Article

The ‘Xochimilco Model’ for Managing Irregular Settlments in Conservation Land in Mexico City

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Abstract

Mexico City has long been known as one of the world’s largest mega-cities. Although, the city’s growth rates have slowed since the 1980s, this process is not manifested evenly in spatial terms. Peripheral municipalities continue to grow at higher rates, including those municipalities in the southern part of the Federal District that contain its remaining conservation land. This growth is largely, but not exclusively, driven by the ongoing search for housing among lower-income households in the form of irregular settlement. Over time, this incremental pattern of settlement expansion has fragmented conservation land and impaired its ecological functioning. Given their role in land use planning with the reintroduction of elected local governments in the Federal District in 1997, this situation has placed municipalities quite literally at the “frontlines” of this planning and sustainability challenge. This paper examines the approach for managing land use regularization processes related to irregular settlement in conservation land adopted by the municipality of Xochimilco in its 2005 urban development plan, with reference to the experience of a specific case study community. Based on a series of interviews with residents and planning officials, the paper documents the highly-negotiated nature of “normative” planning that focuses on mitigating the impact of settlement in the conservation zone rather than stopping it completely. Given the enormous social pressures to access land for housing, the paper concludes that realistic efforts to preserve the remaining conservation land must involve a more comprehensive approach that better integrates environmental and social equity issues within and among municipal and upper-levels of government.

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... On the other, it is composed of a very diverse mosaic of land uses that includes productive chinampas with different technologies, abandoned land, informal settlements, wetland, canals, and water bodies. It reflects characteristics typical of peri-urban spaces in the Global South, such as high population density, high social inequality, proliferation of irregular human settlements, poor solid and liquid waste management as well as inefficient governance schemes (Wigle 2010;Merlín-Uribe et al. 2013a). The remaining chinampa system is today threatened by new agricultural technology (i.e., greenhouses with agrochemical inputs), intensive groundwater extraction, agricultural abandonment, and contamination. ...
... The chinampa production area suffers from urban sprawl mainly in the form of informal urbanization. In the Xochimilco municipality, 6% of its conservation area (~625 ha) has been transformed into informal settlements (GDF 2012;Wigle 2010). ...
... Since that shift, families have been dividing and distributing land to the younger generations, but with the abandonment of agricultural activities and the economic impossibility of acquiring land in urban areas for housing, they built houses in the chinampas. Building on chinampa land, which is technically a protected area, is not allowed but it is often not sanctioned by the authorities because it is linked to corruption as local politicians look the other way in exchange for votes (Aguilar 2008;Wigle 2010;Lerner et al. 2018). This mixture of different stakeholders and interests and institutional inconsistencies makes it more challenging to manage resources or guiding drivers towards a desirable sustainable pathway. ...
Article
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As the bulk of the world’s population becomes urban, maintaining urban ecosystem services for environmental and social well-being in cities is crucial. According to resilience theory, maintaining such services requires for a complex adaptive systems perspective that helps in identifying key elements and dynamics behind cross-scale social-ecological interactions. In this context, the objective of this article is to use a resilience “lens” to problematize the imminent loss of an urban wetland using the adaptive cycle model as a heuristic tool. Our case study focuses on the Xochimilco wetland, located in the southern periphery of Mexico City. Xochimilco is characterized by the presence of a complex system of raised bed wetland agriculture (the chinampa system), which was established over 1000 years ago; currently, despite having a recognized cultural and environmental value, it is threatened by increasing urban sprawl, over-exploitation of the aquifer, and water contamination. By conducting a historical analysis of the Xochimilco social-ecological system, we assess how it has gone through phases of the adaptive cycle. As a result, we identify critical elements of the system’s historically maintained resilience and main drivers of system change. From such findings, we present some insights on the possibilities of maintaining the system’s resilience and guidance for future management strategies for the Xochimilco wetland. Lastly, we reflect on the scope and limitations of using a resilience-based approach and an adaptive cycle analysis for addressing urban sustainability problems, especially in cities in the Global South.
... For example, the 55-story Torre Mayor project (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003) developed by an international real estate firm on the iconic downtown Paseo de la Reforma exceeded the zoning height limit of 25 floors in the urban development plan and was granted a five-year amnesty from paying local property taxes (Parnreiter, 2011;. Two years after the Torre Mayor was completed, the city began to introduce a new approach for managing "irregular" or "informal" settlements in the conservation zone of southern Mexico City, proposing that residents pay fines for damaging environmental services as part of their "regularization" (the state-defined process for securing land use permissions, urban services, and property titles in new settlement areas) (GDF, 2005;Wigle, 2014). While alterations or violations of zoning or building codes for downtown real estate projects are likely worked out through "backdoor" negotiations (Aguayo, 2014), the regularization of informal settlements usually involves protracted state-community negotiations with uncertain outcomes (Connolly and Wigle, 2017). ...
... Although these processes of so-called informal urbanization take place in peripheral areas and at the "margin of urban norms" (Duhau and Cruz, 2006: 400), they are also deeply embedded in state policies and planning practices. In Mexico City, the state is involved in the material production of informality through "policy-led precarization" (Gilbert, Khosla, and de Jong, 2016: 16), the construction of informality through its discursive framing in urban plans, programs, and norms (Azuela, 1997;Connolly, 2007;Connolly and Wigle, 2017;Duhau, 2014;Wigle, 2014), and the governance of informality through programs that manage regularization (Azuela, 1997;Azuela and Meneses-Reyes, 2014), including the more recent mapping and monitoring of informal settlement areas as part of Mexico City's local planning system (Connolly and Wigle, 2017;Wigle, 2014). Actors outside of the state, such as developers, also employ the term to position their real estate projects as a bulwark against the expansion of "disorderly and informal" settlements (Müller and Segura, 2016). ...
... Although these processes of so-called informal urbanization take place in peripheral areas and at the "margin of urban norms" (Duhau and Cruz, 2006: 400), they are also deeply embedded in state policies and planning practices. In Mexico City, the state is involved in the material production of informality through "policy-led precarization" (Gilbert, Khosla, and de Jong, 2016: 16), the construction of informality through its discursive framing in urban plans, programs, and norms (Azuela, 1997;Connolly, 2007;Connolly and Wigle, 2017;Duhau, 2014;Wigle, 2014), and the governance of informality through programs that manage regularization (Azuela, 1997;Azuela and Meneses-Reyes, 2014), including the more recent mapping and monitoring of informal settlement areas as part of Mexico City's local planning system (Connolly and Wigle, 2017;Wigle, 2014). Actors outside of the state, such as developers, also employ the term to position their real estate projects as a bulwark against the expansion of "disorderly and informal" settlements (Müller and Segura, 2016). ...
Article
Some of the increasingly evident contradictions between spatial planning and social policy in Mexico City are apparent in the way land use regulation folds into and articulates with exclusion and marginality. In downtown areas, regulatory approvals and various planning measures have facilitated the escalation of land and housing prices and more exclusionary forms of urban development. At the periphery, land use regulation now conditions access to urban services, property titles, and even some social programs for settlement areas designated as “informal.” Comparing the state’s role in planning at these distinct sites uncovers a pattern of selective and uneven spatial regulation in different socioeconomic territories of the city, characterized by “fast-track” development approvals in downtown areas and “slow-track” regularization of settlements in peripheral areas. The analysis suggests how this pattern of uneven spatial regulation contributes to (re)producing urban space in ways that call into question the local government’s stated support for the “right to the city.”
... The best preserved zone of the Basin of Mexico is located in the southwest region and is represented in part by the Magdalena-Eslava River sub-basin (PUEC-UNAM-GDF, 2008). This sub-basin provides one percent of the surface water supply for human consumption in Mexico City; however, the conservation of water resources is compromised due to land-use change by illegal urbanization, agriculture, and the lack of suitable public policies in different periurban and socio-ecological contexts (Wigle, 2010;Aguilar, 2008). Given the importance of the last surface rivers and the provision of water to human needs, it should be a priority to develop baseline studies that take into account the watershed's ecological present state, scientific opinion and historical socioecological knowledge. ...
... The increasing demand of water in quantity and quality for the population has led to disproportionate groundwater extraction and the importation of water from adjacent basins (Aguilar and Santos, 2011). This accelerated growth has exacerbated water management problems and promoted intubation of water courses and deforestation (Wigle, 2010), particularly in the CZ of the Magdalena-Eslava River sub-basin ( Figure 1). ...
