 2008). Leucine is important for stimulating the mammalian target of rapamycin complex, a pathway involved in muscle protein synthesis (Churchward-Venne et al. 2014;Condon and Sabatini 2019). ...
Purpose
Hemp contains protein with high concentrations of the branched-chain amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine and oils that have anti-inflammatory properties. Our purpose was to investigate the effects of hemp supplementation during resistance training in trained young adults.
Methods
Males (n = 22, 29 ± 8y) and females (n = 12, 30 ± 9y) were randomized (double-blind) to receive 60 g/d of hemp (containing 40 g protein and 9 g oil) or 60 g/d of soy (matched for protein and calories) during eight weeks of resistance training (~ 4x/week). Before and after the intervention, participants were assessed for whole-body lean tissue and fat mass (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), regional muscle hypertrophy (ultrasound), strength (1-repetition maximum leg press, bench press, biceps curl), voluntary activation (interpolated twitch technique), resting twitch properties (single pulse; 0.5 ms) (before and after a fatigue test), markers of inflammation (Interleukin 6 and C-reactive protein), and bone resorption (urinary N-telopeptides).
Results
Hemp supplementation increased elbow flexor muscle thickness in females (2.6 ± 0.4–3.1 ± 0.5 cm, p = 0.012) while soy supplementation increased elbow flexor muscle thickness in males (3.7 ± 0.4–4.0 ± 0.5 cm, p < 0.01). Twitch torque and rate of torque development were preserved after a fatigue test in males consuming hemp compared to males on soy (p < 0.001).
Conclusion
Overall, hemp provides some sex-specific beneficial effects on measures of muscle accretion and torque under fatiguing conditions in resistance trained young adults. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02529917, registered August 11, 2015.
... The seeds found in Cannabis achenes, rich in proteins (such as albumin and edestin) and essential unsaturated fatty acids (such as linoleic and linolenic acids) served as food, input for other culinary purposes, and even soap production. Although Cannabis is not more commonly used in the constitution of the diet in certain communities in contemporary Nepal, for example, it is still used for such attributions [9][10][11][12]. ...
From the Himalayan mountains to the South American coast, Cannabis, a general term for plants of the genus Cannabis, with thousands of years of contact with humankind, shows its versatility as food tools such as hemp, religious and hedonistic input, and other purposes through the millennia, according to the populations in question. In this paper, a review of the context of the use of Cannabis and its place in world history is presented, from ancient Mesopotamian relics, traditional Chinese and Ayurvedic medicines, to the reasoning behind the isolation and structural elucidation of three phytocannabinoids and the spread of Cannabis throughout the world.
... The seeds found in Cannabis achenes, rich in proteins (such as albumin and edestin) and essential unsaturated fatty acids (such as linoleic and linolenic acids) served as food, input for other culinary purposes, and even soap production. Although Cannabis is not more commonly used in the constitution of the diet in certain communities in contemporary Nepal, for example, it is still used for such attributions [9][10][11][12]. ...
Introduction:
Chagas disease (CD) imposes social and economic burdens, yet the available treatments have limited efficacy in the disease's chronic phase and cause serious adverse effects. To address this challenge, target-based approaches are a possible strategy to develop new, safe, and active treatments for both phases of the disease.
Areas covered:
This review delves into target-based approaches applied to CD drug discovery, emphasizing the studies from the last five years. We highlight the proteins cruzain (CZ), trypanothione reductase (TR), sterol 14 α-demethylase (CPY51), iron superoxide dismutase (Fe-SOD), proteasome, cytochrome b (Cytb), and cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor 3 (CPSF3), chosen based on their biological and chemical validation as drug targets. For each, we discuss its biological relevance and validation as a target, currently related challenges, and the status of the most promising inhibitors.
Expert opinion:
Target-based approaches toward developing potential CD therapeutics have yielded promising leads in recent years. We expect a significant advance in this field in the next decade, fueled by the new options for Trypanosoma cruzi genetic manipulation that arose in the past decade, combined with recent advances in computational chemistry and chemical biology.
... Indeed, HSC obtained during the cold-pressed extraction of seeds is characterized by a high biological value of protein with an amino acid profile comparable to that of soybean meal (Callaway 2004;Wang and Xiong 2019). Thus, it may be included in poultry diets as a good source of crude protein and sulphur-containing amino acids, arginine and essential amino acids (Wang et al. 2008;Klir et al. 2019). Furthermore, HSC protein is free of trypsin inhibitors and oligosaccharides which are present in soybeans being responsible of gastrointestinal disorders (Eriksson and Wall 2012;Šťastník et al. 2019). ...
Hemp seed cake (HSC) (Cannabis sativa L.) is a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, high-quality proteins and essential amino acids. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary inclusion of HSC on growth performance, meat quality traits, fatty acids profile and oxidative status, and intestinal morphology in slow-growing broilers. A total of 180 male slow-growing broilers were randomly assigned to one of three dietary treatments containing different levels of HSC: 0 (HSC0), 5 (HSC5) or 10% (HSC10). Birds were slaughtered at 49 days of age: breast and thigh muscles were analysed and duodenum mucosa histomorphological features were evaluated. Regardless the level of HSC inclusion, no differences among groups were found for performance and meat quality traits. The thigh and breast fatty acid profile were significantly improved in both HSC groups, with an increase of the long chain fatty acids of n-3 series and decrease of n-6/n-3 ratio. The HSC diets lowered the MDA concentration and lipid hydroperoxides in breast meat. Histomorphometrical analysis revealed a significant increase in villus height, surface area and villus/crypt ratio, with a decrease of crypt depth, suggesting that dietary supplementation with HSC may boost intestinal health status in poultry. In conclusion, dietary HSC did not affect performance, carcass traits and meat quality, while it positively influenced the lipid profile of meat, and improved the oxidative status and gut health, thus representing a valuable and sustainable alternative ingredient in broiler diet.
... Hemp protein (edestin) is a rich source of essential amino acids (Wang et al. 2008). The ratio of EAA to total in hempseed protein (45.16%) is higher than that of soybean (42.72%). ...
... The amino acid score (AAS) is calculated by the ratio of percent of essential amino acids in sample to the percent of essential amino acids as recommended by FAO (Vioque et al., 2012). The nutritional value of the PPC using amino acid composition was calculated according to the method (Wang et al., 2008). ...
... Extensive research has been conducted on the secondary structure, amino acid profile, and functional properties of protein concentrates derived from soybean (Rao et al., 2002), hemp (Wang et al., 2008), rapeseed/canola (Gerzhova et al., 2015), peanut (Liu et al., 2019), sunflower (Ishii et al., 2021) and walnut (Mao & Hau, 2012). However, to the best of our knowledge, the amino acids profile, functional properties, and secondary structure of Trichilia oilseed protein remain unknown. ...
