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Planning in the USA and the UK
... Even systems that are not obviously use typologies are directly related to them. The American concept of zoning, the main tool of land use planning, although not a use typology is based on uses [33]. The British classification system deserves comment, given the long tradition of urban planning in the UK and because it is one of the most developed systems of use categories, which is frequently updated. ...
The classification of uses is one of the central issues of urban planning, since it is only by referring to groups of uses that we can achieve the simplification and, ultimately, the understanding of urban space. However, contemporary planning theory has shown very little interest in a theoretical approach to this issue. The present paper addresses the issue by integrating it into the development of an analytical theory of urban uses which it calls urbanology. Specifically, the paper starts with the description of the basic concepts and processes of classification, which are then employed to produce a general theoretical classification of urban uses. Since the classification of uses is not only a question of theoretical importance, but directly related to applied planning, the paper concludes with the elaboration of a second, alternative classification which satisfies the needs of contemporary planning practice.
... Similarly, proposals for private land development, buildings, or structures that contravened the official plan could be restrained by action initiated either by the planning board or by a local ratepayer. Thus official plans had statutory power in controlling development, and were not just aspirational documents, as in the US, where zoning often superseded municipal plans, where they existed (Toll, 1969;Cullingworth, 1997). ...
A fundamental characteristic of Toronto-region suburban development has been the creation of a distinctive and robust model of planning for greenfield land development, at relatively high densities, with a mix of housing types, and significant continuity of built form. A plan-led system was created with subdivision control as the primary instrument, and zoning used only to lock in the detailed development patterns negotiated between municipalities and developers, the reverse of most US practice. The system became highly path-dependent because it created a stable institutional setting, reduced risks, and generated a powerful new actor, the oligopoly of large housing developers.
... Such a plan then obtains a lawful or semilawful status and is implemented. In theory, planning is forward-looking, seeking to determine future action (Cullingworth, 1997). Chinese planning is even more rigorous and deterministic, and often includes detailed infrastructure planning, conceptual design, and near-term construction projects. ...
China's economic reform is a gradual and exploratory process, which has stimulated the dramatic growth and restructuring of the Chinese cities, but has also made urban master plans quickly outdated and unable to function effectively to guide the development of cities. Through a case study of Hangzhou, the paper argues that the gradual and exploratory nature of China's reform is incompatible with the nature of the urban master plan, which requires a blueprint and the ability to project the future. Rather than guiding development and policies, urban master plans often lag behind reforms initiated at the national and local levels, and have to be revised constantly to follow the new direction of the reforms. Consequently, Chinese cities are in chaos, and much development and new construction lacks proper planning guidance. The paper argues that problems with Chinese cities and planning are related to the incompatible relationship between the nature of urban planning and that of transitional institutions. This dilemma was intensified by the disruption of planning during the Cultural Revolution, problems with planning education, and the slowness in reforming planning systems in China. The analysis highlights the broad transitional contexts underlying urban planning, and the responses of planers to growth and change. The paper also discusses the need for further reform of Chinese institutions and planning systems.
... First, regionalism is a well-developed concept within planning. Starting with the Regional Plan Association back in the early 1900s, planners have been advocates for regional approaches to governance (Friedmann & Weaver, 1979;Cullingworth, 1997;Levy, 2006). Second, citycounty consolidation, as a form of regionalism, is associated with many of the key values of planning, such as environmental protection, social equity, and quality community development. ...
... Such a plan then obtains a lawful or semilawful status and is implemented. In theory, planning is forward-looking, seeking to determine future action (Cullingworth, 1997). Chinese planning is even more rigorous and deterministic, and often includes detailed infrastructure planning, conceptual design, and near-term construction projects. ...
