No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The influent of olfactory stimulation on the behavioral of dogs housed in rescue shelter
Abstract
This study explored the influence of five types of olfactory stimulation (control, lavender, chamomile, rosemary and peppermint) on the behaviour of 55 dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each type of olfactory stimulation, through the diffusion of essential oils, for 4h a day for 5 days, with an intervening period of 2 days between conditions. The dogs’ behaviour was recorded on days 1, 3 and 5, during each condition of olfactory stimulation. Certain aspects of the dogs’ behaviour were influenced by the odours. Dogs spent more time resting and less time moving upon exposure to lavender and chamomile than any of the other olfactory stimuli. These odourants also encouraged less vocalisation than other types of aroma. The diffusion of rosemary and peppermint into the dogs’ environment encouraged significantly more standing, moving and vocalising than other types of odour. It is suggested that the welfare of sheltered dogs may be enhanced through exposure to appropriate forms of olfactory stimulation. Lavender and chamomile appear particularly beneficial, resulting in activities suggestive of relaxation and behaviours that are considered desirable by potential adopters. These types of olfactory stimulation may also appeal to visitors, resulting in enhanced perceptions of the rescue shelter and an increased desire to adopt a dog from such an environment.
... Fourteen studies used environmental scents with odours introduced to the environment and measured behaviour or physiological changes in the dogs. Observed behaviour changes included reduced levels of barking and increased time spent both sleeping and resting (Binks et al., 2018;Graham et al., 2005;Wells, 2006). One study using a cognitive bias test reported increased optimism after exposure to either a blend of nine scents (oils of litsea, cypress, sweet orange, geranium, lavender, ylang-ylang, juniper, rockrose and bay leaf) or listea oil as a single odour (Uccheddu et al., 2018). ...
... Similarly, a reduction in high posture, associated with lower stress was reported after the same blend of nine scents was used in a different study of dogs (Haverbeke et al., 2019). Lavender was the essential oil presented most, being used in three studies as the single odour (Amaya et al., 2020a;Amaya et al., 2020b;Stanghellini, 2019;Wells, 2006) and in combination with other essential oils or odours in a further seven studies (Dare, 2021;Graham et al., 2005;Haverbeke et al., 2019;Kokocinska et al., 2022;Lopes et al., 2022;Murtagh et al., 2020;Uccheddu et al., 2018). For the studies that used lavender, there was a measured increase in observed time resting and relaxed body postures such as inactivity, laying down, sitting and sleeping (Binks et a Neurotransmitter levels evaluated were adrenaline, noradrenaline, L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, homovanillic acid (HVA), 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol acid (MHPG), 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA), and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). ...
... Listed behaviours within individual ethograms varied, with inconsistent descriptions or lack of detail impeding comparisons between studies. For example, five studies listed vocalisation as an observed behaviour, but did not describe the type of vocalisation recorded (Amaya et al., 2020b;Binks et al., 2018;Graham et al., 2005;Lopes et al., 2022;Murtagh et al., 2020), while specific vocalisations such as barking and whining were listed in other studies (Carlone et al., 2018;Diverio et al., 2016;Stanghellini et al., 2019;Uccheddu et al., 2018;Wells, 2006). Stress related behaviours as a category was Table 4 Summary type of behavioural measures and outcomes in included studies in shelter, companion and working dogs in response to environmental odour or trained scent detection tasks. ...
... Binks et al. (2018) found that when 15 shelter dogs were exposed to coconut, ginger, vanilla, and valerian essential oils on a washcloth, the dogs had decreased levels of vocalizations and movement, and coconut and ginger essential oils increased the amount that the dogs slept. A similar study conducted by Graham et al. (2005) diffused the essential oils into the environment of 55 shelter dogs. They found that essential oils that are typically considered relaxing, such as lavender and chamomile, led to a decrease in vocalizations and movements in the dogs. ...