The high prevalence of protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is a major concern in Africa. This problem could be resolved through the nutritional use of locally available underutilized tree seeds such as those from Trichilia species. This study determined and compared the amino acid profile, functional properties, and secondary structure of the proteins from Trichilia emetica and Trichilia dregeana oilseeds. The results showed that the essential amino acid levels of the two Trichilia seed proteins were above the recommended Food and Agricultural Organisation standard for adults, with essential-to-total (E/T) amino acid ratios (T. dregeana 52.8%; T. emetica 53.4%) and chemical scores of 100% for both species, which were not significantly different (P > 0.05) from those of soy proteins (53.0% and 100%, respectively). The amino acid profile results indicated that Trichilia oilseeds can serve as candidates for addressing protein malnutrition in economically disadvantaged communities of sub-Saharan Africa. The secondary structure showed that the Trichilia oilseed proteins had significantly (P < 0.05) more β-conformations compared to soybean proteins. Further, the functional properties suggested that Trichilia oilseed proteins can be used as ingredients in food and feed formulations due to their versatile functional properties.
... After the extraction for the production of hemp seed oil, a cake with is obtained seed pulp is obtained together with the residual oil with high nutritional value containing hemp protein (Callaway, 2004;Mattila et al., 2018;Pap et al., 2020) and these obtained products can be used as a replacement agent instead of some components in foods or by adding to the formulation (Ferrante et al., 2019). In addition, the essential amino acids contained in hemp are rich in sulfur (Wang et al., 2008), hemp proteins are generally well tolerated and show very rare or mild allergic reactions were determined by the work done. For this reason, bakery products are at the forefront of the sectors in which hemp use is the most researched subject and in particular, research has been carried out on functional components to improvement of bread in terms of nutrition and health. ...
In addition to being the oldest cultivated plant from past to present as a raw material source, Cannabis sativa L. is a strategically characteristic plant used for food, medicine, cosmetics, and pharmacological purposes. Molecular modeling is an important means for elucidating molecular structures and plays an important role in the design and development of new pharmaceuticals. This chapter includes the beneficial properties of the primary and secondary metabolites contained in cannabis such as foaming, emulsifying, gelling, film formation; antioxidant, antimicrobial activities and bakery products by means of their superior nutritional values, snack products, dairy products, processed meat products, in beverages such as coffees, teas, soda and functional food ingredients in many other areas of the food industry, nutritional supplements, usability in the development of new food formulations on hemp and molecular modeling studies on constituents of cannabis sativa.
... Tis improvement could be related to the HS richness of the high-quality protein, especially the edestin and albumin fractions. Tis result is in agreement with that reported by [28], which explains this improvement of HU by the HS inclusion rate. Moreover, several studies demonstrate that using phytogenic additives with antibacterial and antioxidant properties in laying hen diets could improve albumen quality [29,30]. ...
Te production of nonindustrial cannabis is highly developed in the Moroccan Rif region; however, local farmers consider hemp seeds which are rich in omega 3 and tocopherols, only as by-products of cannabis cultivation with low market value. Te local ecotype is considered to be a plant with a cannabinoid content of more than 0.4%. So, the objective of this research is to investigate how the incorporation of this local hemp seed afects productive performance and egg quality traits. Te experiment is conducted to evaluate the efects of hemp seed (HS) incorporation on hen laying performance and physical egg quality at three levels: 10% (HS-10% group), 20% (HS-20% group), and 30% (HS-30% group). Ninety-six Lohmann Brown classic laying hens were randomly assigned to a control group and three feed treatments. Te sampling was taken after the 28-week rearing period (peak egg laying). Troughout the experiment, low-rate HS inclusion (HS-10%) showed no signifcant diferences in egg-laying performance (p > 0.05). However, the high incorporation rates of HS (20% and 30%) negatively afected the egg-laying performance (84-94% and 80-86%, respectively). Te albumen quality was also improved by the HS inclusion, where the highest values of the Haugh unit were recorded, ranging between 68.69 and 73.91 for the HS-30% groups. Te results also show that HS inclusion and duration infuence signifcantly the yolk color (p < 0.001). Te yellow intensity decreases with HS incorporation and aging, from a dark yellow (b * � 38.63 for the control group) to a very pale yellow (b * � 26.29 for HS 30% group). Based on these fndings, we can conclude that the incorporation of nonindustrial Moroccan cannabis seeds (ecotype Beldiya) at low rate in the diet of laying hens does not alter the laying performance or the quality of the egg; therefore, they could be used in poultry feeding as an alternative constituent to partially replace high-cost imported ingredients, such as corn and soybeans.
... Therefore, new low level THC (0.1-0.3%) varieties of Cannabis sativa have been developed in some countries (e.g. Canada, China, France) for industrial purposes (Wang et al, 2008). In Iran, Pakistan and Turkey salty roasted hempseeds still sold by herbal stores for a snack and it also used as a bird feed ( e.g. ...
... Tang and co-workers [21] studied the stability of hemp protein emulsions to find a trend with pH and compare their functional properties with those of soy protein isolate. Other literature works have looked for a correlation between the ways of isolation of hemp proteins, their solubility and the stability of the emulsions [17,21,23]. It is also possible to stabilize emulsions prepared with hemp protein isolate using nanoparticles [20] in a complex of hemp globulin (HG) with sodium caseinate (SC) via a pH-cycling method, even if the obtained stable emulsion has a solid-like consistency, or by adding pectins [24]. ...
Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is traditionally processed for its high fibre content in the textile industry, but in recent years, it has come to constitute a new raw material in the food industry. Hemp seeds, but also the seed meal, are rich in protein (25%) and oil (30%), the latter consisting of 80–90% of unsaturated fatty acids; they represent a rich and balanced nutritional source to replace the classic animal sources, and they are used in the food industry to supply new food trends. In this work, the hemp oil extraction process was studied, taking advantage of the supercritical CO2 and ultrasounds, and comparing it with the exhaustive Soxhlet technique. The residual cake from extraction is a protein-rich waste that can be used for food formulations. From this perspective, the hemp oil extracted was used to formulate emulsions with the consistency of vegetable drinks, enriched with standard hemp protein isolate and stabilized with the addition of 0.05%w/w of thickening polysaccharides (Gellan gum). The formulated emulsion is stable, and this can encourage the process improvement and the use of the waste from hemp seed extraction for the valorisation of by-products and waste to obtain complete food products with high nutritional value.
... Both variants were characterized by two main polypeptide fractions of approximately 20 kDa and 33 kDa. As reported by Tang et al. [28] as well as Wang et al. [29], polypeptides of this mass correspond to the acid and base subunits of edestin. The results obtained are similar to those of Docimo et al. [30], who showed that the main polypeptide fractions in hemp seeds are the acid and base subunits of edestin and the 7S subunit of hemp protein isolate. ...