... This latter zone comprises most rural areas to the south of the city and includes large portions of http (Aguilar, 2008). For example, in the period 1970-1997, the CZ lost 239 ha of forest cover and 173 ha of agricultural land on an annual basis, while illegal settlements increased by 289 ha per year (Wigle, 2010). The urban land uses within CZ mainly corresponds to 36 traditional towns that have existed in the Southwestern area of the city since ancient times (Aguilar, 2008). ...
Article
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Rivers in large cities face management problems that could be addressed through the integration of scientific and local ecological knowledge. The objective of this article is to emphasize the importance of different sources of knowledge in management alternatives for periurban watersheds. Specifically, this is done through (a) use of oral sources and archives to document the historic relationship between local residents and their natural resources, and (b) technical evaluation of the quantity and quality of water in the sub-basin through the time. We analyzed, through the 19 unstructured interviews, local residents’ knowledge related to water quantity and quality. Additionally, we analyzed historical river flow data and water quality reports. The results show that the relationship between the local inhabitants and the river has been governed by public policies of both exploitation and conservation. For the last century, the river was used as the main source of electric power for local industry, the collapse of which, led to the decline of the importance of the river in the perception of the locals. Analysis of historical river flow data reveals a slight decrease in flow despite a trend of somewhat lower precipitation. This discrepancy may be due to hydraulic infrastructure construction and uncontrolled extraction. We conclude that the integration of two kinds of knowledge present a great opportunity to test a monitoring system that incorporates the environmental features that were more accurately described by the local residents: water quantity and forest land use.
... Even if not fully implemented, urban plans are not 'virtual', because they shape state-community negotiations over regularization. In particular, the article examines the evolving social and spatial dynamics of land-use regularization processes in the conservation zone, focusing on a case study of an informal settlement located on private property in Xochimilco. 2 The 'Xochimilco approach' to managing irregular settlements involves the counting, mapping and classification of settlements on conservation land as zones subject to 'special regulation ', 'specific studies' and 'control' (GDF, 2005;Wigle, 2010). Only irregular settlements designated as zones subject to 'special regulation' are eligible for the sought-after land-use change that sanctions residential use and urban services in the conservation zone. ...
... The presence of more than 800 irregular settlements in the conservation zone is part of the Federal District's 'pseudo-permanent' urban periphery and the subject of the 'graying' of 'green' zones referred to in this article's title. This article builds on and extends previous research detailing the operation of the Xochimilco model and its social and environmental implications (see Wigle, 2010) by arguing that this approach incorporates important elements of 'spatial governmentality' or forms of regulation designed to manage populations in space (Merry, 2001: 16). The research shows how spatial technologies enable what Crampton and Elden (2006: 681) have termed 'calculative spatial projects' that are critical to analyzing the contemporary politics of space -and for the purposes of this article -the governance of informality. ...
... This commission is responsible for issuing a final decision on the approval of land-use changes for irregular settlements on conservation land. 12 If the land-use change is approved, mitigation measures and the payment of environmental damages are then 9 For a more detailed account of the Xochimilco approach, see Wigle (2010). For an account of a similar approach in the adjacent sub-district of Tlalpan, see Aguilar and Santos (2011a;2011b). 10 The most recent urban development plan for Xochimilco specifies that there are 300 irregular settlements on conservation land (GDF, 2005). ...
Article
Full-text available
This article details the evolving social and spatial dynamics of a planning approach that is now being used to regulate irregular or informal settlements in the conservation zone of Xochimilco in the Federal District of Mexico City. As part of the elaboration of ‘normative’ planning policies and practices, this approach counts, maps and then classifies irregular settlements into different categories with distinct land‐use regularization possibilities. These spatial calculations establish a continuum of ‘gray’ spaces, placing many settlements in a kind of planning limbo on so‐called ‘green’ conservation land. The research suggests that these spatial calculations are now an important part of enacting land‐use planning and presenting a useful ‘technical’ veneer through which the state negotiates competing claims to space. Based on a case study of an irregular settlement, the article examines how the state is implicated in the production and regulation of irregularity as part of a larger strategy of spatial governance. The research explores how planning ‘knowledges’ and ‘techniques’ help to create fragmented but ‘governable’ spaces that force communities to compete for land‐use regularization. The analysis raises questions about the conception of informality as something that, among other things, simply takes place outside of the formal planning system.
... The development in a protected area or conservation area can be considered conflicts of interest between conservation and economic growth worldwide in developing and developed countries (Vedeld et al., 2016). The various objectives of developing protected areas can be for settlement, agriculture, and tourism (Lombard, 2016;Sani & Pongsibanne, 2016;Wigle, 2010). The development will shift urban areas to the outskirts, which occurs in the region due to high population growth, infrastructure development, and public facilities (Savini et al., 2015). ...
... Nevertheless, the land is an essential factor in increasing agricultural sector development (Maryati et al., 2018). To control conservation area must harmonize with environmental issues and social equality comprehensively between local and central government di Mexico City (Wigle, 2010;Kurniati et al., 2021). ...
Article
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This study aims to identify the expansion and spatial patterns of shopping and tourism services facilities and evaluate whether the locations are aligned with the spatial plan map of the North Bandung region. The research was conducted by taking inventory of shopping and tourism services facilities in 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, and 2018. The locations were plotted into maps to calculate each point's spatial pattern for each period using the nearest neighbor analysis method. The 2018 map was overlaid with a spatial plan map to identify whether the existing location aligns with the regional plan. The first results were the expansion and spatial pattern maps of shopping North Bandung area for 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, and 2018; that show the broadest expansion of shopping facility in 2018 with a clustered pattern. The second results were expansion, and spatial pattern maps of tourism service facilities in the same period show that since 2014 the expansion started with clustered patterns. The evaluation results show that only convenience stores were located in protected areas, but all tourist service facilities were located in these locations. This finding is essential for local governments in monitoring spatial use.
... The informal urbanization of chinampas, including the ejido, increased during the last decades due to two specific events: the modification of Agrarian Reform in 1992 that allowed for the privatization and sale of ejido lands; and the formal and informal residential growth from either the eviction or migration of families from other parts of the city to this seemingly safer area after the devastating 1985 earthquake (Bausch, 2017;Jiménez et al., 2020). Informality in the chinampas is also perpetuated in part due to the lack of political and institutional will to prevent housing on the CZ and NPA (Wigle, 2010;Torres-Lima et al., 2018). ...
... Several authors have argued that peri-urban land-use change in Mexico City and other cities in the Global South is guided largely by individual decisions rather than by landscape planning (Aguilar and Santos, 2011;Merlín-Uribe et al., 2013a,b;Paül and McKenzie, 2013). This view is consistent with the chinampa case; although there are attempts through national and international designations to protect it and raise awareness about the ecological and cultural importance of the area (Jiménez et al., 2020), they have also failed to contain urbanization (Wigle, 2010;Torres-Lima et al., 2018). ...
Article
A mixture of identities, livelihoods and a heterogeneous landscape characterizes the communities located in the rural-urban frontier. The perception of the inhabitants of these communities regarding environmental and sociocultural change is linked to their livelihoods and land use decisions. We use the case study of the ancient agricultural chinampa system in the Xochimilco wetland of Mexico City to understand the main threats and opportunities for peri-urban agriculture in megacities, where the rapid displacement of agricultural land by formal and informal settlements makes its future uncertain. We used a household survey and semi-structured interviews to understand: 1) the relationship between agriculture and informal urbanization, and 2) the perception of chinampa users, considering those who are engaged in agriculture and those who are not, regarding the factors that favor or limit agriculture. The information from interviews was coded and conceptualized as pull and push factors for peri-urban agriculture. Sociocultural factors were mentioned as the main reasons that push chinampas into agriculture abandonment, such as community erosion due to conflicts and lack of interest from younger generations. However, those that continue to engage in agriculture maintain a historical connection to farming (whether they are from the region or not), and a willingness to adapt to maintain their agricultural livelihood. We find that while some families abandon their agricultural land, new niches become available for migrants from other surrounding rural areas who find opportunities to continue farming in the peri-urban frontier. Our evidence suggests that the loss of peri-urban agriculture is not a linear process towards urbanization, and that the coexistence of housing, agriculture, and livelihood diversification can produce the conditions needed for innovation to encourage peri-urban agriculture.
... Currently, the LZX continues to devote its spaces to agriculture, with both traditional (chinampas) and mechanized methods, as well as livestock and tourism (Jiménez et al. 2020). It has also been a space for the reception of migrant populations mainly from other states of Mexico that have established themselves in the territory irregularly (Wigle 2010). Today, approximately 150,000 people live in the influence area of the LZX (UNESCO 2006). ...