... We compared the behavior of dogs under baseline conditions (no scent) with their behavior when exposed to lavender, rosemary, vetiver, and lemon. We chose to expose shelter dogs to two previously studied essential oils, lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) (Amaya et al., 2020;Graham et al., 2005), and two essential oils not previously studied in the shelter environment, vetiver (Vetiveria zizanoides) and lemon (Citrus limonum). We chose vetiver essential oil because it has shown calming and anxiety reducing effects on dogs, and we chose lemon essential oil as it is used to decrease anxiety in dogs (Shelton, 2018). ...
... Additionally, Shelton (2018) recommends using lavender, lemon, and vetiver for anxiety and lavender, lemon, rosemary, and vetiver for improving behavioral conditions. Due to safety concerns related to direct contact with and ingestion of essential oils by animals (see Benson, n.d., Shelton, 2018), we chose to use passive diffusion rather than the active diffusion (Graham et al., 2005;Hermiston et al., 2018) or direct contact (Binks et al., 2018) used in past studies. We placed essential oils onto cotton balls clipped onto the dogs' crates, therefore significantly reducing the risk of the dogs coming into direct contact with or ingesting the essential oils and thus ensuring the safety of the dogs during the study. ...
... However, further classification or comparisons are currently lacking, and in practice, most organizations give out enrichment with the belief that all enrichment is equally beneficial in all situations. Despite the amount of research conducted on specific enrichment items and human contact in the shelter [14,16,18,24,26,[30][31][32][33][34][35][36], the effectiveness of different types of enrichment items in reducing stress during morning cleaning is one area yet to be explored. ...
... Certain scent items have been found to have a calming effect on dogs [29]. For example, lavender has been shown to encourage calm behaviors and decrease vocalization frequency during the acute stress of care rides [34,37,38]. In contrast, few studies have examined arousing scents. ...
... We investigated different types of enrichment during an acute unavoidable stressor (morning cleaning) at a local humane society. We measured body position and vocalization rate, as they are known indicators of stress or negative welfare in shelter dogs [15,26,34,38]. ...
Simple Summary
Dogs in shelters are often exposed to unavoidable stressful events. Finding effective and novel enrichment for dogs, especially the longer they stay in that environment, is a significant welfare concern. We wanted to compare the effectiveness of enrichment items as a stress buffer for shelter dogs during the acute stressor of the morning cleaning and to support a proposed prescription system of enrichment. This new system would focus on post-enrichment behaviors. We found calming items were more effective than no enrichment at reducing stress-related behaviors seen in kenneled dogs. Tactile items reduced vocalization the most, with the arousing tactile item (a ball) resulting in the lowest frequency overall. Our results suggest that the type of enrichment item should be thoughtfully chosen during acute stress events, which would then optimize a shelter’s limited resources, decrease stress-indicative behaviors, and indirectly reduce the need for euthanasia by increasing adoption rates.
Abstract
The length of stay for some animals has increased with the recent reduction of animals euthanized in US shelters and animal control facilities. Research examining the effectiveness of different types of enrichment on buffering the effects of acute daily stressors in the shelter environment, such as kennel cleaning, is lacking. In addition, daily known stressors can result in undesirable behaviors that could lead to a need for euthanasia. Ways to effectively reduce the effects of daily stressors while optimizing strained resources is currently a high priority. In this study, we presented shelter dogs with food, tactile, and scent enrichment items to increase (arousing) or decrease (calming) activity during the daily stressor of morning kennel cleaning. We found that calming, rather than arousing, enrichment items were associated with body position scores indicative of lower stress in dogs, with calming scent enrichment (lavender) producing the most significant benefit. In contrast, items that showed the greatest reduction in vocalization were arousing (ball) compared to other arousing conditions. Our findings suggest that different unwanted behaviors in the kennel environment often associated with stress can be reduced using specific types of enrichment during a daily stressful event. Further, the results illustrate that enrichment items other than food might be more effective at decreasing certain undesirable behaviors. Overall, this study provides insight into how shelter workers might effectively use enrichment items during an unavoidable acute stressor. With many shelters keeping dogs longer, addressing events that might cause repeated stress in this population may indirectly help with adopting and lowering euthanasia rates due to unwanted behavior that develops due to repeated exposure to this necessary but acute stressor of morning cleaning.
