Quality of Source Water and Drinking Water in Urban Areas of Myanmar

Abstract

Myanmar is one of the least developed countries in the world, and very little information is available regarding the nation's water quality. This report gives an overview of the current situation in the country, presenting the results of various water-quality assessments in urban areas of Myanmar. River, dam, lake, and well water sources were examined and found to be of generally good quality. Both As and F(-) were present in relatively high concentrations and must be removed before deep wells are used. Heterotrophic plate counts in drinking water were highest in public pots, followed by nonpiped tap water, piped tap water, and bottled water. Measures need to be taken to improve low-quality water in pots and nonpiped tap waters.

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Hindawi Publishing Corporation
e Scientic World Journal
Volume , Article ID , pages
http://dx.doi.org/.//
Research Article
Quality of Source Water and Drinking Water in
Urban Areas of Myanmar
Hiroshi Sakai,1Yatsuka Kataoka,2and Kensuke Fukushi3
1Department of Urban Engineering, e University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
2Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama, Kanagawa 240-0115, Japan
3Todai Institute for Advanced Study, Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science, e University of Tokyo,
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan
Correspondence should be addressed to Hiroshi Sakai; h sakai@env.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Received  April ; Accepted  May 
Academic Ed itors: M. Kumar an d K. Ku ro da
Copyright ©  Hiroshi Sakai et al. is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Myanmar is one of the least developed countries in the world, and very little information is available regarding the nation’s water
quality. is report gives an overview of the current situation in the country, presenting the results of various water-quality
assessments in urban areas of Myanmar. River, dam, lake, and well water sources were examined and found to be of generally
good quality. Both As and F−were present in relatively high concentrations and must be removed before deep wells are used.
Heterotrophic plate counts in drinking water were highest in public pots, followed by nonpiped tap water, piped tap water, and
bottled water. Measures need to be taken to improve low-quality water in pots and nonpiped tap waters.
1. Introduction
Access to safe water is a signicant issue in developing coun-
tries. According to a WHO report, around  million people
globally do not have access to adequate water supply sources
[]. Additionally, . billion people do not have access to
suitable sanitation facilities. Furthermore, about  million
people die every year due to diarrheal diseases. erefore,
access to safe water is a crucial requirement in developing
countries, where infrastructure is not always provided and
oen needs to be expanded. Due to the mismatches of urban
planning and actual residential area, some areas must rely on
inadequate private water supplies. is is a distinct issue in
slum area and periurban areas.
Myanmar is a developing country in Southeast Asia. Even
among the developing countries, Myanmar falls into the
category of least developed countries by United Nations cri-
teria []. e water infrastructure needs to be developed for
the country’s further economic development. However, very
few water-quality data are currently available. To the best of
our knowledge, only a single water-quality survey has been
conducted []. at study reported water quality in Lake Inle
in the northeastern part of the country. Some water-quality
data for dams are provided on the webpage of the Water Envi-
ronment Partnership in Asia [] but only for limited quality
parameters. To our knowledge, no other information has
beenreported,andthecurrentwater-qualityandsanitation
situations in Myanmar therefore remain unclear. We visited
the country to perform a water-quality survey and assess the
current situation with respect to water infrastructure. e
survey was conducted in two urban areas, Yangon and Nay
Pyi Taw, the former and current capital, respectively. is
articlerevealsthewater-qualityandsanitationsituationsin
Myanmar for the rst time.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area. We surveyed two urban areas, Nay Pyi Taw
and Yangon. e city of Nay Pyi Taw became the capital in
; the city of Yangon was the previous capital. A survey
of drinking-water sources and quality was undertaken. e
details of the location of source waters are shown in Figure .
In Nay Pyi Taw, source waters from a deep well and two dams
were examined. In the Yangon area, environmental waters in
lakes and rivers were examined.