... Today, approximately 150,000 people live in the influence area of the LZX (UNESCO 2006). Due to all these historical and territorial processes, a complex mosaic of interactions of ancient residents, migrants and nonresidents, with a wide diversity of livelihoods and perceptions-i.e., recognition, interpretation, organization and valuation of the sensations experienced from the environment, based upon which judgments are made and modulated by social, cultural and ideological references (Melgarejo 1994)-have generated a series of social, environmental and political conflicts in the territory (Wigle 2010(Wigle , 2014). These conflicts have triggered an accelerated process of degradation, overexploitation and pressure on the wetland, as long as people do not commit to actively solving those problems. ...
Article
Full-text available
Negative impacts of environmental degradation and climate change are exacerbated when they co-occur in a single region, threatening people's way of life. In addition, historical and territorial processes generate a complex mosaic of interactions of residents and nonresidents, with a wide diversity of livelihoods. This generates a series of social, environmental and political conflicts in the territory. These conflicts have triggered an accelerated process of degradation, overexploitation and pressure on the Lacustrine Zone of Xochimilco (LZX). Therefore, research on how people’s opinions and perceptions into decisions could help to generate a baseline for further collaboration. We documented the perceptions of nonresidents that are involved in decision making in the LZX in terms of degradation and climate change impacts and their opinions on the actions that could help strengthen the resilience of this area. According to our results, environment and culture were the most relevant features of the LZX, while social and institutional features were the most problematic ones. Additionally, nonresident actors emphasized the tendency of the LZX to collapse, which could become even more likely due to the impacts of climate change. To address these problems, restoring the “chinampa” type of production and implementing alternative tourism were the most frequently proposed actions, while training, involving stakeholders, and strengthening governance were the most frequently proposed strategies.
... Urban peripheries in the Global North represent the focus of the older papers of the sample. The main common feature is a peri-urbanization process that accumu- lated negative environmental outcomes over recent decades, and is considered no longer sustainable (Aguilar & Santos, 2011;Newton, 2010;Teschner, Garb, & Tal, 2010;Wigle, 2010). Urban peripheries in contexts of the Global South appear later in the selected literature and are characterized by more recent and fast urbanization pro- cesses in which environmental concerns are associated with issues related to equity and justice. ...
... A lack of adequate spatial indicators (Tsenkova & Damiani, 2009) and good quality data (Rojas-Caldelas et al., 2008) is reported. To overcome this limitation, constant environmental monitoring, able to provide quantitative support to planning pro- cesses, is viewed as necessary (Saville, 2009;Wigle, 2010). ...
Chapter
Urban systems keep growing worldwide with different intensities and characters. As a direct consequence, peripheries increase in number, typologies, and complexity, and their growth is highly dependent on local territorial and socioeconomic conditions. Particularly in peri-urban areas, landscapes underwent fast socioeconomic transitions that have deeply modified their territorial assets and land uses. Forests, agricultural and seminatural areas in peri-urban contexts have been affected by processes of urban developments that heavily modify the provision of ecosystem services. Urban development has produced discontinuous and low-density patterns so that outside the main city, the landscape is characterized by a strong fragmentation of farmlands, forests, seminatural areas, and strong mixes of urban and non-urban land uses.
... Urban peripheries in the Global North represent the focus of the older papers of the sample. The main common feature is a peri-urbanization process that accumulated negative environmental outcomes over recent decades, and is considered no longer sustainable (Aguilar & Santos, 2011;Newton, 2010;Teschner, Garb, & Tal, 2010;Wigle, 2010). Urban peripheries in contexts of the Global South appear later in the selected literature and are characterized by more recent and fast urbanization processes in which environmental concerns are associated with issues related to equity and justice. ...
... A lack of adequate spatial indicators (Tsenkova & Damiani, 2009) and good quality data (Rojas-Caldelas et al., 2008) is reported. To overcome this limitation, constant environmental monitoring, able to provide quantitative support to planning processes, is viewed as necessary (Saville, 2009;Wigle, 2010). ...
Article
Editorial for the Special Issue "Sustainable planning approaches for urban peripheries"
... Urban peripheries in the Global North represent the focus of the older papers of the sample. The main common feature is a peri-urbanization process that accumulated negative environmental outcomes over recent decades, and is considered no longer sustainable (Aguilar & Santos, 2011;Newton, 2010;Teschner, Garb, & Tal, 2010;Wigle, 2010). Urban peripheries in contexts of the Global South appear later in the selected literature and are characterized by more recent and fast urbanization processes in which environmental concerns are associated with issues related to equity and justice. ...
... A lack of adequate spatial indicators (Tsenkova & Damiani, 2009) and good quality data (Rojas-Caldelas et al., 2008) is reported. To overcome this limitation, constant environmental monitoring, able to provide quantitative support to planning processes, is viewed as necessary (Saville, 2009;Wigle, 2010). ...
Article
Abstract As urban systems continue to grow worldwide, urban peripheries increase in number and typologies, which makes their planning a challenge for sustainable development. The aim of this article is to explore approaches and challenges related to the application of sustainable planning to urban peripheries. We reviewed the content of 102 papers related to sustainable planning in urban peripheries by applying a framework built on two main research questions that address: i) the type of peripheries and sustainable planning approaches considered; ii) the challenges and recommendations reported. The results show that urban peripheries are difficult to synthesize in operative classifications, and are not central in the discourse on sustainable planning approaches. The studies described are mainly context-specific and solution-oriented, aimed at responding to local socio-economic and ecological issues, and the analysis reveals uncertainties about their transferability to other geographical contexts. Few common trends can be highlighted, but many authors acknowledge the cross-cutting risks and trade-offs related to the complexity and dynamism of urban peripheries, which may eventually lead planning to unsustainable or unlivable outcomes. Integration among different scales and sectors emerges as a requirement for effective sustainable planning. We conclude with a remark on the underexploited opportunities offered by urban peripheries, especially with regard to ecological planning approaches.
... Clearly, blaming informal urbanisation for environmental damage overlooks the involvement of the state and other actors in development projects which may also involve regulatory transgressions. In contrast, residents of informal settlements in the conservation zone are asked to pay for their "transgression" of damaging environmental services in order to regularize their properties (Wigle, 2010(Wigle, , 2014. 17 Even when only partially implemented, these policies and plans reinforce discursive framings that define where "nature" and "urban", the "informal" and "formal" are allegedly found. ...
... The borough of Xochimilco was one of the first to implement the new land use planning approach to contain informal settlement in the conservation zone, but it has since been adopted in other boroughs with conservation land, such as Tlalpan (see Aguilar, 2008;Aguilar & Santos, 2011) and Tláhuac. This approach is new, insofar as it emphasizes land use permits as part of the regularization process and relies upon the extensive use of spatial technologies, such as satellite images, aerial photography and other geo-referenced data to map, categorize and monitor irregular settlements in the conservation zone (Wigle 2010(Wigle , 2014. This also allows for the rapid and precise linking of databases with spatial objects at a variety of scales and the longitudinal study of settlement expansion. ...
Article
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This paper examines the introduction of land-use planning requirements into the regularization process of informal settlements in areas designated as “conservation land” in Mexico City. Since 1997, the government has increasingly deployed digital technologies to map and track informal settlement in conservation land in order to select those eligible for reclassification as “residential land use”: a prerequisite for other stages in the regularization process, including property titling, access to urban services and subsidised loans for home improvements. We argue that the incorporation of land use planning into the discursive and material enactments of regularization continues to reproduce the social class divisions behind the otherwise rather tenuous distinction between formal and informal urban development. Although presented as a technical concern by planners, regularization remains embedded in political processes and outcomes, a characteristic long recognised in the abundant literature on the subject. What is new is the geo-referencing of informality as part of land use planning, as this alters the dynamics of regularization processes, now involving the everyday planning practices of local government. This experience thus suggests the need for re-conceptualising informality as a form of selective spatial regulation and governance integral to the planning and urban development process.
... The case study is located in Xochimilco, one of the 16 boroughs (delegaciones) in Mexico City. The entire delegación Xochimilco has an area of approximately 12.5 × 10 7 m 2 [12,13], of which 2.5 × 10 7 m 2 are urbanized. The peri-urban areas (which can be legal or illegally urbanized) cover the additional 3.0 × 10 7 m 2 , and serve for this study (Figure 2). ...