... In literature, Essential Oils (EOs) have been already applied as a treatment for travel-induced stress in other domestic species and horses [4,5]. Particularly Lavender EO (Lavandula angustifolia) is recognized for its anxiolytic effects, already been studied in humans and animals [6][7][8][9][10]. ...
... There are other EOs that appear to be interesting as well for their proven anxiolytic effects in humans and shelter dogs [6][7][8][9][10]. In line with previous literature, a recent study on olfactory enrichment in shelter dogs confi rmed a signifi cant anxiolytic effect of the following 5 EOs: Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), ...
... Lavender EO appeared to decrease the incidence and severity of travel sickness in pigs but not overall levels of stress (as measured by concentrations of salivary cortisol) [47]. In dogs, lavender EO decreased barking and active behavior [9] and dogs barked less in the car when being exposed to lavender oil during transport [4]. Although its mechanism of action has not been completely determined yet, the antidepressant activities of lavender may be attributed at least in part to the NMDA receptor modulation as well as an inhibition of the SERT [48]. ...
Rabbits can experience stress during transport. This study explores the effects of Essential Oils (EOs) on the heart rate of rabbits during transport. Rabbits were submitted to 3 different treatments: no olfactory exposure to EOs (treatment 1, control); olfactory exposure to 30 drops of Lavandula angustifolia EO (treatment 2); and olfactory exposure to 30 drops of a blend of 5 EOs (treatment 3, Cananga odorata, Citrus aurantium, Cupressus sempervirens, Lavandula angustifolia, Litsea citrata EOs) in a randomized controlled crossover study design. Treatment 1 and Treatment 2 did not induce a significant change in rabbits’ heart rates, however, treatment 3 did induce a significant decrease in rabbits’ heart rates after transport. These results suggest that olfactory exposure to this blend of 5 EOs decreased the rabbit’s heart rate after transport. More research is needed to further evaluate the effects of olfactory enrichment with EOs in rabbits during transport.
... Taking into account the role of olfaction in the canine world, it is likely that dogs could experience a much higher level of exposure to odorants which could be recognized as unpleasant, due to sharing a house environment with their owners. Few available reports suggest, however, that taking into account canine smell preferences could be an important element of enriching and improving the environment shared by the dogs with humans [10]. Moreover, there are data available proving the fact that animals can not only detect and recognize the odor, but also some preferences can be observed based on the animal's previous experience [11]. ...
... Similar results were achieved with the chamomile fragrance. Conversely, peppermint and rosemary had stimulating effects on dogs, who tended to be more agitated and spend less time resting when exposed to these fragrances [10]. ...
... However, there is no given source for this statement or scientific basis; therefore, it should be treated as an anecdotal source. The only one scientific report about peppermint was in the experiment in a shelter, where the diffusion of rosemary and peppermint into a dog's environment encouraged significantly more standing, moving, and vocalizing than other types of odors [10]. ...
Simple Summary
There are many products that are targeted to pet owners. One category of these products is dog repellents—strongly aromatized solutions designed to stop dogs from approaching and investigating particular areas; the second are cosmetics which should be pleasant for dogs. Dogs have a particularly sensitive sense of smell; therefore, strong scents may be very intense, and not always pleasant, stimuli. It is truly interesting, then, that canine cosmetic products often have very strong fragrances designed mostly to appeal to the dog owners, rather than to the dogs themselves. Indeed, the scents that dogs choose to put on their fur differ strongly from those of common cosmetics. Dogs choose mostly intense, animal-derived smells, such as feces or carcasses, so there is a need to differentiate between canine and human smell preferences. As there is limited scientific data related to canine smell preferences, the purpose of this study was to verify dogs’ reactions to selected scents, which can also be appealing to humans. Our study shows that dogs were more likely to interact with the scents of blueberry, blackberry, mint, rose, lavender, and linalol.