Cannabis sativa (hemp) is a plant considered to be abundant in bioactive compounds. The increasing production of hemp oil is leaving considerable amounts of hemp press cakes (HPC), which have not been sufficiently managed so far. One of the directions of development of plant-based food is the use of by-products of the agri-food industry in accordance with the idea of zero waste and the circular economy, so the purpose of this study was to determine the possibility of HPC fermentation using yogurt and kefir cultures and to determine the effect of the type of starter on the properties of the products. In the present study, starter cultures of yogurt (YO 122) and kefir (commercial grains) were used for HPC fermentation. Changes in lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast population, pH, acidity, the content of bioactive compounds by spectrophotometric methods (proteins, amino acids, polyphenols, flavonoids, reducing sugars) and antioxidant activity (DDPH, ABTS, FRAP and reducing power) were determined. The results showed that it was possible to develop high-value beverages based on HPC with high fermentation efficiency: survivability of LAB and yeast (>106 CFU/g) and acidification (pH in a range of 4.82–6.36 and 5.34–6.49 for yogurt and kefir culture, respectively). Moreover, the stability of hemp protein, with its variable free amino acid composition, antioxidant potential and presented changes in polyphenolic content, was observed during storage. The presented results show a new way to manage HPC as an oil industry residue by using it as a raw material for the development of a bioactive food product and illustrate the relationship between applied starter culture, the direction of fermentation and changes in the content of bioactive compounds.
... The amino acid score (AAS) is calculated by the ratio of percent of essential amino acids in sample to the percent of essential amino acids as recommended by FAO (Vioque et al., 2012). The nutritional value of the PPC using amino acid composition was calculated according to the method (Wang et al., 2008). ...
... The total non-essential amino acids (TNEAA) composition of the control and enriched samples ranged from 33.0 (CS) to 39.50 g/100 g protein (LER) with glutamic acid being the most abundant non-essential amino acids for all the samples. Glutamic acid is often the most abundant and dominant amino acid in food proteins of plant origin Deng et al., 2015;Olagunju et al., 2018;Wang et al., 2008). Aspartic and glutamic acid are nitrogen reserves in plant where they are stored as ammonia. ...
‘Lafun” was enriched with soy protein supplements (curd or residue) during the mashing before drying at 10%. The amino acid result indicated that enrichment improved the amino acids contents as well as the protein quality of the products. While enrichment generally improved the mineral element composition, enrichment with the residue significantly improved the mineral composition when compared to enrichment curd. That the products were hygienically produced was confirmed by the non-detection of heavy metals which may suggest it safety for human consumption. Condensed tannins, phytate, oxalate, hydrogen cyanide and trypsin inhibitor were tested as possible anti-nutritional factors in the product and the values obtained were within safe level and correlated with those reported in previous or similar studies. It was concluded that enrichment with soy curd/residue is a safe and viable means to improve the nutritional benefits derivable from “Lafun” especially for those that ‘Lafun” is a major staple.
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seeds contain a high concentration of proteins and biologically active compounds. The protein content is even higher in case of lipid part removal in oil production. The remaining part is considered a leftover, usually being used in animal feed. The aim of this study was to investigate the physicochemical composition of hemp seed cake flour, its nutritional quality and its impact on bread quality parameters. The properties of hemp seed cake flour were assessed in terms of protein quality, mineral composition, polyphenols and antioxidant activity. Hemp seed cake proved to be an important source of high-quality protein (31.62% d.m.) with the presence of eight essential amino acids. The biologically active potential of hemp seed cake has been demonstrated by the high content of polyphenols, especially those from the Cannabisin group. Hemp seed cake flour was incorporated in wheat flour at levels from 5 to 40% (w/w) to investigate its influence on bread quality parameters. The addition of hemp seed cake flour increased the total phenol content of bread, thus greatly enhancing the antioxidant activity. The protein content of bread was found to be enhanced from 11.11% d.m (control sample) to 18.18% d.m (for sample with 40% hemp seed cake flour). On the other hand, the addition of hemp seed cake flour led to decreased bread porosity, increased hardness and decreased resilience in the seed cake. Although, all bread samples recorded sensorial attributes ranging between “slightly like” and “like it very much”.
Even though plant proteins are more plentiful and affordable than animal proteins in comparison, direct usage of plant-based proteins (PBPs) is still limited because PBPs are fed to animals as feed to produce animal-based proteins. Thus, this work has comprehensively reviewed the effects of various factors such as pH, temperature, pressure, and ionic strength on PBP properties, as well as describes the protein interactions, and extraction methods to know the optimal conditions for preparing PBP-based products with high functional properties and health benefits. According to the cited studies in the current work, the environmental factors, particularly pH and ionic strength significantly affected on physicochemical and functional properties of PBPs, especially solubility was 76.0% to 83.9% at pH = 2, while at pH = 5.0 reduced from 5.3% to 9.6%, emulsifying ability was the lowest at pH = 5.8 and the highest at pH 8.0, and foaming capacity was lowest at pH 5.0 and the highest at pH = 7.0. Electrostatic interactions are the main way for protein interactions, which can be used to create protein/polysaccharide complexes for food industrial purposes. The extraction yield of proteins can be reached up to 86–95% with high functional properties using sustainable and efficient routes, including enzymatic, ultrasound-, microwave-, pulsed electric field-, and high-pressure-assisted extraction. Nondairy alternative products, especially yogurt, 3D food printing and meat analogs, synthesis of nanoparticles, and bioplastics and packaging films are the best available PBPs-based products. Moreover, PBPs particularly those that contain pigments and their products showed good bioactivities, especially antioxidants, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial.
In this work, the protein quality of defatted hemp hearts and protein-enriched hemp fractions was determined. Protein quality was assessed using a rodent bioassay to evaluate growth and protein digestibility, while amino acid composition was determined via HPLC. A method for determining in vitro protein digestibility was compared to in vivo methodology and used to generate an in vitro protein quality score. The true protein digestibility of hemp protein 2, a hemp protein concentrate, was significantly lower than that of either defatted hemp hearts or hemp protein 1, a hemp protein concentrate (p < .05). While there was no relationship between the in vivo and in vitro measurements of protein digestibility (R2 = .293, p = .459), there was a significant correlation between the protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) determined in vivo and in vitro PDCAAS (R2 = .989, p = .005). The protein efficiency ratio of hemp protein 1 was significantly lower than that of either defatted hemp hearts or hemp protein 2 (p < .05). These data highlight the nutritional capacity of hemp protein sources while also demonstrating the relationship between in vivo and in vitro methods for determining protein quality.