... Chinampas are rectangular land plots (usually 10 by 100 meters) surrounded by narrow canals used for irrigation, fishing, transportation and as a water source. The construction of chinampas dates from pre-colonial times and they are used for agricultural purposes [12][13][14][15]. In general, they are considered to be biologically very diverse and agriculturally very high productive areas [12,16,17]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Often centralized water supply, sanitation and solid waste services struggle to keep up with the rapid expansion of urban areas. The peri-urban areas are at the forefront of this expansion and it is here where decentralized technologies are increasingly being implemented. The introduction of decentralized technologies allows for the development of new opportunities that enable the recovery and reuse of resources in the form of water, nutrients and energy. This resource-oriented management of water, nutrients and energy requires a sustainable system aimed at low resource use and high recovery and reuse rates. Instead of investigating each sector separately, as has been traditionally done, this article proposes and discusses a concept that seeks to combine the in- and outflows of the different sectors, reusing water and other liberated resources where possible. This paper shows and demonstrates examples of different types of sustainable technologies that can be implemented in the peri-urban areas of Mexico City [rainwater harvesting, EcoSan and biofiltros (small constructed wetlands), and (vermi-)composting]. An innovative participatory planning method, combining scenario development with a participatory planning workshop with key stakeholders, was applied and resulted in three concept scenarios. Specific technologies were then selected for each concept scenario that the technical feasibility and applicability was assessed. Following this, the resulting resource flows (nutrients, water and energy) were determined and analyzed. The results show that decentralized technologies not only have the potential to deliver adequate water supply, sanitation and solid waste services in peri-urban areas and lessen environmental pollution, but also can recover significant amounts of resources thereby saving costs and providing valuable inputs in, for instance, the agricultural sector. Social acceptance of the technologies and institutional cooperation, however, is key for successful implementation.
... The case study is located in Xochimilco, one of the 16 boroughs (delegaciones) in Mexico City. The entire delegación Xochimilco has an area of approximately 12.5 × 10 7 m 2 [12,13], of which 2.5 × 10 7 m 2 are urbanized. The peri-urban areas (which can be legal or illegally urbanized) cover the additional 3.0 × 10 7 m 2 , and serve for this study (Figure 2). ...
... Chinampas are rectangular land plots (usually 10 by 100 meters) surrounded by narrow canals used for irrigation, fishing, transportation and as a water source. The construction of chinampas dates from pre-colonial times and they are used for agricultural purposes [12][13][14][15]. In general, they are considered to be biologically very diverse and agriculturally very high productive areas [12,16,17]. ...
Article
Full-text available
1 Lettinga Associates Foundation, Bornse weilanden 9, 6700 AM Wageningen, The Netherlands; E-Mails: tiemen.nanninga@wur.nl (T.A.N.); iemke.bisschops@wur.nl (I.B.) Abstract: Often centralized water supply, sanitation and solid waste services struggle to keep up with the rapid expansion of urban areas. The peri-urban areas are at the forefront of this expansion and it is here where decentralized technologies are increasingly being implemented. The introduction of decentralized technologies allows for the development of new opportunities that enable the recovery and reuse of resources in the form of water, nutrients and energy. This resource-oriented management of water, nutrients and energy requires a sustainable system aimed at low resource use and high recovery and reuse rates. Instead of investigating each sector separately, as has been traditionally done, this article proposes and discusses a concept that seeks to combine the in-and outflows of the different sectors, reusing water and other liberated resources where possible. This paper shows and demonstrates examples of different types of sustainable technologies that can be implemented in the peri-urban areas of Mexico City [rainwater harvesting, EcoSan and OPEN ACCESS Water 2012, 4 740 biofiltros (small constructed wetlands), and (vermi-)composting]. An innovative participatory planning method, combining scenario development with a participatory planning workshop with key stakeholders, was applied and resulted in three concept scenarios. Specific technologies were then selected for each concept scenario that the technical feasibility and applicability was assessed. Following this, the resulting resource flows (nutrients, water and energy) were determined and analyzed. The results show that decentralized technologies not only have the potential to deliver adequate water supply, sanitation and solid waste services in peri-urban areas and lessen environmental pollution, but also can recover significant amounts of resources thereby saving costs and providing valuable inputs in, for instance, the agricultural sector. Social acceptance of the technologies and institutional cooperation, however, is key for successful implementation.
... For example, UNESCO designated Xochimilco a World Heritage Site in 1986; moreover, a natural protected area designated as ''Ejidos de Xochimilco y San Gregorio Atlapulco'' was declared in 1992, and it is listed under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands since 2004. A more detailed account of both Mexico City's and Xochimilco's context is given in Aguilar (2008) and Wigle (2010), respectively. ...
... In spite of some efforts in urban planning for stopping urbanization in Xochimilco (Wigle, 2010), land conversion occurs at a high rate. During the 1960s, the urbanization rate in the Xochimilco sector was about 5.9%, reaching a peak of 8.6% in 1980. ...
... It comprises an area of 2,657 hectares. It is internationally recognized as a Zone of Historical Monuments, Protected Natural Area, a World Natural and Cultural Heritage Zone, and a RAMSAR wetland (Wigle 2010). Xochimilco com-prises a complex lake system consisting of interconnected channels, permanent, and temporary lagoons. ...
Article
The rodents belonging to the genus Oryzomys are among the most widely distributed groups inhabiting North America. Currently, 13 species with continental, peninsular, or insular distributions are known. However, this genus also faces significant conservation challenges, primarily due to climate change and other human-related activities. One such enigmatic species is Oryzomys fulgens. Its main challenge lies in the fact that it was originally described from an imprecise type locality, simply labeled as "Mexico." Fortunately, recent research has delimited its range to the Basin of México. Nonetheless, the lack of comparison between its holotype and other specimens of the genus in México has hindered the accurate assignment of its name to any known taxon, despite being one of the oldest names within the genus, O. fulgens has rarely been used since its original description. During our research, we collected two specimens of O. fulgens from Xochimilco, México City, a remnant wetland situated within the Basin of México, nestled within one of the largest and most urbanized cities globally. To properly assess its taxonomic status, we compared our specimens with the holotype of O. fulgens, as well as with other species from southern and western México. The considerable morphological differences we observed in O. fulgens, coupled with its distinct and unique habitat as the sole species of the genus occupying temperate regions at high elevations, lead us to propose that it is indeed a distinct species, separate from O. mexicanus and O. albiventer. Historically, its distribution was likely limited to the Basin of México. Today, O. fulgens faces serious conservation problems, mainly due to the restriction of its current distribution, as far as we know, confined to Xochimilco. Although the ancestral agricultural system known as "chinampas" might provide an ideal environment for sustaining populations of this species, it remains under significant pressure from various human activities, predators, and competition with invasive species like the black rat. Urgent conservation efforts are needed to safeguard the unique habitat of O. fulgens and protect this enigmatic species from further decline.
... Mexico City (CDMX) is one of the fastest-growing megacities in the world, especially in the southern zone, specifically in Xochimilco (Aguilar et al., 2022;Wigle, 2010). Urban growth leads to the development of electrical and telecommunications infrastructure derived from the increasing demand for energy and communication services every year. ...
Article
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The objective of this study was to estimate electromagnetic pollution by radio frequency (RF) and magnetic field (CM) over one year by measuring the intensity near schools, hospitals, business premises, and homes in a commercial and a residential zone of Xochimilco, México City. The RF and the CM were measured using an EXTECH® EMF450 meter. We compared the values of nonionizing radiation (NIR) found in the environment with the levels reported to affect the biological systems of both humans and animals. We also compared these values with the limits established both nationally and internationally. The highest average CM and RF values in the central zone were 6.38 μT and 1316 μW/m2, respectively, while in the housing area, they were 5.08 μT and 66 μW/m2. The values we registered were below the permissible limits both nationally and internationally. However, they were above the reported threshold that could trigger adverse health effects according to some authors. These values are within the limits established by the International Commission on Non- Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Further studies are required as there is still nothing conclusive regarding this type of radiation and its effects.
... The relative urban growth in the individual AGEB relating to their total area happened mainly in the peri-urban zones, as reported by several authors worldwide (Pribadi & Pauleit 2015;Tian 2015;Winarso et al. 2015). It is related to the population increment due to vegetative growth of the urban population and rural-urban migrations (Coq-Huelva & Asián-Chaves 2019) mainly of lowincome people creating irregular settlements (Heider et al. 2018;Wigle 2010). In addition, the local government has failed to control urban sprawl in areas of high ecological value (Aguilar et al. 2022). ...
Article
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This remote sensing study compares growth occurring in three urban types between 2005 and 2014: peri-urban, rural and urban, in a fast-growing metropolitan region west of Mexico City. Future urban growth for the period 2014–24 is modelled using the land-use/cover change (LUCC) model Geomod. Urban expansion is correlated with some socio-territorial factors and the impacts are assessed for the loss of biomass. In both periods, the urban zone differed the most from the other two in terms of urban expansion. The Geomod predictions overestimate the urban expansion in the urban zone and underestimate it in the peri-urban and rural zones. Significant differences exist in the average urban expansion between zones. The main urban growth drivers were elevation, population density, distance to previous urban land and distance to roads. A substantial loss of biomass is due to urban growth, including expansion and infill. The research reveals significant differences in growth between peri-urban, rural and urban areas, and contributes spatial information for designing focused land-use policies in dynamic urban contexts.