Abstract
The available evidence on dogs’ scent preferences is quite limited. The purpose of this study was to verify the canine response to selected odors that may also be preferred by humans. The experiment was performed using 14 adult dogs (10 female and 4 male) of different breeds, body size, and age (1–14 years). During the experiment, dogs were exposed to 33 odor samples: a neutral sample containing pure dipropylene glycol (control) and 32 samples containing dipropylene glycol and fragrance oils. The dog was brought to the experimental area by its handler, who then stopped at the entrance, unleashed the dog, and remained in the starting position. The dog freely explored the area for 30 s. All dog movements and behavior were recorded and analyzed. The methodology of observing the dogs freely exploring the experimental area allowed us to determine the smells that were the most attractive to them (food, beaver clothing). Our study shows that dogs interacted more frequently with the scents of blueberries, blackberries, mint, rose, lavender, and linalol.
... It was highlighted that stimulating odors might not be suitable for dogs already displaying hyperactivity or abnormal behavior. In contrast, calming scents (lavender and chamomile EOs) could contribute to the improved well-being of dogs [87]. ...
... Goode et al. [87] aimed to assess the impact of various EOs or active ingredients in commercially available repellents on Ixodes ricinus (tick) attachment to dogs. Turmeric EO prevented the climbing response by a tick and had a longer residual activity than other EOs. ...
Featured Application
Featured Application: The literature survey may help develop essential oil-based supplements to improve the health status of animals and poultry.
Abstract
Essential oils (EOs) are highly concentrated and volatile blends of nonpolar substances that are derived from aromatic plant components and comprise terpenes, terpenoids, and phenylpropanoids, exhibiting diverse biological and pharmacological properties. The burgeoning pet industry is interested in EOs as a potential solution for common health issues in domestic animals, particularly in addressing antimicrobial resistance. The present literature review summarizes the composition, properties, benefits, safety considerations, and effects of EOs on domestic animals. The applications of EOs range from antimicrobial effects to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, etc. The chemical constituents of EOs, exemplified by eucalyptus EO and rosemary EO, highlight their distinct aromatic profiles and potential benefits. Nevertheless, understanding the chemical makeup of EOs is fundamental to assessing their potential impacts on biological systems. The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in regulating various metabolic processes in the host, including energy homeostasis, glucose metabolism, and lipid metabolism. Safety considerations, including potential toxicity risk awareness, are essential when incorporating EOs into animal care routines. The feed additives incorporating EOs have shown promise in influencing gut microbiota balance, reducing inflammation, and acting as antioxidants. However, considering the potential risks associated with high doses or multiple administrations, cautious application is paramount. Preliminary studies suggest low toxicity levels, but further research is required to evaluate the safety of EOs. Though studies have reported the beneficial effects of EOs on pets and animals, further research is needed to validate the findings in real-world conditions. The paper also discussed the regulatory considerations and future perspectives on applying EOs in veterinary medicine.
... In animals, the essential oil obtained from Cedrus atlantica was shown to have an anti-hyperalgesic effect in a mouse model of post-operative pain, and lavender oil was found to reduce neuropathic pain to an extent similar to pregabalin in rats (29,30). In dogs, olfactory stimulation with essential oils, lavender and chamomile oils in particular, was found to improve stress-related behaviors in shelters (31,32). If this type of olfactory enrichment seems beneficial to modulate anxiety in the canine patient, more studies are needed to evaluate the effect of essential oils on pain and to determine if some types of essential oils are more efficient than others. ...
... If this type of olfactory enrichment seems beneficial to modulate anxiety in the canine patient, more studies are needed to evaluate the effect of essential oils on pain and to determine if some types of essential oils are more efficient than others. The type of oil was changed between the first (lavender) and second (chamomile) postoperative days to prevent habituation, which, in retrospect, might not have been necessary, as habituation was not observed even after 5 days in shelter dogs (32). ...
Objective
The goal of this randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study was to evaluate the effect of environmental enrichment (EE) on post-operative pain and anxiety in dogs following hemilaminectomy for acute intervertebral disc extrusion (IVDE).