e Scientic World Journal
Dam1
Dam2
Deep well
5 km
(a)
R1
L1
L2
R2
R3 R4
WWTP
R2–R4
5 km
1 km
(b)
F : Maps of sampling locations in (a) Nay Pyi Taw and (b) Yangon.
T : Summary of drinking-water samples.
Type Description Location
Pot Pot A Yangon
Pot B Suburban Yangon
Nonpiped
Pagoda A Yangon
Building D Suburban Yangon
Aer treatment
Before treatment
Piped
Building A Yangon
Building B Nay Pyi Taw
Building C Nay Pyi Taw
Bottle
Manufacturer A —
Manufacturer B —
Manufacturer C —
Drinking water was collected from various sources
including public pots, nonpiped taps, piped taps, and bottled
waters, as shown in Table . ree bottled waters ( mL)
from dierent companies were obtained commercially. Piped
tap water was collected from three taps in Yangon and Nay
Pyi Taw. Nonpiped tap water was collected at a pagoda and
at another building (building D). In Myanmar, a pagoda is
a meeting place for Buddhists, and complementary drinking
water is provided. e tap water at the pagoda was provided
by a nonpiped supply source. It was treated by a point-of-
use (POU) facility and then stored. Building D was situated
outside Yangon city in an area that is not served by the
Yangon City Development Committee (YCDC) tap-water
service. e water supply system to the building was privately
F : Roadside pots containing water for drinking.
operated by a POU facility that used a combination of a
reverse osmosis (RO) membrane treatment and an ultraviolet
(UV) disinfection system.
Drinking water was also collected from public pots
located on the roadside (Figure ).IntheYangonarea,pots
are lled with water, covered, and placed along the roadside
for public drinking purposes. We collected samples from
various pots and examined the water quality, with a focus on
bacterial analysis.
2.2. Measured Parameters
2.2.1. Bacteria. e numbers of E. coli and total coliform
bacteria and the heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) were