Hempseed protein has gained increasing attention for its sustainability and nourishment. This study aimed to investigate the effects of spray drying and freeze drying on the physicochemical properties, functionality, and digestibility of hempseed protein isolate (HPI). Compared to undried-HPI, both drying techniques altered physicochemical and structural properties. Particularly, protein denaturation temperature increased in freeze-dried HPI (FD-HPI) and spray-dried HPI (SD-HPI) samples (∼90 °C) than in undried-HPI (82.5 °C). Lysine content decreased from 38.26 mg/g in undried-HPI to 35.03 and 33.18 mg/g in FD-HPI and SD-HPI, respectively. Results revealed the loss of 26 and 17 kDa bands after drying. Notably, FD-HPI exhibited higher emulsifying stability and oil-holding capacity than SD-HPI. While both FD-HPI and SD-HPI had higher digestibility than undried-HPI, a 50% reduction in the liberation of free α-amino groups after digestion was found. This study provided information regarding changes in HPI after drying, offering insights for HPI production and application in the food industry.
Hempseed protein isolate (HPI) has drawn significant attention as a promising source of plant-based protein due to its high nutritional value. The poor functionality (e.g., solubility and emulsifying properties) of HPI has impeded its food application for years. This study provides important new information on hempseed protein extraction, which may provide further insights into the extraction of other high-thiol-based plant proteins to make valuable plant-based products with improved functional properties. In this study, HPI was produced from hempseed meals using the AE-IEP method. The underlying mechanisms and extraction kinetics were investigated under different experimental conditions (pH 9.0–12.0, temperature 24–70 °C, and time 0–120 min). The results suggested that disulphide bond formation is an inevitable side reaction during hempseed protein extraction and that the protein yield and the free -SH content can be influenced by different extraction conditions. A high solution pH and temperature, and long extraction time result in increased protein yield but incur the formation of more intermolecular disulphide bonds, which might be the reason for the poor functionality of the HPI. For instance, it was particularly observable that the protein solubility of HPI products reduced when the extraction pH was increased. The emulsifying properties and surface tension data demonstrated that the functionality of the extracted hempseed protein was significantly reduced at longer extraction times. A response surface methodology (RSM) optimization model was used to determine the conditions that could maximise HPI functionality. However, a three-fold reduction in protein yield must be sacrificed to obtain the protein with this high functionality.
The plum seed protein isolates (PSPI), wolfberry protein isolates (WPI) jujube seed protein isolates (JPI), and hemp seed protein isolates (HPI) were prepared and treated with high-pressure homogenization at 90 MPa. The effects of high-pressure homogenization treatment on particle size, surface hydrophobicity, solubility, subunits, rheological behavior, and microstructure of proteins were investigated in this study. As compared with native proteins, the particle size of PSPI, WPI, JPI and HPI decreased 89%, 38%, 93% and 83%, respectively, after high-pressure homogenization treatment; the solubility of PSPI, WPI, JPI and HPI increased 31%, 9%, 43% and 201%, respectively. However, the effects of treatment on surface hydrophobicity and rheological behavior depended on the type of proteins. The surface hydrophobicity of WPI increased 22%, while the surface hydrophobicity of PSPI, JPI and HPI decreased 4%, 19% and 46%, respectively. The treatment also promoted the gelation of WPI, JPI and HPI. Furthermore, the composition of proteins was not affected by high-pressure homogenization treatment.
The high Fischer (F) ratio hemp peptide (HFHP) was prepared by enrichment using activated carbon adsorption, ultrafiltration, and Sephadex G-25 gel filtration chromatography. The OD220/OD280 ratio reached 47.1 with a molecular weight distribution from 180 to 980 Da, a peptide yield up to 21.7 %, and the F value was 31.5. HFHP had high scavenging ability of DPPH, hydroxyl free radicals, and superoxide. Mice experiments showed that the HFHP increased the activity of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. The HFHP had no effect on the body weight of mice, but prolonged their weight-bearing swimming time. The lactic acid, serum urea nitrogen, and malondialdehyde of the mice after swimming was reduced, and the liver glycogen increased. The correlation analysis indicated that the HFHP had significant anti-oxidation and anti-fatigue properties.
At present, hemp seeds are becoming increasingly popular as a source of nutrients. This work addressed the dynamics of macronutrients in the process of short-term germination of hempseeds by chemical and spectroscopic methods. Lyudmila 2021 cultivated hemp seeds along with hemp sprouts were used as objects of research. The germination of hemp seeds was carried out under laboratory conditions using special trays at 18–20 °C with the water added at a ratio of 2:1 for 5 days with periodic moistening. The obtained experimental data on the protein complex suggested that, in the studied interval of the germination of hemp seeds, the key hydrolytic decomposition of proteins occurs along with changes in structural components, including through the synthesis of new proteins accompanying the sprouting. The variations in such parameters as fat content, acid number and peak intensity of functional groups in the lipid fingerprint region (1745, 1157 and 1140 cm-1) indicated the accumulation of fatty acids as a result of the hydrolysis of triglycerides. The analysis of the IR spectra of hemp sprouts and the intensity of the bands of the corresponding functional groups in the carbohydrate region (1200–680 cm-1) suggested the intensive hydrolytic decomposition of polysaccharides. The variation in the content of extractive matter in the aqueous solutions of hemp sprouts indicated the accumulation and utilisation of water-soluble substances at the early stages of germination. The data on the predominance of water- and salt-soluble protein fractions indicated an increase in the biological value of hemp seeds during short-term germination.
An oleogel-in-water (Og/W) emulsion system was constructed by hemp seed protein (HSP) and hemp seed oil oleogel. The effects of different HSP concentrations on the properties of the emulsion system were investigated. It was found that the oil droplets in the Og/W emulsion were spherical particles after being encapsulated by the emulsifier. With increasing HSP concentration, the particle size of the emulsion first decreased and then increased. When the HSP concentration was 3%, the particle size reached a minimum value. At this time, the ζ-potential of the system was −30.8 mV, the adsorbed protein content was 45.05%, the surface tension was 50.49 mN/m, and the roughness was 8.35 nm. Additionally, the apparent viscosity of the emulsion gradually increased with increasing HSP concentration, and the emulsion with 3% HSP had a higher G′, which could better resist the external environmental pressure. Through the exploration of the interfacial adsorption properties, it was shown that increasing the HSP concentration could improve the diffusion, adsorption and molecular rearrangement rate of HSP at the oil-water interface. In addition, the tetrahydrocannabinol retention rate reached 92.86% after 14 days of storage. Finally, the oxidation kinetic model was established, and the equation [Formula presented] was obtained, which could be used to predict the changes in the peroxide value (POV) of hemp seed oil under different storage temperatures and times.