Methods
Twenty healthy client-owned dogs undergoing a hemilaminectomy for IVDE with the same immediate post-operative analgesia protocol were randomly assigned to either the EE or standard environment (SE) group post-operatively. Recovery was achieved in an intensive care room (SE) or a separate quiet room (EE) equipped with white noise and classical music. EE dogs were also exposed to dog-appeasing pheromones, essential oil scents, and positive human interactions and were provided meals through food toys. A blinded evaluator assessed all dogs using the modified Glasgow Composite Pain Scale (mGCPS) on presentation and at several time points post-operatively. A rescue injection of the opioid methadone was given to the dogs with an mGCPS score of ≥5/20. Dogs received the antidepressant trazodone when anxious behaviors (5 mg/kg) were observed. The mGCPS scores, the latencies to receive the first methadone and trazodone doses and to eat the first meal, the number of methadone and trazodone doses, and the number of meals ingested in the first 24 and 48 h post-surgery were compared using Wilcoxon tests, and Benjamini–Hochberg correction for false discovery rate was applied.
Results
Although median mGCPS scores did not differ between the groups, compared to SE dogs (n = 10), EE dogs (n = 6) received trazodone earlier (p = 0.019), were administered fewer methadone injections at 24 h (p = 0.043), and ate more at 48 h post-surgery (p = 0.007). Therefore, EE and anti-anxiety medications could be beneficial in improving the wellbeing of dogs post-operatively.
... As described within the definition itself, EE leads to an increase in animal welfare, which is one of the goals of most zoos [2]. 2 of 8 EE is characterized by the introduction of stimuli linked to the social, physical, and sensory contexts of captive animals [3]. Despite knowledge of the high level of olfactory acuity of canids in general [4][5][6][7], studies about olfactory enrichment are little explored. Only 3% of the articles published in the scientific literature deal with olfactory enrichment (OE) in canids [4]. ...
... EE is characterized by the introduction of stimuli linked to the social, physical, and sensory contexts of captive animals [3]. Despite knowledge of the high level of olfactory acuity of canids in general [4][5][6][7], studies about olfactory enrichment are little explored. Only 3% of the articles published in the scientific literature deal with olfactory enrichment (OE) in canids [4]. ...
Simple Summary
Wild animals in captivity need stimuli that increase their well-being. Canids in general have a well-developed sense of smell and are strongly related to environmental stimuli through scent. Therefore, we tested an olfactory enrichment method in five hoary foxes, which was successfully developed in another species of canid. We offered four stimuli (cheese, eggs, meat, and sawdust impregnated with rat urine), and observed the individuals’ reactions that indicated an improvement in well-being before, during, and after exposure to the stimuli. There were no significant changes in behaviors that indicated well-being, although there was no worsening in behaviors suggestive of stress. We suggest that the indifference to stimuli of this little-known species is due to the highly insectivorous diet of the hoary fox.
Abstract
We have tested a method of olfactory environmental enrichment in hoary foxes used in other wild canids in captivity. The individuals were exposed to four olfactory stimuli (meat, mouse urine, cheese, and egg) that were wrapped in cotton bags outside the enclosures at the zoo for five minutes. Behavioral observations were performed using the focal animal method, and all occurrences were recorded. The pre-exposure phase (Basal), exposure phase (Exp), and post-exposure phase and Basal phase (Pos) were analyzed for a period of five minutes. Behavioral responses were categorized as positive, negative, or other. Positive behavior tended to increase (p = 0.07) from the Basal phase to the Exp phase, but there was no statistical difference (p = 0.31) between the phases. Negative and other behavior did not differ statistically from the Basal phase to the Exp phase (N−, p = 0.32; Ot, p = 0.35) or Basal to the Pos phase (N−, p = 0.18; Ot, p = 0.92). The odors used seemed to elicit positive behavior weakly. Negative behavior was stable for the hoary foxes. The method failed to improve the hoary foxes’ welfare. Because their natural diet is based on insects and fruits, it is suggested that the stimuli used in this study have no appetitive value for hoary foxes. The method used with the same olfactory stimuli that were successful in other canid species is unsuitable for hoary foxes.
... Many of these studies on animal welfare are conducted using sensory environmental enrichment (Figueira et al., 2021;Graham et al., 2005;Wells & Hepper, 2006). The olfactory organ of domestic dogs is well developed, with neural pathways that connect directly to the central nervous system, which involves as many limbic areas related to emotions as cognitive areas (Green et al., 2012). ...