... The results of the Bayesian skyline plots, Fu's Fs and Tajima's D tests indicate a pattern of recent demographic expansion in the western lineage of C. ravus species (Fig. 2). The proximity of the western lineage's populations to the urban area of Mexico City has limited their expansion; changes in land use in areas near large cities has created a mosaic of rural areas surrounded by growing urban areas (Wigle, 2010). The eastern lineage has a larger distribution in the states of Puebla, Tlaxcala and Veracruz than the western lineage does. ...
Article
The formation of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) and Pleistocene climatic fluctuations have been shown to influence the diversification of lineages and species distributed throughout central Mexico. In some taxa, however, evidence of lineage diversification is not easily recognized, as often is the case in reptiles. Here we present a phylogeographic study on a Mexican endemic rattlesnake species (Crotalus ravus), with the aim of understanding how distinct lineages are distributed across the TMVB. Genetic (mtDNA) and genomic (ddRADseq) data were generated from samples across the species’ range to evaluate phylogeographic structure, estimate phylogenetic relationships and divergence times, and perform environmental niche modeling (ENM). Both datasets recover strong phylogeographic structuring of two distinct lineages on an east-west axis, with an estimated Pleistocene divergence (~1.47 Myr). The ENM suggest that the distribution of the two lineages experienced expansion and reduction events throughout recent evolutionary time. We attribute the diversification of C. ravus lineages to geological events associated with the formation of the TMVB, as well as Quaternary climate changes, both of which have been previously recognized in co-distributed taxa in the TMVB. This work emphasizes the existence of cryptic diversification processes in a morphologically conserved species distributed in a region of complex climatic and orogenic heterogeneity.
... Irregular settlers live in an urban 'planning limbo' (Wigle 2014) in conflict and tension with farmers, since many settlers have occupied abandoned chinampas and wastewater is discharged to the canals (which contributes to the perception of farmers as being responsible for further polluting the water used for farming). There is tension with local politicians as well, because there is a permanent struggle to demand access for basic urban services which are frequently denied due to legal arguments that stipulate that only regular settlements can be granted such services (Wigle 2010). Local politicians and public officials, mandated to help halt illegal urban encroachment in the wetlands, are often accused of being complicit in the process by helping distribute building materials and other goods in exchange for votes (Eakin et al. 2019b). ...
Article
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Collective agency, the capacity of individuals to mobilise according to shared goals, is crucial for social–ecological transformation. However, in stagnant situations, where individuals in a social–ecological system tend to resist transformation due to interests in the status quo, the emergence of collective agency faces numerous barriers. This research asks how to design and implement spaces and methodologies that help to address such barriers. We posit that these spaces and methodologies ought to facilitate processes to reframe shared perceptions of social–ecological situations through: (1) questioning dominant narratives about a situation, (2) building capacities to reframe the situation, and (3) enacting new compelling narratives that support the group’s transformative agency. Our research shows that building a strong bond among participants is key but requires reframing tools that are infrequently used in academically driven participatory research; in particular, tools for reflexivity together with creating safe-enough spaces where participants can be truly open. Reflexivity and openness are conditions for allowing deep transformations of meanings, fostering new collaborations and promoting agency towards novel pathways forward. Through convening diverse social actors—from local farmers, residents in irregular settlements, governmental and non-governmental organisations, to academics—our 2.5-year “Transformation Laboratory” (T-Lab) showed the effectiveness of experiencing reflexive reframing tools to transform both perceived situations, and the participants' agency (i.e., the meanings and values of their role, capacities, and interests) concerning the situation. Our results support the importance of reframing in building collective agency for transformations. Throughout the process, participants deconstructed their narratives, constructed new ones, and enacted them.
... The results of the Bayesian skyline plots, Fu's Fs and Tajima's D tests indicate a pattern of recent demographic expansion in the western lineage of C. ravus species (Fig. 2). The proximity of the western lineage's populations to the urban area of Mexico City has limited their expansion; changes in land use in areas near large cities has created a mosaic of rural areas surrounded by growing urban areas (Wigle, 2010). The eastern lineage has a larger distribution in the states of Puebla, Tlaxcala and Veracruz than the western lineage does. ...
Article
The formation of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) and Pleistocene climatic fluctuations have been shown to influence the diversification of lineages and species distributed throughout central Mexico. In some taxa, however, evidence of lineage diversification is not easily recognized, as often is the case in reptiles. Here we present a phylogeographic study on a Mexican endemic rattlesnake species (Crotalus ravus), with the aim of understanding how distinct lineages are distributed across the TMVB. Genetic (mtDNA) and genomic (ddRADseq) data were generated from samples across the species' range to evaluate phylogeographic structure, estimate phylogenetic relationships and divergence times, and perform environmental niche modeling (ENM). Both datasets recover strong phylogeographic structuring of two distinct lineages on an east-west axis, with an estimated Pleistocene divergence (~1.47 Myr). The ENM suggest that the distribution of the two lineages experienced expansion and reduction events throughout recent evolutionary time. We attribute the diversification of C. ravus lineages to geological events associated with the formation of the TMVB, as well as Quaternary climate changes, both of which have been previously recognized in co-distributed taxa in the TMVB. This work emphasizes the existence of cryptic diversification processes in a morphologically conserved species distributed in a region of complex climatic and orogenic heterogeneity. ADDITIONAL KEYWORDS: endemism-mtDNA-phylogepography-snake-SNPs-TMVB.
... Vulnerable communities are defined as urban and rural areas with a majority of the population living with precarious access to basic services, public space, and housing quality conditions due to their socio-economic status or irregular land occupation. These areas can play a key role in future natural-system conservation strategies and the management and planning of new infrastructure and OSN in Mexico City (Wigle, 2010), considering that many of them are located on the urban-rural edge, at the intersection of nature reserves, communal lands, and indigenous areas (pueblos originarios). Communal lands are properties given to farmers after the Mexican Revolution (1910−1912), and are held by a community for agriculture use, residential settlement, and public use. ...
Article
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Urban metabolism studies provide valuable insights that can improve resource efficiency at the city scale. However, only a limited number of such studies include spatially explicit data to inform planning practitioners. In this article, we argue that integrating spatially explicit urban metabolism data in urban planning can leverage resource‐efficient development and management of open space networks. Based on this premise, our research presents a methodological strategy to investigate how the use of GIS data can improve the applicability of metabolic studies in urban planning and the management of open space networks in particular. A GIS‐based urban metabolism assessment of Mexico City was performed at the city scale, including data on vulnerable communities, communal lands, and indigenous areas. After mapping selected GIS layers, a detailed resource‐efficiency analysis was performed through the compilation of a Borough Pattern Scan, based on quantification of resource use, total areas of resource infrastructure, and public open spaces. The results of our multiscale spatially explicit analysis provide an improved understanding of borough metabolic profiles, which can leverage a more resource‐efficient development of open space networks in Mexico City.
... The most important socioeconomic parameter used as input for forest deforestation models is the distance from communities stratified by level of marginalization (Lubowski et al. 2014). In Bosque de Agua municipalities, there is no clear influence of marginalization on disturbance, so marginalization is not the main driver of deforestation there; rather, it is due to the ungovernability that reigns in some municipalities with regard to decisions on environmental aspects (Wigle 2010) and laxity in crime prevention. ...
Article
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The "Bosque de Agua", to the west and south of Mexico City, which is the fifth largest city in the world, has historically suffered disturbances in forest cover, with a consequent reduction in the environmental services provided. Changes in the state of the forests between 1994 and 2017 are here analyzed in terms of the annual net change in area of the different cover densities and the different change processes. In general, the net change was favorable in all cases: forest improvement vs. forest degradation, reforestation vs. deforestation, and afforestation vs. land use change. There were changes in 16.03% of the Bosque de Agua: recovery in 11.09% and disturbance in 4.94%. This marked recovery is the result of the protected status of two-thirds of the forest, the payment for hydrological environmental services in 29.33% of the forest, as of 2003, and the continuous programs of reforestation, fire control and surveillance by the local communities, circumstances that have allowed the recovery to exceed the disturbance in most of the Bosque de Agua. One-third of the forest disturbance is concentrated in six of the 35 municipalities in the southern region, caused by clandestine logging by organized gangs, due to the state of ungovernability that reigns in these municipalities. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12665-021-10025-w.