Complex coacervates of hemp protein isolate (HPI) and three different polysaccharides (gum Arabic, sodium alginate and pectin) were prepared and used as the emulsifiers in three different oils (hemp, essential and coconut oils) to produce oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions. The effects of polysaccharide and oil types and the methods of applying these complex coacervates as emulsifiers (in-situ and ex-situ) on the stability of emulsion were investigated in terms of storage time and temperature and the presence of salt. The results showed that the characteristics of emulsions, especially their stability, were affected by the type of polysaccharides, type of oil and the way these complex coacervates were applied as emulsifiers during the preparation of emulsions. The emulsion of hemp oil prepared using HPI-gum Arabic complex coacervate as emulsifier had the best storage stability. The emulsion prepared by in-situ method had better storage stability when stored at 4 °C. The emulsion stabilized by the ex-situ method was less sensitive to temperature and ionic strengths.
With changing dietary habits and increasing awareness of the nutraceutical role of dietary foods, the demand for natural plant proteins and interest in non-traditional protein sources in the food industry are increasing. Industrial hemp, belonging to the plant family Cannabaceae, is cultivated for its fibre and edible seeds. Due to its nutritional value, it has also been used in the food industry and medicine. In particular, hemp seed proteins have drawn considerable attention in both scientific and industrial fields because of their excellent nutraceutical values, superior digestibility, low allergenicity and diverse techno-functional properties. In this review, we provide a summary of the current research progress on the extraction and purification processes, physiochemical properties, nutraceutical functions, and applications of hemp seed proteins. Perspectives in the application of advanced technologies for hemp seed bioactive peptide mining are also discussed. This review provides up-to-date insights into the nutraceutical values, health benefits, and future applications of this emerging plant source protein.
Proteins are widely used in the formation and stabilization of multiphase systems, thanks to their ability to adsorb at the interface reducing the interfacial tension and promoting the formation of viscoelastic layers. Owing to the growing consumer demand, the food industry is moving toward the growing use of plant-based proteins, suitable for consumers who do not eat products of animal origin, for either ethical or health reasons. Nevertheless, the scientific literature lacks information on the surface activity and emulsifying ability of these proteins. In this work, the interfacial properties of soy, hemp and brown rice isolate proteins were investigated at the interface with commercial sunflower oil (O/W) to evaluate their characteristics in view of potential uses in food applications such as emulsions, sauces, dressing, topping and soft foods. Dilatational and shear kinematic, with pendant drop and magnetic rod techniques, respectively, were used. The dilatational analysis was performed in static and dynamic conditions, to obtain the equilibrium adsorption isotherms and the rheological parameters of the interfacial layers under both oscillation and stress relaxation. The interfaces were studied in shear conditions with small amplitude oscillations and creep tests. The obtained results evidenced that all tested proteins are able to build a strong viscoelastic layer with properties comparable to those of animal proteins. Brown rice protein seems particularly effective in reducing the interfacial tension even if shear tests evidence that the interface is weaker than that obtained using hemp or soy protein. Hemp protein seems very promising for potential practical uses yielding intermediate interfacial tensions and strong viscoelastic layers.
Hemp is an ancient crop whose production has been curtailed until recently due to restriction imposed because of phytocannabinoids presence. Industrial hempseed low in tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol is increasingly being grown in many countries, and its acreage is expected to increase further. Commercial hempseed processing generates two major products, oils and proteins and hempseed hulls as a by‐product. The polyunsaturated fatty acid rich oil has 3 : 1 n −6/ n− 3 ratio considered to benefit human health along with γ‐linolenic and stearidonic acids rarely encountered in commercial plant oils. Edestin one of the earliest and easily extractable hempseed proteins can be hydrolyzed along with other hempseed proteins to obtain hydrolysates and bioactive peptides with vascular tone modulation and other beneficial functionalities. The hull is a rich source of lignanamides with demonstrated neuroprotective effects. This chapter reviews the composition of industrial hempseed and processed products, as well as their characteristics, functionality, health benefits, and mode of action. Hempseed components, oil, protein, and lignanamides share common mechanism of action – NF‐κB signaling pathway and apoptosis despite their different mode of action.
Amyloid fibrils from plant-based food protein sources bear a large unexploited potential for applications in food and other biomaterials due to their techno-functional features. However, their low solubility and highly complex, inhomogeneous protein composition often hamper fibrillization. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of amyloid fibril production from hemp seed protein, known as a sustainable and low-allergenic protein source. Hemp protein concentrate (HPC), primarily constituted of the 11 S globulin edestin, with 89.0% protein solubility (0.25% w/w HPC, pH 2) was extracted using gentle micellization. Fibrillization of HPC (2% w/w, pH 2, 90 °C, 300 rpm) was monitored over 5 h by ThT fluorescence, exhibiting a steep increase in fluorescence signal after a lag phase of 180 min. SDS-PAGE analysis indicated progressive polypeptide hydrolysis upon heating and the formation of large proteinaceous aggregates after 160 min. Conformational changes towards increased β-sheet content were demonstrated by CD and FTIR. The morphology of the formed fibrillar aggregates was characterized by TEM and AFM. While essentially linear, branching effects of the fibrils became visible and kept increasing with incubation time. After a relatively short incubation time of 4 h, fibrils had an average height of 7.8 nm, contour length of 1.8 μm, and persistence length of ∼2.7 μm. These results suggest, that under the chosen conditions for protein extraction and incubation, HPC forms relatively flexible amyloid fibrils with a high aspect ratio and tendency to form branches. By revealing the potential of hemp seed proteins for amyloid fibril formation, these results contribute to expand the understanding of plant protein fibrillization.
The accumulation of heterocyclic amines (HAs) and advanced glycation end products (AGEs) during different processing stages was investigated in commercial raw materials to plant-based hamburger meats (PBHMs). Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to explore the difference between the samples of each processing stage. The total free HA level accumulated from 4.74-6.63 ng/g in raw plant proteins to 5.81-20.23 ng/g in textured vegetable proteins after extrusion. The concentration of MeAαC increased from 29.23 ± 3.50 to 59.44 ± 0.26 ng/g, resulting in an accumulation of the total protein-bound HAs after cooking at 160 °C for 6 min, but the MeAαC content decreased to 42.26 ± 0.11 ng/g when the heating duration was prolonged to 12 min. An evident accumulation of AGEs was observed during the thermal home-processing of PBHM. The total levels for all HAs were 381.30 and 160.30 ng/g in roast beef patty (RBP) and PBHM, respectively, with RBP having a better amino acid composition pattern. These results may reveal the target processing stage, which should be paid attention to for the inhibition of Maillard reaction derivative harmful products (MRDHPs) in plant-based meat products.