... Some studies on EE for domestic dogs exposed individuals to various odors such as aromatic herbs, spices, the scent of prey, and stool (Graham et al., 2005;Wells, 2009;Wells & Hepper, 2006). In some of these olfactory stimulation studies, dogs are challenged to look for hidden food, which requires keepers to enter the stalls and directly contact individuals, spending time and money from the shelter budget (Wells, 2009;Wells & Hepper, 2006). ...
Environmental enrichment techniques include olfactory stimuli for improving animal welfare. This study aimed to analyze the reactions of 41 shelter dogs exposed to odorous stimuli, such as the method used in another study on wild canids. The focal animal method analyzed the dogs’ reactions, with all behaviors recorded. Behavioral responses were classified as positive (P+), negative (N-), or other (Ot). Independent variables were all dogs and the size of the packs. The behavior between the basal (without stimulus), exposure, and after-stimulus withdrawal was analyzed. For all dogs, olfactory stimuli significantly increased P+ (P=0.001) and N- (P=0.004), contrasting with the decrement of Ot behaviors (P=0.001) from the basal to the exposure phase. After the withdrawal of the stimuli, P+, N-, and Ot behaviors returned to basal levels (P>0.05). There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the conduct of small or large packs exposed to stimuli. Dogs are sensitive to olfactory stimuli, but arousal is generalized to P+ and N-. It is undesirable to an N- increase for improvement of animal welfare. Contrary to what was observed in a study with wild canids, the method failed in shelter dogs because N- was increased. The introduction of sudden novelty (olfactory stimulus) in an impoverished shelter environment may have caused excitement in the dogs. It is suggested that changes in the method, such as stimuli exposition to each dog in an isolated room, are necessary to increase sheltered dog well-being.
... Of the four odors presented, peppermint evoked the most investigation (longest sniffing duration) for all horses. Peppermint has also previously been found to increase activity in other species, e.g., captive mice (Umezu et al., 2001), dogs (Graham et al., 2005), and zoo-kept lions (Powell and Powell, 1995). In the lion study, peppermint also stimulated more species-specific behavior (back rolling). ...
... Lavender is, like cedar wood, an odorant associated with anxiolytic effects (Schuwald et al., 2013). For instance, shelter dogs exposed to lavender have been found to reduce activity and vocalizations and in turn spend more time resting (Graham et al., 2005), and travel-induced excitement could be lowered in dogs during transit when exposed to lavender (Wells, 2006). Travel sickness in pigs was also alleviated when pigs had access to straw sprayed with lavender (Bradshaw et al., 1998), and dressage horses exposed to lavender aromatherapy have lower heart rate variability leading the authors to conclude that lavender have an immediate calming effect on horses (Baldwin and Chea, 2018). ...
In spite of a highly developed olfactory apparatus of horses, implying a high adaptive value, research on equine olfaction is sparse. Our limited knowledge on equine olfaction poses a risk that horse behavior does not match human expectations, as horses might react fearful when exposed to certain odors, which humans do not consider as frightening. The benefit of acquiring more knowledge of equine olfaction is therefore twofold; (1) it can aid the understanding of horse behavior and hence reduce the risk of dangerous situations, and (2) there may be unexplored potential of using odors in several practical situations where humans interact with horses. This study investigated behavior and olfactory sensitivity of 35 Icelandic horses who were presented with four odors: peppermint, orange, lavender and cedar wood in a Habituation/Dishabituation paradigm. The response variables were sniffing duration per presentation and behavioral reaction (licking, biting, snorting, and backing), and data were analyzed for potential effects of age, sex and pregnancy. Results showed that habituation occurred between successive odor presentations (1st vs. 2nd and 2nd vs. 3rd presentations: P < 0.001), and dishabituation occurred when a new odor was presented (1st vs. 3rd presentations: P < 0.001). Horses were thus able to detect and distinguish between all four odors, but expressed significantly longer sniffing duration when exposed to peppermint (peppermint vs. orange, lavender and cedar wood: P < 0.001). More horses expressed licking when presented to peppermint compared to cedar wood and lavender ( P = 0.0068). Pregnant mares sniffed odors less than non-pregnant mares ( P = 0.030), young horses (age 0-5 years) sniffed cedar wood for longer than old horses ( P = 0.030), whereas sex had no effect ( P > 0.050). The results show that horses’ odor exploration behavior and interest in odors varies with age and pregnancy and that horses naïve to the taste of a substrate, may be able to link smell with taste, which has not been described before. These results can aid our understanding of horses’ behavioral reactions to odors, and in the future, it may be possible to relate these to the physiology and health of horses.