... A lack of affordable public housing in the urban core has pushed lower-income residents to the urban fringe where cheaper land is more available. Low-income families have used informal networks and strategies to build homes where they can: most often on agricultural parcels, or land reserved for ecological services and watershed conservation (Wigle 2010). The border of the Xochimilco wetland, despite its unstable soils and risk of flooding, as well as the chinampas themselves, have become sites of such informal expansion (Connolly and Wigle 2017). ...
... Existen algunas propuestas que han recreado la composición y riqueza de algunos de los sistemas agrícolas de la CdMx en la época prehispánica y en el período de la conquista (Rojas-Rabiela, 1985, 1988, 1991, en las cuales se mencionan especies como el maíz, el amaranto, el nopal, el maguey y el aguacate. Estudios posteriores, describen la dinámica de la producción agrícola en diferentes alcaldías y todas ellas mencionan estas especies, pero añadiendo el cultivo de flores y hortalizas, así como la crianza de diferente tipo de ganado (Losada et al., 1996;Losada et al., 1998;Torres-Lima y Burns, 2002;Torres-Lima y Rodríguez-Sánchez, 2008;Torres-Lima et al., 2010;Wigle, 2010;Dieleman, 2017). ...
Article
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La agricultura en la Ciudad de México ha sido importante desde la época prehispánica, desarrollándose en diversos sistemas agrícolas tradicionales. Si bien se conocen las especies domesticadas más importantes, la composición y riqueza de las arvenses no ha sido descrita de manera detallada. El presente estudio tuvo como objetivos: 1) Registrar el conocimiento y uso de las arvenses que crecen en los campos de cultivo de la alcaldía de Cuajimalpa, Ciudad de México, 2) Comparar la composición, riqueza y diversidad de las arvenses que crecen en parcelas de cultivo de Cuajimalpa sujetas a diferentes prácticas agrícolas (Tradicional vs Tecnificado) y 3) Comparar la composición del banco de semillas de estas parcelas. Se eligieron las localidades de San Lorenzo Acopilco, San Mateo Tlaltenango y San Pablo Chimalpa. Se aplicaron 17 encuestas y se llevaron a cabo 4 muestreos en parcelas con diferentes prácticas agrícolas. Se registró la riqueza, abundancia y composición de las arvenses en muestreos, colectas complementarias y banco de semillas. Se estimó la diversidad así como la similitud florística entre parce- las. Se investigó el estatus migratorio de las especies. Las encuestas indicaron que la agricultura tradicional y el conocimiento de las arvenses prevalece, pero también se incorporaron prácticas tecnificadas hace 30 años. Los muestreos mostraron que la riqueza de especies, la abundancia, la composición florística y la disponibilidad de arvenses útiles variaron entre parcelas con distintas prácticas agrícolas y fueron más similares entre ambas parcelas tecnificadas, evidenciando el uso del herbicida, así como más disímiles entre aquellas con manejo tradicional, sugiriendo que representan reservorios de agrobiodiversidad, principalmente nativas (más del 50% de la riqueza total registrada). Lo anterior sugiere que bajo manejo tradicional, las arvenses nativas presentan estrategias para evadir las nuevas prácticas agrícolas, particularmente el uso de herbicida y fertilizante, pero también a resistir la sustitución por malezas exóticas.
... These programs have not stopped informal growth, and impact evaluation of PES programs shows no significant impact slowing informal growth (Bausch et al., 2019). While just over half of informally settled urban area was constructed before 2000 (~1700 ha, or 56%), informal urbanization has continued to expand ( Regularization, or efforts to accommodate irregular settlements into formal urban planning and property titling, constitutes a problematic solution to the crisis in conservation lands in CDMX (Connolly & Wigle, 2017;Iracheta Cenecorta & Smolka, 2000;Varley, 1998;Wigle, 2010Wigle, , 2014 and elsewhere in the MCMA (Hiernaux & Lindón, 1996;Iracheta Cenecorta & Smolka, 2000;Salazar, 2012a). Regularization guarantees residents access to urban services and the ability to sell and rent land legally (Cruz Rodriguez, 2000). ...
Article
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Informal urban expansion, or conversion of land to urban land uses, outpaces formal urbanization in the developing world. Understanding why this informality exists and persists is essential to counteract characterizations that it is chaotic and ungovernable. This research examines who shapes the informal arrangements developed to meet unmet housing needs that expand the urban footprint, from social housing projects to concentrated squatting in Mexico City metropolis from 2000 to 2016. Institutional analysis elucidates the distribution of payoffs in the “action situation” where decisions about urban land are made, and among “institutional entrepreneurs”, actors that repeatedly evade or alter formal rules or create new rules of urban land regulation. We use interview data regarding the distribution of costs and benefits among 54 actors involved in recent informal urban expansion to provide low- and middle-income housing (2000–2016) to identify potential leverage points for institutional change. We describe four types of informal urban land transactions: i) urbanizing individual plots of land, ii) flipping or subdividing land into multiple parcels, iii) invading land, and iv) manipulating social and public housing developments. We find institutional entrepreneurs—intermediaries, developers, and politicians—disproportionately benefit from and reinforce unplanned urban expansion. These entrepreneurs provide housing for the urban poor, but with social and environmental costs, including exploitation of informal settlers and urbanization of conservation land and loss of environmental services. Disaggregating informality into its component pervasive institutions and analyzing the distribution of payoffs in and beyond Mexico City provides insights about governance for urban sustainability.
... Nevertheless, Xochimilco's lacustrine area is still the main groundwater resource for Mexico City, and is highly relevant for the city's aquifer recharge (Bojórquez-Tapia et al. 2000). Furthermore, land-use changes induced by housing demands, low land prices, and growing irregular settlements have endangered the wetland (Wigle 2010). In six years (2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016), irregular settlements grew 79%, in the PA's periphery, and are expected to continue growing ( Figure 1). ...
Article
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Social participation in the design and implementation of conservation policies has become increasingly relevant. Despite the recognition of the importance of local communities' perspectives in the design and implementation of conservation policies, participation mechanisms are usually deficient. Simplification of socioecological complexity in policy design has been documented as one of the most salient challenges limiting policies' success. We examined conservation policies, objectives and implementation in an urban wetland of high biocultural importance in Mexico City, and contrasted them with local community perspectives about the causes and solutions of socioecological problems in the wetland. We documented policies developed for the wetland conservation since 1989, and interviewed local inhabitants whose livelihoods depend directly on the wetland, governmental officials, and non-governmental organisations representatives. Our results showed that policies' design simplify complex socioecological reality in the Xochimilco wetland. This complex reality, as perceived by local communities, is not represented nor addressed by governmental programmes, which systematically avoid dealing with the most urgent processes linked to wetland degradation and have exacerbated local social asymmetries. This study emphasises the need to develop and evaluate policies through transdisciplinary strategies and participatory processes, which include all social actors involved, particularly those that depend directly on ecosystems.
... The analysis of meta-narratives also help identify where there are incongruencies in how issues are perceived and understood, and what the available empirical evidence suggests in terms of causality, problem explanations and solutions (Morgan et al., 2002). For example, the rapid expansion of settlements onto the southern watershed and conservation zone is often attributed to a neoliberal shift in Mexico City's public housing policies (Guillermo Aguilar and López, 2009;Wigle, 2010;Guillermo Aguilar and López Guerrero, 2013), a shift that increased the scarcity of affordable housing in the city and left economically marginal populations with no alternatives. Land use in the urban periphery is also suspected to be manipulated by votebuying behavior (Connolly and Wigle, 2017). ...
Article
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Cities are far more than the people who reside within them, the activities that drive urban dynamism, and hard and soft infrastructure that create urban structure and form. Cities are also composed of stories–narratives–that emerge from the experiences, ideas, knowledge and agendas of urban residents, administrators, and individuals with stakes in the city's future. These narratives collectively not only reflect how the material landscape is perceived and socially and culturally appropriated, but also, by motivating and rationalizing human actions, contribute to shaping that material world, including the behavior and attitudes of humans within it. Here, we explore the narratives and associated solution pathways that have emerged and consolidated around the issue of water scarcity and flooding in the megalopolis of Mexico City. Effective and sustainable management of water resources has long been considered essential to the city's future, yet many scholars consider the city “stuck” in path-dependent development trajectories that seems unable to address pervasive social inequity, infrastructure fragility, and the city's precarious supplies. Through mental model data elicited from qualitative interviews and workshops with a cross section of urban stakeholders, we identify dominant narratives that articulate distinct causal premises and consequences associated with water related risk in the city. We juxtapose these narratives with the current and proposed solution pathways proposed by the interviewees. Our analysis demonstrates how, on the one hand, dominant narratives may quell innovation, and on the other, narratives collectively can foster the seeds of urban sustainability transformation.