A recipe for flour oriental sweets shaker-churek of increased nutritional value using hemp flour has been developed. The characteristics and chemical composition of hemp flour are presented. It was revealed that hemp flour has a high protein content, which is characterized by a complete set of essential amino acids; fiber, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, micro and macro elements, which determines the prospects for its use to increase the nutritional value of flour oriental sweets. The influence of hemp flour on the baking properties of wheat flour, the quality indicators of wheat dough and the quality of ready-made flour oriental sweets was studied, their organoleptic and physico-chemical evaluation was carried out. The optimal dosage of hemp flour has been established, equal to 15% by weight of baking wheat flour, which allows maintaining optimal organoleptic and physico-chemical parameters. The influence of hemp flour on the nutritional value of flour oriental sweets has been studied. The addition of hemp flour to the recipe of flour oriental sweets increases the amount of proteins by 24.7% and changes the vitamin and mineral composition: the content of vitamin B1 increases by 22.7%, vitamin B2 – by 38.7%, vitamin B6 – by 2.1 times, vitamin B9 – by 16.8%, vitamin PP – by 22.2%, manganese – 4.2 times, zinc – 7.1 times, copper – 12.7 times, iron – 19.6 times, potassium – by 60.3%, calcium – by 2 times, phosphorus – by 2.2 times, magnesium – by 4.1 times, which together contribute to an increase in the nutritional value of the developed products. The level of satisfaction of the daily requirement for basic nutrients was calculated when using 100 g of the developed flour oriental sweets by various categories of the population. The recipe solutions presented in the paper for the production of shaker-churek flour oriental sweets using non-traditional vegetable raw materials – hemp flour can be recommended to expand the range of flour confectionery products of increased nutritional value.
The physicochemical, structural, and functional properties of hemp seed protein were investigated and compared with
soy, pea, whey, and egg proteins. Hemp protein exhibited the lowest total (67.1 g/100 g) and essential amino acid contents (23.1 g/
100 g) but the highest arginine level (9.17 g/100 g). Hemp protein had a β-sheet conformation as the predominant secondary
structure and demonstrated four major bands located at ∼18, ∼20, and ∼34−36 kDa in an SDS-PAGE profile, corresponding to the
basic and acidic subunits of edestin, respectively. The highly compact structure of hemp protein along with a higher surface
hydrophobicity (H0) of 750 × 104 au and −SH content of 34.85 μmol/g may explain the low water absorption capacity (372.41 g/
100 g) and protein solubility, but a high oil absorption capacity (135.48 g/100 g) and emulsification activity index of 48.40 m2/g are
found. Our results support the potential use of hemp protein in various protein-rich food products. However, appropriate processing
technologies are needed to modify its structure and functionality.
There is an increasing trend today towards plant-based diets in western society, often resulting in milk restriction. In the case of very young children, the direct substitution of milk by other foods, without proper nutritional advice, may lead to a lack of nutrients and hence to growth and development alterations. This study focuses on the nutritional assessment of various commercially available plant-based drinks, to determine their adequacy as alternatives to ruminant milk, in relation to the nutritional requirements of toddlers (1–3 years old), and to establish whether other sources of nutrient supplementation may be needed, as well as any other possible positive and /or negative health effects associated to their consumption. A sample of 179 commercial plant-based drinks (almond, coconut, hemp, oat, rice, soy, tigernut) were chosen and their nutrient contents were compared to the EFSA nutrient reference values for toddlers. The scientific literature on the presence of bioactive and/or undesirable compounds was reviewed.
None of the plant-based drinks studied should be considered as a milk substitute, since they are different food products with a different composition. However, from the results obtained, the best choice for toddlers who do not consume milk would be to consume at least 250 mL/day of fortified soy drink (for its higher amount and quality of protein, polyunsaturated fatty acids and phytosterols), and always in the context of a carefully-balanced diet. Almond, hemp or oat drinks are other alternatives that can be used in combination or for soy-allergic toddlers.
The key nutrients that should be fortified in plant-based drinks are: vitamins A and B12, calcium, zinc and iodine, as they represent the most significant nutritional differences with milk; vitamin D would also be desirable. Of these, vitamins A, B12, D and calcium, are easily found in many commercial plant-based drinks on the Spanish market (most frequently in soy drinks), unlike iodine and zinc, which were not added to any. Given the fish restriction in vegetarians/vegans and the fact that plant-based drinks provide high amounts of phytates and tannins, which act as antinutrients, a good strategy for the industry would be to fortify plant-based drinks with iodine and zinc to improve the nutritional value of products aimed to vegetarians/vegans.
Protein isolates of beach pea were prepared using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP). Functional properties of the isolates so prepared were investigated and compared with those of other pea samples. Protein isolate of beach pea, prepared via NaOH extraction, had a protein content of 86.6%, while SHMP-extracted isolates contained 85.1% protein. Corresponding values for NaOH- and SHMP-extracted green pea and grass pea were 90.6, 89.9, 90.6 and 88.3%, respectively. Sulphur-containing amino acids were more prevalent in SHMP-extracted beach pea and green pea, while they were higher in NaOH-extracted grass pea. Tryptophan content was higher in NaOH-extracted than SHMP-extracted isolates. The predicted biological value and protein efficiency ratio of beach pea protein isolates indicated the high quality of products so prepared. Beach pea protein isolates exhibited a minimum solubility at pH 4.5. The pH and NaCl concentration effectively changed the functional properties of protein isolates. Beach pea protein isolates (NaOH- and SHMP-extracted) had in-vitro digestibility of 80.6 to 82.6% for pepsin-trypsin and 78.6 to 79.2% for pepsin-pancreatin.
The chapter discusses the protein stability with emphasis on compact globular proteins representing a single cooperative system. All the small compact globular proteins represent cooperative systems; they exhibit an extreme cooperativity that integrates the whole of their structure into a single structural unit. The large proteins, to which fibrillar proteins are also related, do not present single cooperative systems, but are subdivided into definite cooperative subsystems—structural blocks or domains. The advances in studying the stability of complicated proteins are connected with two methodical achievements: (1) the appearance of the precise scanning microcalorimetric technique, which affords reliable information on the heat capacity function of proteins in a broad temperature range; and (2) realization of the fact that the complicated heat effect of disruption of a complex macromolecular structure can be analyzed thermodynamically. The thermodynamic specificity of collagen has been considered. The volume of globular proteins does not increase at denaturation but decreases, as seen from their ability to denature under high pressure. The results of calorimetric studies are discussed, presenting the specific melting enthalpy of various protein structures—globular proteins, double-stranded coiled coils, and triplestranded coiled coils. The practical importance of thermodynamic studies of protein stability—that is, its importance not only for understanding the principles of organization of these molecules, but just for obtaining structural information on the domain level is emphasized.