China's economic reform is a gradual and exploratory process, which has stimulated the dramatic growth and restructuring of the Chinese cities, but has also made urban master plans quickly outdated and unable to function effectively to guide the development of cities. Through a case study of Hangzhou, the paper argues that the gradual and exploratory nature of China's reform is incompatible with the nature of the urban master plan, which requires a blueprint and the ability to project the future. Rather than guiding development and policies, urban master plans often lag behind reforms initiated at the national and local levels, and have to be revised constantly to follow the new direction of the reforms. Consequently, Chinese cities are in chaos, and much development and new construction lacks proper planning guidance. The paper argues that problems with Chinese cities and planning are related to the incompatible relationship between the nature of urban planning and that of transitional institutions. This dilemma was intensified by the disruption of planning during the Cultural Revolution, problems with planning education, and the slowness in reforming planning systems in China. The analysis highlights the broad transitional contexts underlying urban planning, and the responses of planers to growth and change. The paper also discusses the need for further reform of Chinese institutions and planning systems.
Urban shrinkage is among of the most dangerous current risks for the preservation of liveability (e.g. residential function) in formerly prosperous historical residential and industrial districts. The planning for shrinkage emerged only in the 21st century in order to manage and prevent growing urban decay, depopulation and housing crisis through the application of smart structural adjustment policies and planning instruments for formerly heavily industrialised North American and Asian cities. Both shrinkage and liveability planning are still very “fuzzy” concepts and have been applied in ways that are not always consistent (e.g. for measuring decline, migration, demographics). However, remains the question of what (methods or approaches) would prevent (control) this well-known but evidently “wicked” and still less explored phenomenon of “loss of liveability” in a historical built environment. This paper aims to review the urban shrinkage and liveability problematic and prevention solutions (methods) based on studies of theory and practice of urban planning.
Urbanization represents a challenge for plans aimed at controlling urban expansion and protecting farmland, such as the land use master plan (LUMP) instituted by the Chinese national government. This paper studies the effectiveness of such top–down plans under the authoritarian regime through the case study of Nanjing. In contrast to previous studies that compare actual and planned land‐use maps, we compare actual and planned land‐use patterns. We use land‐use change data to examine spatio‐temporal land‐use change between the years 1997 and 2014. The results indicate that the actual amount of urban‐rural built‐up land exceeded planned regulatory amount by 50,185 ha and the total farmland was 70,541 ha less than the target outlined in the LUMP (1997–2010). Based on these results, and the fact that the allowed total urban‐rural built‐up land had already been surpassed in 2014, it is to be expected that the target of farmland protection outlined in the LUMP (2006–2020) will be broken, signaling the ineffectiveness of the plan to control urban expansion and protect farmland. Plan‐led developments (e.g., new towns, development zones) and market forces (e.g., housing market, foreign direct investment) explain these developments. This study indicates that when cities embrace “growth‐led” development and entrepreneurial governance, the ability of plans to control urban expansion and protect farmland is severely limited.
Evaluating neighborhood design concepts with respect to economics, safety, and travel efficiency is critical when determining the livability of an area. This paper aims to illustrate the analytical and visualization benefits of GIS for developing, analyzing, and visualizing neighborhood design and planning concepts by comparing alternative hexagonal designs to traditional curvilinear, loop and cul-de-sac designs. The adaptations maintain parcel count, existing natural and development boundaries, and conform to modern subdivision regulations. The results exemplify increases in safety and travel efficiency, demonstrate reductions in development costs, and encourage the use of hexagonal planning as a valid alternative to traditional design considerations. The discussion will explain the project's design, the geoprocessing and visualization methods used, and the implications of the results on the planning process.
System requirements: World Wide Web browser and PDF reader. Mode of access: Available through the Internet. Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains v, 75 p. : ill. Thesis (M.A.)--West Virginia University, 2000. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 73-75).
This article stresses the importance of urban planning interventions on real estate office markets in an environment increasingly characterized by globalization processes and progress of information and communication technologies, leaving behind the traditional influence of more market-related variables spread abroad vast literature. It contends that a better indirect control exerted by municipal authorities may launch the performance and characteristics of these markets. Within this scope, an innovative methodology and model are proposed, aimed at assisting municipal decisions in the definition of strategic policies concerning location or relocation of offices, and respective influences over rents. This methodology and this model have a flexible ongoing character that fits the anytime concrete features of local office markets. They are applied, as a case study, to the office market of Oporto city (Portugal). Implications for urban policy are inferred and generalized from this analysis.
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