... The city government recognizes the ecological and recreational value of the wetland and has worked to attract international attention and support for its conservation. However, ineffective policies, inadequate resources, and corruption have undermined formal efforts (e.g., Wigle 2010Wigle , 2014. Both urban and agricultural residents resent the city's efforts to impose ecological regulations, whereas some environmental groups view local residents as complicit in degradation through farming practices and illegal urban construction. ...
Article
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Experiments to create spaces for social-ecological transformation are multiplying. These experiments aim at transcending traditional spaces for rational deliberation, planning, and participatory decision-making. We present a methodological approach for triggering the emergence of “transformation laboratories” (T-labs), which are participatory spaces where new agency is activated in relation to a stagnant sustainability challenge to generate intentional bottom-up transformations. We applied a set of participatory research tools to elicit current perceptions and foster personal involvement in transforming the ongoing urbanization of a culturally and ecologically significant historical wetland in Mexico City. Given that the emergence of T-labs as genuine bottom-up transformative spaces involves changes at multiple levels (individual, collective, and social-ecological), our approach was designed to promote a safe space that stimulates openness and personal interaction. We posit that through enabling participants to reformulate their connections to the system, to others in the system, and to themselves, the system may be transformed from the inside out. We argue that transformation, in this sense, is essentially about how changes in perception about one’s own role in the system’s dynamics translate into changes in agency. Our T-lab brought in 19 agents involved in the use and management of the Xochimilco urban wetland. Through a set of research tools, we elicited and presented information that helped agents to see their social-ecological position and role and to identify the practices they share with others within specific social networks and spaces of action. We argue that the process of collaboration initiated by our application of these tools and communication of their results are key for advancing initiatives that seek to create conditions for endogenous transformations.
... el Bosque de Agua. Varios autores (e.g., Schteingart y Salazar, 2005;Wigle, 2010) coinciden en señalar que una clave en esta problemática es el papel de la autoridad municipal y su capacidad para decidir con respecto a los imperativos ambientales y las exigencias sociales y económicas. Papel en buena medida asignado por el artículo 27 de la constitución. ...
Technical Report
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(ver abajo en español) The Water Forest is a region of 235,000 ha of mountain ecosystem made up of forests and native grasslands shared by Mexico City, State of Mexico and Morelos. This area, besides being considered one of the most biodiverse in Mexico, plays a central role in the recharge of 10 aquifers upon which more than 23 million inhabitants depend. Carried out in a participatory manner, this Strategy offers for the first time a long-term regional scheme for intersectoral collaboration to conserve ecological integrity, as well as the social and economic well-being of this region. El Bosque de Agua es una región de 235,000 ha de ecosistema de montaña conformado por bosques y pastizales compartido por la Cd de México, Estado de México y Morelos. Esta zona además de ser considerada entre las de mayor biodiversidad de México, juega un papel central en la recarga de 10 acuíferos de los cuales dependen mas de 23 millones de habitantes. Realizada de manera participativa, esta Estrategia ofrece por primera vez un esquema regional a largo plazo para la colaboración intersectorial para conservar la integridad ecológica, así como el bienestar social y económico de esta región.
... Moreover, 516 wetland transformation results from changes in agricultural activities, alterations in 517the quantity and quality of natural resources and changes in regional 518 socioeconomic structure and processes. In terms of defining the future of the 519 dynamic nature of society-wetland interactions in this specific socio-economic 520 context, we agree with the statement that in order to go further than just a 521 ''normative" planning, realistic efforts to preserve the remaining conservation land 522 in Xochimilco must involve a more comprehensive approach that better integrates 523 environmental and social issues within and among municipal and upper-levels of 524 government(Wigle, 2010). Some strategies to be included in an urban wetland 525 policy for this area may include the following: The creation and implementation of a permanent, effective and high quality plan for greater understanding and dissemination of: (a) the historical heritage and cultural and social dimension that integrate communities; (b) the ecological resilience, biodiversity, environment, and ecosystem goods and services that are used and stored; (c) agricultural systems, food security and livelihoods, including traditional knowledge; and (d) the assets, resources and public services, social and environmental governance systems and institutional settings for the decisions that outline the paths of evolution, development and change of the urban wetland. ...
Article
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Local perceptions of landscape attributes are recognized as critical in the evaluation of multifunctional territories; however, case studies in the urban wetlands context are limited. This study assesses socioeconomic, environmental and regional management variables that may directly and indirectly affect local population’s perceptions, altering stakeholders concerns for defining urban wetland management agendas in the San Gregorio de Atapulco wetland of Xochimilco, Mexico City. Using Principal Component Analysis, we evaluated factors influencing socioenvironmental perceptions among urban wetland residents in the context of the chinampa area, an ancestral agro-productive system south of Mexico City. Results indicate the majority of socioeconomic and environmental variables, excluding age, gender and education, were not statistically significant. Regional management variables, particularly pertaining to canals, urban housing and irregular settlements, had significantly more importance than socioeconomic and environmental variables and influence resident’s perceptions of factors that detract from and promote sustainability of the urban wetland. In terms of urban wetland management agendas, locals` concerns were related to the effects of urbanization, wetland governance and regional habitability. We suggest that urban wetland policy developed within neighborhood planning units and aimed at reducing urban sprawl while introducing landscape conservation strategies could positively affect better local land use and wetland sustainability.
... Por lo tanto, el fenómeno de hundimiento podría afectar al sistema de drenaje profundo, reduciendo su eficiencia hidráulica y dañando los túneles. Si bien el sistema de abastecimiento por medio de pozos en la CDMX no tiene los problemas inherentes a la importación de agua de otros estados, existen fuertes desigualdades y conflictos potenciales por transferencias de agua entre diferentes municipios y delegaciones (Wigle, 2010;Starkl et al., 2013;Banister y Widdifield, 2014). En general se puede decir que la calidad y cantidad del abastecimiento es fundamentalmente desigual, tendiendo RESULTADOS / DISCUSIÓN a decrecer hacia el oriente de la ciudad donde se ubican las delegaciones con mayor crecimiento y menor acceso a las fuentes externas de agua. ...
Article
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The increase in population density and dynamics of urban expansion, with a sharp upward trend in urban areas and declining rural population, make megacities vulnerable with a high degree of complexity in the task of providing basic urban services. In the case of Mexico City, the increase in the demand for water has negatively and increasingly impacted the balance of watersheds and aquifers that serve as local and neighboring sources of water supply, causing dramatic economic and environmental damage. This work focuses on the examination of the factors that influence the vulnerability of drinking water sources in Mexico City; we analyzed factors that are directly related to hydraulic infrastructure, legal-administrative and social aspects, as well as other issues of considerable importance for the sustainability of sources. It was determined that the most important factors are related to the present and future availability of water, social and political conflicts, land subsidence as a result of intensive groundwater extraction, intersectoral transfer of water, and environmental degradation in areas of surface water collection and groundwater recharge. It was established that high vulnerability of surface water supply sources due to environmental degradation brings pressure to reassess water importation projects and to protect the upper parts of the basins, which should be considered as priority issues for environmental and civil protection, care of recharge areas and conservation of the local climate.
... A second level of pathology in the urban landscape associated with the impact of the processes of accelerated growth of a city can be found in the case of Mexico DF. This megacity of more than 8 million people has suffered enormous population growth rates since 1940, generating a conurbation with the neighbouring districts of over 33 million inhabitants (Wigle, 2010), which constitutes a clear example of a large-scale sprawl. The dangerous phenomenon of urban sprawl, an increasing trend for megacities like Mexico DF, has been announced and analyzed by various publications for over 15 years (see for example Esparza, Ch avez, & Waldorf, 2001;Garza, 1999;Hern andez-Bonilla, 2008 andspecially Aguilar in Aguilar, 1999;Aguilar, 2008;Aguilar & Ward, 2003). ...
Article
One of the main factors of imbalance in the urban development of cities is undoubtedly their growth rate. In this sense, one of the main characteristics of rural-urban migration phenomena that have shaped the development of megacities in developing countries has been the need to integrate a large mass of people through processes of rapid growth of its urban plot. In this paper the growth of five different cities in Latin America is analyzed from the perspective of the impact of these processes of transformation in the urban landscape, describing different levels of pathology in their development. Consumption of periurban space, cityscape misconfiguration, or the long-term sustainability of these processes of transformation are complex issues that need to be addressed from a rigorous and technical perspective. These variables will be subject to GIS evaluation and diagnosis by territorial indicators in order to establish patterns of behaviour.