Heat denaturation of several proteins from plant sources was studied using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Differences in temperatures of denaturation (Td), overall thermal transitions (ΔH), and half band widths (HBW) were noted for these proteins, with oats having the highest Td (112°C) and ΔH (4.45 cal·g−1) and the lowest HBW (9.2°C). Vital gluten, on the other hand, did not exhibit a characteristic thermogram so these parameters could not be measured. Using fababean protein as a model system, heat denaturation was shown to be irreversible. The effect of pH on the heat stability of the fababean protein indicated decreases in Td and ΔH on either side of the isoelectric point to a situation where the protein was believed to be completely denatured if the pH were taken below pH 2.5 or above 11.5. The irreversibility of this phenomenon in the alkaline region was demonstrated by DSC of alkaline extracted, isoelectrically precipitated fababean protein isolates.
Protein digestibility (in vitro) of dry seeds of moth bean cultivars varied significantly from 58.69 to 62.06%. The protein digestibility improved significantly when the seeds were given different domestic processing and cooking treatments including soaking, sprouting, ordinary cooking and pressure cooking. Pressure cooking of the seeds presoaked in plain water or mixed mineral salt solution had the most pronounced effect.
The effect of a dry heat treatment on trypsin inhibitors, protein quality and molecular weight of products obtained from enzymatic hydrolysis of chickpea flours was analysed in order to use chickpeas as food protein hydrolysates. Chickpea flour obtained from dehusked seeds was processed under different conditions, either by heating or enzymatic treatment. Heat treatment at 140 °C for varying times (1–24 h) inactivated trypsin inhibitors and facilitated enzymatic treatment but showed an unacceptable loss in the nutritional quality of the protein for heating times longer than 6 h. Enzymatic treatment with a commercial protease, Alcalase 0.6L, at pH 8 and 50 °C, increased the protein nutritional value of the chickpea by breaking the protein chains into shorter peptide chains more suitable to human nutrition.
Gelation of globular proteins on heating involves two separate stages. The first is partial unfolding (denaturation) of the native globular structure; the second is intermolecular aggregation. Denaturation involves dissociation of intramolecular bonds (non-covalent and, in some cases, disulfide) and is therefore an endothermic process. The aggregation step involves formation of new bonds between protein molecules, and would therefore be expected to give a differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) exotherm on heating, but numerous previous studies of the thermal gelation of whey proteins, carried out on conventional (fast scanning) DSC calorimeters (typical sample mass ∼15–50 mg), have shown only endothermic transitions. In the present work, however, we have observed the endothermic (denaturation) and exothermic (aggregation) processes in thermogelation of whey protein isolate (WPI) as separate transitions in DSC heating traces recorded on a Setaram microcalorimeter (sample mass ∼850 mg). Under conditions where aggregation occurs much more slowly than denaturation (low protein concentration; low ionic strength) the two transitions are well resolved, with the exotherm from aggregation following the endotherm from denaturation. The position of the exotherm, however, appears to be time-dependent rather than temperature-dependent. On reduction in heating rate, the apparent peak-maximum temperature of the aggregation exotherm decreases towards the (essentially constant) position of the denaturation endotherm, and, at sufficiently low scan rates, the exotherm becomes obscured by the more intense endotherm. Progressive displacement of the exotherm into the temperature range of the denaturation endotherm also occurs in response to changes that accelerate intermolecular aggregation and accompanying gelation (addition of salt; increasing protein concentration). The absence of a detectable exotherm in previous studies using conventional calorimeters is attributed to the much smaller sample mass than in the Setaram instrument, giving much faster heat transfer, which may cause the exothermic heat flow from the slow aggregation process to be swamped by the endothermic heat flow from the more rapid denaturation process.
Chromatography of edestin on DEAE-cellulose at 50° yields substantially one component. Edestin, however, has been fractionated into three components on DEAE-cellulose by a discontinuous temperature sodium chloride elution scheme. One of these components is a Lowry-positive, non-nitrogeneus material extracted from the seed and precipitated with the protein. The other two components are protein, and their amino acid compositions as well as their solubilities are distinct. The fact that twice-reprecipitated edistin is homogeneous with respect to ultracentrifugation but can be fractionated at 50° into distinct components gives strong support to the hypothesis that the material that has been classically regarded as edestin consists of several protein and non-protein components, among which there is a high degree of interaction. The solubility and chromatographic properties of crystalline edestin vary significantly with the previous history of the hempseed source. Edestin prepared from heat-treated, non-viable seed is insoluble at ordinary temperatures and has distinctly different elution characteristics.
The seed of Cannabis sativa L. has been an important source of nutrition for thousands of years in Old World cultures. Non-drug varieties of Cannabis, commonly referred to as hemp, have not been studied extensively for their nutritional potential in recent years, nor has hempseed been utilized to any great extent by the industrial processes and food markets that have developed during the 20th century. Technically a nut, hempseed typically contains over 30% oil and about 25% protein, with considerable amounts of dietary fiber, vitamins and minerals. Hempseed oil is over 80% in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and is an exceptionally rich source of the two essential fatty acids (EFAs) linoleic acid (18:2 omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 omega-3). The omega-6 to omega-3 ratio (n6/n3) in hempseed oil is normally between 2:1 and 3:1, which is considered to be optimal for human health. In addition, the biological metabolites of the two EFAs, gamma-linolenic acid (18:3 omega-6; GLA) and stearidonic acid (18:4 omega-3; SDA), are also present in hempseed oil. The two main proteins in hempseed are edestin and albumin. Both of these high-quality storage proteins are easily digested and contain nutritionally significant amounts of all essential amino acids. In addition, hempseed has exceptionally high levels of the amino acid arginine. Hempseed has been used to treat various disorders for thousands of years in traditional oriental medicine. Recent clinical trials have identified hempseed oil as a functional food, and animal feeding studies demonstrate the long-standing utility of hempseed as an important food resource.
Soybean (Glycine maxL. Merr., cv. Dare) protein subunits were separated by gradient gel electrophoresis and analyzed by two-dimensional densitometry
with computer-aided volume integration. Significant differences in the time required to achieve equilibrium staining with
Coomassie Blue were revealed among the various polypeptides. Bands corresponding to lipoxygenase reached staining equilibrium
in 2.7 h, whereas longer periods were required for polypeptides of β-conglycinin (5.5 to 6.7 h) and of glycinin (8.6 to 9.2
h). These differences among polypeptides could be attributed in part to changes in gradient concentration within the polyacrylamide
gel. Optimal staining intensity among all soluble proteins extracted from soybean seed was reached after staining for 8 h.
Shorter than optimal staining times lead to significant underestimation of parameters such as the percentage of β-conglycinin
and glycinin of total soluble protein.