e Scientic World Journal 
0
5
10
15
Dam 1
Dam 2
Deep well
Not
detected
Total coliform
(CFU/mL)
DOC
(mgC/L)
DTN
(mgN/L)
E. coli As ( 𝜇g/L)
F−(mg/L)
F : Comparison of water quality in dams and a deep well
water at Nay Pyi Taw.
determined using a commercial kit (Petrilm, M, USA) at
each site. E. coli and total coliform bacteria were incubated
at ∘C for  hours, and HPC was incubated at ∘Cfor
 hours. e validity of this kit has been conrmed [,],
and it showed high correlations for E. coli and total coliform.
High correlations were also reported for HPC, although small
dierences can arise with dierent incubation conditions [].
2.2.2. Chemical Parameters. Dissolved organic carbon
(DOC), dissolved total nitrogen (DTN), and anions were
measured with a TOC analyzer (TOC-L, Shimadzu). Anion
concentrations (F−,Cl
−,Br
−,NO
−,NO
−,PO
−,andSO
−)
were determined by ion chromatography (IC-, Metrohm)
aer ltration through a . 𝜇m polytetrauoroethylene
(PTFE) membrane.
2.2.3. Heavy Metals. DissolvedmetalswereanalyzedbyICP-
MS ( Series, Agilent) aer ltration through a . 𝜇m
PTFE membrane.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Source Water Quality in Nay Pyi Taw. Wat e r q u ali t y
parameters in two dams and a deep well in Nay Pyi Taw were
examined and compared. A summary of the results, shown
in Figure , indicates generally good water quality. No E.
coli was detected in  mL samples at all locations, indicating
good bacterial water quality. Total coliform levels were 
andCFU/mLatthetwodams.esevaluesarecloseto
 CFU/mL, which is the “class A” Japanese environmental
standard for lake water []. e DOC was . mg/L at Dam
 and . mg/L at Dam , and it was .mg/L in the deep well.
Values of DOC at the two dams were acceptable for water
sources, considering that  mg/L of TOC in nished water
has been adopted as a drinking-water standard in Japan []. A
previous study had reported about – mg C/L of TOC in
Lake Inle []. Compared with the results for Lake Inle, these
twodamshaveamuchbetterwaterquality.
Two important observations were made with regard to the
deep well water quality. Fluoride ion levels were  mg/L, which
is close to the . mg/L WHO guideline value []. e As
T : Bacterial water quality in Yangon.
Location R R R R L L
Total coliform (CFU/mL)      
E. coli (CFU/mL)     <
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
DOC
(mgC/L)
DTN
(mgN/L)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
R1
R2
R3
R4
L1
L2
As
(𝜇g/L)
(mgN/L) right axis)
Cl−(mg/L,
(mg/L)
Br−
NO3
−
F : Comparison of water quality in rivers and lakes at Yangon.
level was . 𝜇g/L, which is also close to the WHO guideline
value of  𝜇g/L. erefore, adequate water treatment must
be provided before the well can be used as a drinking-water
source. Overall, the water quality in the two dams and the
deep well could be considered fair, and the water could be
used for drinking with appropriate treatment.
3.2. Environmental Water Quality in Yangon. Environmental
water quality was also surveyed in the Yangon region. e
results of bacterial parameters are shown in Table .e
Japanese standard for total coliform levels in river water
is . CFU/mL for class AA,  CFU/mL for class A, and
 CFU/mL for classB []. River waters in Yangon were found
to be close to the class B standard, indicating that they can
be used for drinking aer advanced treatment. Among the
sampling points on the Yangon River, R was located on the
le riverbank, whereas R and R were located in the center
oftheriver.etotalcoliformvaluewashighestatRon
the le riverbank, which was closest to urban activity. ere
was also a discharge from a wastewater treatment plant on
the le riverbank, which would have contributed to the larger
number of total coliform recorded at R.
L and L are recreational lakes in the Yangon region.
At L, E. coli was not detected in  mL samples, whereas the
level was  CFU/mL at L. Total coliform was also high, with
 CFU/mL at L. A previous report indicated total coliform
levels of – CFU/mL in Lake Inle []. Considering these
numbers, L was not suitable as a drinking-water source.
e chemical water-quality parameters are summarized
in Figure . In river water samples, the DOC was less than
 mg C/L, which satises the Japanese drinking-water-quality
standard []. Levels of the Cl−ion tended to increase down-
stream. e levels of Br ion and As displayed a similar trend,
although the decrease was not as marked. In contrast to