... The presence of green and floral or herbaceous aromas could affect dogs' interactions and behaviors during feeding. One study exposed shelter dogs to herbal aromas and found essential oils from rosemary may have increased their alertness [22]. A later study monitored behaviors of dogs around pet owners in the presence of various aromas and found that "green, grassy" aromas may have influenced a calmer response during some interactions with dogs [23]. ...
Plant extracts, such as olive extract (OE), have been used in human and pet foods for their biological benefits; however, no available data have demonstrated OE’s effect on palatability in dogs. The current study aimed to evaluate acceptance of dry and canned dog foods with differing inclusions of OE as a flavor component. Flavor compounds in OE were analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and high-pressure liquid chromatography, detecting 137 volatile compounds, including acetic acid and hydroxytyrosol. Dog kibbles were coated with liquid commercial palatants containing OE that resulted in application rates of 0 (control), 120, 200, and 500 ppm of OE in the diets. OE was also added at 0 (control), 120, 200, and 500 ppm into a wet food formulation with a commercial palatant before retort processing. Two separate panels of adult beagles were used for monadic testing to determine acceptance rates for kibble (5/treatment; 20 total) and canned foods (4/treatment; 16 total) in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. None of the tested inclusions impacted food acceptance in this preliminary study (p > 0.05). As a flavor ingredient, OE can be added into dry or wet dog food up to 500 ppm without deterring effects on palatability.
... Enrichment items should be species-specific (Wells, 2004), tailored to their behavioral needs and sensory capabilities, such as the use of scent-based stimuli for dogs (Kavoi and Jameela, 2011). Previous shelter dog research found that lavender and chamomile scents were associated with reduced vocalizations and increased time resting (Graham et al., 2004). Through presenting dogs with a lineup of various toy types and scents, previous research determined that dogs played more with toys that had their preferred scent, regardless of the toy type being preferred (Howard et al., 2024). ...
... Different scents stimulate the olfactory sense in canids, which leads to an increase in their activity level [16]. The enrichment of the environment with scents is carried out to encourage animals to move more and engage more in the exploration of the environment [24,29]. Placing Grant's gazelle faeces in front of the African wild dog's enclosure encouraged the dogs to engage in more activities and show more social behaviour [16]. ...
Simple Summary
Scent rolling, a behaviour observed in large carnivores like wolves, involves lowering the chin and neck towards a scent, then rubbing the head, neck, shoulders, and back into it. Despite its prevalence, the exact reason for this behaviour remains unknown. In this study, captive wolves at Osijek Zoo responded differently to various odours presented during olfactory enrichment. In the first year, odours like curry, rosemary, and deer/mouflon and rat faeces garnered the highest interest in scented objects and scent-rolling behaviour. In the second year, llama faeces and deer/mouflon faeces elicited longer interest, while others, like guinea pig faeces and oregano, prompted less interest. During the second part of this study, it was observed that only females exhibited scent-rolling behaviour, indicating their higher level of engagement with the scents. Scent rolling did not occur in response to certain odours, suggesting the existence of selective preferences. Sheep’s wool prompted the longest scent-rolling sessions. Differences in behaviour between enrichment sessions were not significant; however, mornings generally elicited greater interest in odours. Despite various theories proposing alternative explanations for scent rolling in wolves, it seems to be triggered by novel odours.