Proteins of Phaseolus angularis, Phaseolus calcaratus and Dolichos lablab seeds (24.9 to 26.5% dry weight) were mainly contributed by their cotyledons which had a proportion of 82.9 to 90.8% by weight of the whole seeds. The levels of all the essential amino acids of the legume seeds (415 to 443 mg g−1 protein) were above the FAO/WHO, (1990) requirement with the essential amino acid scores of the methionine and cystine being 1.02 to 1.19. Appreciable amounts of oligosaccharides of the raffinose family were found mainly in the cotyledons (3.52 to 4.72% dry weight). The total dietary fibre of the legume seeds (13.5 to 19.3% dry weight) consisted predominantly of insoluble dietary fibre (IDF). The cotyledons contained 45.9 to 51.4% dry weight of starch but had low contents of cellulose and lignin. Hulls were highly lignified and consisted predominantly of IDF, with values ranging from 70.7 to 74.0% dry weight. The principal sugar residue analysis revealed that pectins were the major polysaccharide present in the SDF of both the cotyledons and the hulls. While xylans and cellulose were the major polysaccharides present in the IDF of the hulls, xyloglucans and arabinose-rich pectic substances were the principal non-starch polysaccharides in the IDF of the cotyledons.
The thermal properties of Phaseolus angularis (red bean) globulin were studied by differential scanning calorimetry under various medium conditions. Red bean globulin (RGB) was fractionated by ion-exchange chromatography into a major fraction, with SDS–PAGE pattern corresponding to the 7S vicilin, and two minor fractions, probably representing residual vicilin and the 11S legumin, respectively. The thermogram of RBG showed a major endothermic peak at 86.4°C and a minor transition at 92.2°C. Vicilin exhibited two endothermic peaks (87.7 and 94.1°C), while legumin showed one transition at 89.5°C. The progressive increase in denaturation temperature (Td) with increase in salt concentration, suggests a more compact conformation for RBG with higher thermal stability. Decreases in enthalpy and Td were observed under the influence of highly acidic and alkaline pHs, chaotropic salts, and protein perturbants such as sodium dodecyl sulfate, urea and ethylene glycol, indicating partial denaturation and decrease in thermal stability. Dithiothreitol and N-ethylmaleimide have little effect on the thermal properties of RBG since the major protein component, vicilin, is devoid of disulfide bonds.
Effects of limited enzymatic hydrolysis induced by trypsin on the physicochemical and functional properties of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) protein isolate (HPI) were investigated. The enzymatic hydrolysis was confirmed by sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC). SEC and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses confirmed the presence of aggregates in the corresponding hydrolysates (with the degree of hydrolysis of 2.3–6.7%). Functional properties, including protein solubility (PS), thermal properties, emulsifying and foaming properties, and water holding and fat adsorption capacities (WHC and FAC) were evaluated. The PS was remarkably improved by the limited enzymatic hydrolysis at all tested pH values. However, the enzymatic hydrolysis led to the marked decreases in emulsifying activity index, foaming capacity and foam stability, WHC and FAC. These decreases were to a great extent related to the presence of aggregates in the hydrolysates.
Using an improved method of gel electrophoresis, many hitherto unknown
proteins have been found in bacteriophage T4 and some of these have been
identified with specific gene products. Four major components of the
head are cleaved during the process of assembly, apparently after the
precursor proteins have assembled into some large intermediate
structure.
Edestin, a legumin class reserve protein from hemp seeds having six identical subunits was crystallized from ammonium phosphate at pH 5 and subsequently characterized by X-ray diffraction. The crystals are of space group R32 with a = 127 A and gamma = 116 degrees having an equivalent triply centered hexagonal cell of a = b = 215 A, c = 80 A. There is one hexameric protein in the rhombohedral unit cell, hence the subunits of the Edestin molecule must be arranged with 32 point group symmetry.
A 10-kDa protein was isolated from resting seeds of hemp (Cannabis sativa) by buffer extraction, gel filtration, ion-exchange chromatography, and reversed-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography. The protein did not inhibit bovine trypsin. It consisted of subunits composed of 27 and 61 residues and was held together by two disulfide bonds. The complete amino acid sequence was identified by protein analysis, and had 20 mole% of amino acids containing sulfur. The protein was most similar to a methionine-rich protein of Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) and to Mabinlin IV, a sweetness-inducing protein of Capparis masaikai. The high methionine content and the absence of trypsin inhibitory activity suggested that the seed protein can be used to improve the nutritional quality of plant food-stuffs.
An in vitro protein digestion study, using pepsin, was carried out in uncooked and cooked sorghum and maize flour samples. The digestibility values from the uncooked samples showed that sorghum presents digestibility values similar to those of maize. In the case of the cooked samples, it was found that a wet cooking procedure promotes a decrease in sorghum protein digestibility when compared to maize. Electrophoresis was used to follow the in vitro pepsin sequential digestion procedure, and infrared spectroscopy was applied to establish its efficiency. SDS-PAGE results showed that both uncooked samples (sorghum and maize) behave in a similar way. The wet cooking procedure increases the amount of high molecular weight aggregates and promotes the appearance of two nonreducible and nondigestible 45 and 47 kDa proteins. These two protein fractions are directly related to the loss of digestibility. It was also shown that in cooked sorghum the monomers (gamma-, alpha-, and beta-) are more resistant to digestion than the corresponding uncooked samples.
The amino acid composition and physicochemical and functional properties of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) protein isolate (HPI) were evaluated and compared with those of soy protein isolate (SPI). Edestin, a kind of hexameric legumin, was the major protein component. HPI had similar or higher levels of essential amino acids (except lysine), in comparison to those amino acids of SPI. The essential amino acids in HPI (except lysine and sulfur-containing amino acids) are sufficient for the FAO/WHO suggested requirements for 2-5 year old children. The protein solubility (PS) of HPI was lower than that of SPI at pH less than 8.0 but similar at above pH 8.0. HPI contained much higher free sulfhydryl (SH) content than SPI. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis showed that HPI had only one endothermic peak with denaturation temperature (T(d)) of about 95.0 degrees C, attributed to the edestin component. The T(d) of the endotherm was nearly unaffected by 20-40 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate but significantly decreased by 20 mM dithiothreitol (P < 0.05). The emulsifying activity index, emulsion stability index, and water-holding capacity of HPI were much lower than those of SPI, and the fat adsorption capacity was similar. The data suggest that HPI can be used as a valuable source of nutrition for infants and children but has poor functional properties when compared with SPI. The poor functional properties of HPI have been largely attributed to the formation of covalent disulfide bonds between individual proteins and subsequent aggregation at neutral or acidic pH, due to its high free sulfhydryl content from sulfur-containing amino acids.
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