... The conservation area initially had a total of over 87,000 hectares of natural forest, grassland, wetlands and agricultural land, significantly contributing to the groundwater recharge of the Environmental Management and Sustainable Development ISSN 2164-7682 2016 aquifer, among other environmental services. Although urban development is prohibited and the area is designated for use by indigenous communities, it is subject to pressure from building companies, illegal human settlements and the growth of rural settlements (Aguilar, 2008;Wigle, 2010). ...
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More than half of the world’s population currently lives in urban areas. The fastest growing megacities are occurring mainly in developing countries, where stresses on water systems already pose major challenges for governments and water utilities. Climate change is expected to further burden water resource management, putting at risk governments’ ability to guarantee secure supplies and sustainable development. In this study, the significance of assessing the implications of climate change on water resources in megacities as an important component of the adaptation process is explored. The Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA), one of the largest cities in the world, is presented as a case study. The downscaled outputs of the General Circulation Model GFDLCM2a for the A1B and B1 gas emissions scenarios for the period 2046–2081 and a statistical model were used to simulate the likely impacts of climate change in water resources and domestic water demand. The results showed that an increase in temperature and changes in precipitation patterns could increase household water demand for both scenarios, between 0.8% and 6.3% in the MCMA. The future projections also estimated increases of 150% and 200% in events with rainfall intensity of more than 60 mm d-1 and 70 mm d-1 respectively, drawing attention to the critical impacts these changes may have on flood events. Despite the uncertainty of models projections, future climate change scenarios have proven to be a flexible guide to identify vulnerabilities of water resources and support strategic adaptation planning. In order to increase their adaptive capacity and resilience to the effects of an uncertain climate change, megacities should consider implementing an integrated water resources management approach that creates opportunities through adequate policies, new technologies, flexible frameworks and innovative actions.
... Due to its adjacency with the urban area, there is strong pressure within the site, so there is presence of irregular human settlements, the population living in this area is estimated to be 24,100 inhabitants and in the area of immediate influence 121,130 inhabitants [15] [16] [30]. Also, the lakeside system, declared it a protected natural area, it is located in the so-called soil conservation, it constitutes a remnant ecosystem of the Basin of Mexico formed by natural flooded plains and induced water bodies [16] [31]. It offers a wealth of flora and fauna, both aquatic and terrestrial 146 species of flora have been recorded, distributed in 101 genera and 45 families [15]. ...
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This paper estimates the economic value that national and international birdwatchers have to keep an urban wetland in this case, Xochimilco (Mexico), as a place of rest, food and/or shelter for migratory birds from North America. For this purpose, it is resorted to surveys and contingent valuation that estimates the willingness to pay (WTP) per year of these watchers. The best estimate indicates that national watchers are willing to pay approximately US 79peryear,whileinternational,US79 per year, while international, US 296. Using these estimates, it is calculated that the economic value of the bird migration environmental service for this urban wetland is located between US 2836andUS2836 and US 3999 per hectare. This found value can work as an input for decision makers when faced with projects and/or policies that may face different objectives.
... Because of its proximity to the urban area, there is a strong pressure inside the site, so we can find irregular human settlements, and settled population in that lake system area is estimated to be 24,100 inhabitants while at the immediate influence area, there are 121,130 inhabitants [44] [48]. Likewise, as being declared a protected natural area, the lake system is located in the so-called conservation area, and comprises a remnant ecosystem of the Mexico Basin, which consists of natural flooded plains and induced water bodies [46] [49]. ...
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This article estimates the historical scenic beauty's economic value that tourists do have to preserve a pre-Hispanic farm production system dating from XIV to XVI century to be known as chi-nampas (raised beds) and is located in Mexico City. Therefore, in order to do this, surveys are performed and by contingent valuation (CV), the willingness-to-pay (WTP) is estimated. The best estimation points out that tourists are willing to pay 24.4 dollars around each year, and by means of such estimation, it is estimated that the cultural service's economic value to preserve raised beds is between US3000andUS 3000 and US 3700 per hectare. Such found value must be used as another input for decision makers when dealing with projects and/or policies facing contrary purposes. The analysis is innovative in the sense that there is almost no CV literature to estimate the economic value of historical scenic beauty.
... In their remit over land use and zoning, these officials may be able to make improvements in climate risk management, as they are charged with authorizing development, redevelopment, and other changes to the landscape and built environment that are crucial components of climate hazard; however, they have done so with varying levels of success. While regulations and programs in Mexico City define a 'line' that divides zones for urban development from 'buffer' zones subject to environmental conservation and risk protection (GDF, 2007, page 23;Aguilar and Santos, 2011;Wigle, 2010), in Santiago regulations have more explicitly opened up opportunities for urban development (Zunino, 2006). As is often the case, authorities have (6) Government of Chile, http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=1010459 ...
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Scholars have focused on understanding the motivations behind urban authorities' efforts to respond to climate change, yet the determinants of institutional response capacity are less well known, particularly in Latin America. This paper develops a framework to understand the political–economic determinants of institutional response capacity through an examination of climate change governance in Mexico City and Santiago, Chile. We ask whether being a frontrunner (Mexico City) is an indicator of greater institutional response capacity. Although Mexico City has slightly higher levels of institutional capacity than Santiago, both are faced with similar challenges, such as fragmented governance arrangements, asymmetries in access to information, and top-down decision making. However, both also have similar opportunities, such as leadership, participation in transnational networks, and potential to integrate climate change goals into existing policy agendas. Examining urban climate change planning in isolation from other institutions is therefore likely to provide a false sense of a city's response capacity.
... This expansion has had high social and environmental costs which increase social inequalities and the uneven provision of infrastructure, services, and urban equipment (Losada et al. 2000). During the period 1990-2000 the population in central Mexico City, including the Federal District of Mexico, increased by only 1.3%, while the population at the periphery increased by 2.9% (Aguilar 2008;Wigle 2010). Moreover, the population of D.F. is now more than 8 million inhabitants, whereas 20 million inhabitants live in the Mexico metropolitan area (Crotte et al. 2011). ...
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... Xochimilco is located 18 km south from the centre of Mexico City and encompasses 12,200 ha of urban area, tourist areas, wetlands, secondary forest and different agricultural systems (Wigle 2010). The Xochimilco wetland system is composed of 207 km of canals connecting eight small lakes and two flood plain areas ( Figure 1). ...
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The chinampas (raised beds) of Xochimilco, Mexico City, are highly productive, traditional wetland agricultural systems, which were able to feed most of the population in pre-hispanic times. There is a strong trend to substitute chinampas with plastic greenhouses for flower production, which creates negative impacts in the landscape, environment and culture. This study compares the environmental and socio-economic sustainability of chinampas and greenhouses, at both the farm and regional levels, using the MESMIS framework. Even though the results show that greenhouses are more profitable, the contribution of chinampas to ecosystem services cannot be substituted by greenhouses, as tree cover is lost, canals are filled and food is not provided. Greenhouses had a higher diversity, but also a higher agrochemical use and are heavily dependent on external inputs and subsidies. Chinampas have shifted from staple crops to commercial horticulture in order to remain a technically viable and economically feasible option for local farmers. However, compensation mechanisms for the provision of ecosystem services are urgently needed if this ancient system is to be maintained. The framework allowed the integration of indicators at both farm and regional scales, combining on-farm surveys with GIS techniques, which could assist in ecosystem service valuation.
... Agricultural land is lost because of a change in traditional practices (a global problem : Ovalle 2006) and chinampas are increasingly replaced by greenhouses. Further, there is competing land use because of urbanisation and irregular settlements (Wigle 2010). Water pollution owed to agrochemicals and pollution from uncollected waste cause serious problems. ...
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The purpose of this paper is to clarify the nature of the on-going urban transition in developing countries, the quality of the available data, and the uncertainty of existing urban forecasts. Although the recently released United Nations’ publication World Urbanization Prospects is an invaluable resource for those interested in studying urban change, the data in the report are somewhat deceptive in their apparent completeness and beyond the narrow confines of technical demography there is a great deal of misunderstanding and misreporting about what these data mean and how they should be interpreted. For example, while the scale of urban change is unprecedented and the nature and direction of urban change is more dependent on the global economy than ever before, many aspects of the traditional distinction between urban and rural are becoming redundant. This paper provides a broad overview of the available evidence on patterns and trends in urban growth in developing countries, highlighting regional differences where appropriate. The paper also examines the quality of past urban population projections and finds that there has been considerable diversity in their quality by geographic region, level of development, and size of country.
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