e Scientic World Journal
1
10
Pot Nonpiped Piped Bottled
HPC (CFU/mL)
102
103
104
F : Heterotrophic plate count for potable water.
the elemental measurements, DOC, DTN, and nitrate were
stable along the river ow. It was therefore assumed that
the sources of Cl−,Br
−, and As were dierent from those of
carbon and nitrogen.
Samples from L and L had good water quality with
regard to chemical parameters, except for high DOC in L.
Overall, lake and river waters were good in terms of their
chemical parameters, but the levels of bacterial contamina-
tion needed improvement.
3.3. Drinking-Water Quality. Potable drinking-water quality
was surveyed for various water sources in Myanmar including
(i) public pots, (ii) piped water supply in Yangon and Nay Pyi
Taw, (iii) nonpiped water supply, and (iv) bottled water.
For bacterial water quality,E. coli was not detected in  mL
water samples from any water source. However, there was a
clear trend in the HPC, as shown in Figure .Potwaterhad
HPC levels of  and  CFU/mL. In nonpiped tap water,
the HPC level was  and  CFU/mL, and, in piped tap
waters, the HPC was , , and  CFU/mL. Of the three
bottled waters examined, HPC was detected in two bottles
at  and  CFU/mL, but HPC was not detected in the
other bottled water sample. HPCs have various incubation
conditions [], and dierent incubation conditions produce
dierent values. e Japanese government has adopted a
value of  CFU/mL as a water-quality standard for HPC
by incubation at ∘Cfordays[].isisequaltoabout
 CFU/mL by incubation at ∘CfordaysinPetrilm,
which we used in our preliminary investigation (unpublished
data).Fromtheseresults,weconcludedthatwaterfromall
pots,allnonpipedtaps,onepipedtap,andonebottledwater
exceeded the converted value of the Japanese drinking-water-
quality standard and may not be suitable for drinking.
As shown in Figure , HPC was highest in the pots, fol-
lowed by nonpiped taps, piped taps, and bottled waters.
Nonpiped water was surveyed at two taps, at a pagoda and at
0
20
40
60
80
100
F
HPC
DOC
DTN
Cl
Br
Mn
Fe
Cu
Zn
As
Removal ratio (%)
−40
−20
NO3
PO4
SO4
F : Removal ratio for a point-of-use (POU) facility.
a building outside the YCDC tap water service area. At those
taps, water was supplied aer treatment by POU facilities.
Piped water was surveyed at two buildings in Nay Pyi
TawandatonebuildinginYangon.Pipedwatersupplies
contained some residual chlorine: . mg/L at two taps in
Nay Pyi Taw and . mg/L at a tap in Yangon. At a tap in
Yangon, chlorine was present entirely as free chlorine. is
residualchlorinemayhavecontributedtotheupkeepofwater
quality in the piped water supply.
It is interesting to note the water-quality distribution in
bottled waters, with one bottled water supply having worse
water quality than two piped taps. is probably results from
the source water quality and the treatment eciency of dier-
ent bottled water companies. Other water-quality parameters
were also monitored, including As and F−.Allmeasured
items satised the Japanese drinking-water-quality standards
[].
3.4. Treatment Eciency of a POU Facility. We investigated
the performance of a POU facility at a building in Yangon,
which was situated outside the YCDC piped water supply
area. e water source was ground water, which was treated
by an RO membrane followed by UV disinfection. e
removal ratios of bacteria (HPC), carbon and nitrogen,
anions, and metals are shown in Figure .elistedheavy
metals were removed with high eciency. Anions were also
removed with high eciency except for nitrate, for which
only a % removal was achieved. Because UV treatment
does not remove anions and metals, these elements were
removed by the RO membrane.
In contrast, DOC and DTN removal was very low: %
DOC and % DTN. e DOC and DTN contents of raw water
were . mg C/L and .mg N/L, respectively. Considering
theremovalofanionsandmetals,theROmembranewould
have worked well. A possible explanation is that most organic
matter and nitrogen in raw water have a very small molecular
weight and can pass through the RO membrane. Further
investigation of the molecular weight distribution would
conrm this assumption.
It is noteworthy that the bacterial removal ratio was
negative. Considering the removal of anions and metals,
bacteria could be removed by the RO membrane treatment.
UV treatment also contributes to the suppression of bacterial
activity, but UV treatment has no residual eect. ere-
fore, bacterial regrowth may occur in a storage tank aer

e Scientic World Journal 
UV treatment. UV treatment has a high potential to be
installed in POU facilities because of its ease of handling
and maintenance. Maintaining bacterial water quality aer
UV treatment is an important issue outside the piped water
supply area.
4. Conclusion
is study investigated the water quality in urban areas of
Myanmar and produced an overview of the current situation.
River, dam, lake, and well water samples were examined and
found to be of generally good quality. As and F−were present
at relatively high concentrations and must be removed before
deep wells can be used. Heterotrophic plate counts in drink-
ing water were highest in pots, followed by nonpiped tap
water, piped tap water, and bottled water samples. Measures
need to be taken to improve the poor water quality in pots
and nonpiped taps.
Acknowledgments
e authors would like to express appreciations to Dr. Mu Mu
anandDr.KyiKyiLwinfortheirkindsupportsforwater
sampling. is paper was prepared with a partial support by
MEXT through Green Network of Excellence (Eco-Health
Project).
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