Abstract
Scent rolling, a behaviour observed in various large carnivores like wolves, entails the animal lowering its chin and neck towards a scent, followed by rubbing the head, neck, shoulders, and back into it. This behaviour is prevalent among wolves exposed to diverse scents, though its exact purpose remains uncertain. In this study, captive wolves at Osijek Zoo responded differently to odours during olfactory enrichment sessions. In the initial year of this study, the highest level of interest, evidenced by both the frequency of responses and scent-rolling behaviour, was noted when the wolves encountered odours such as curry and rosemary, along with deer/mouflon and rat faeces. While certain odours, such as llama faeces and deer/mouflon faeces, garnered longer durations of interest in the second year of study, others, like guinea pig faeces and oregano, elicited shorter responses. Female wolves demonstrated a higher level of engagement with scents compared with males, particularly through scent rolling behaviour, which was exclusively observed in females during the second year of this study. Interestingly, certain odours did not trigger scent rolling, suggesting selective preferences. On the other hand, sheep’s wool induced the longest duration of scent rolling, and a lack of significant differences in behaviour was observed between morning and afternoon sessions. Despite the existence of multiple hypotheses put forward to explain the causation of scent rolling in wolves, it seems to be elicited by unfamiliar odours.
... Lavandula angustifolia EO not only exhibits promising results in alleviating anxiety among dementia patients but also demonstrates anti-in ammatory and analgesic properties (Hajhashemi et in the anxiolytic effect of lavender EO, observed in both normosmic and anosmic mice. In a study by Graham et al. (2005) investigating the impact of various EOs (including Lavandula angustifolia, Anthennis nobilis, Cymbopogon citrates, and Mentha piperita) on kennel-housed dogs, those exposed to lavender exhibited increased rest and reduced motion compared to those exposed to rosemary and peppermint or without EO application. Furthermore, Wells (2006) explored the effect of lavender on travel excitement in dogs, revealing that dogs exposed to lavender spent more time in restful and seated positions, while exhibiting less vocalization and movement compared to the control group. ...
The positive impact of essential oils (EOs) on stress has been demonstrated in both humans and dogs. Among the EOs known for their anxiety-reducing properties, including Cananga odorata, Citrus aurantium, Cupressus sempervirens, Lavandula angustifolia, and Litsea citrata, there is a lack of consensus on the optimal concentration for efficacy. This exploratory study sought to investigate the effects of olfactory enrichment with a blend of these EOs on the activity levels of dogs introduced to an unfamiliar environment. The authors aimed to ascertain the minimum concentration necessary for stress reduction.
In a randomized controlled crossover study design, 54 dogs were exposed to 0, 1, 5, and 10 drops of the EO blend applied to their collars before entering an unfamiliar room with their owners. Behavioral observations were employed to quantify the total duration of stress-related behaviors for each dog under each treatment condition. A significant difference in panting was identified among the treatments (χ2(3) = 9.88; p = 0.020). Dunn-Bonferroni post-hoc tests revealed a significant reduction in panting during the 10 drops treatment compared to the control treatment (p = 0.047). No significant differences were observed for other stress-related behaviors.
To provide a comprehensive overview of behavioral tendencies in this canine population, owners also completed the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ), revealing low scores for anxiety in the study group.
The findings suggest that a concentration of 10 drops of the EO blend on a dog's collar induces stress reduction, specifically reflected in decreased panting behavior. Lower concentrations did not exhibit a significant relationship with observed stress behaviors.
This study underscores the importance of exposing dogs to an appropriate concentration of EOs when exploring their potential benefits on welfare among dogs with low anxiety levels. Further research in this area is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the potential benefits of EOs for canine well-being.
... Certain kinds of olfactory stimulation appear to have had behavioral effects in a range of contexts. Some essential oils may influence the affective states and behaviors of shelter dogs (Uccheddu et al., 2018), for example affecting activity in dogs housed in rescue shelters (Binks et al., 2018;Graham et al., 2005). Olfactory stimulation in the form of an ambient odor of lavender had a Fig. 3. Dog performance in a scent-detection task is affected by the ability to detect the scent, dog emotional state and cognitive interpretation of the situation; additionally, dog performance affect handler's emotions, which may further interact with the dog cognitive-emotional state. ...
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) have excellent olfactory processing capabilities that are utilized widely in human society e.g., working with customs, police, and army; their scent detection is also used in guarding, hunting, mold-sniffing, searching for missing people or animals, and facilitating the life of the disabled. Sniffing and searching for odors is a natural, species-typical behavior and essential for the dog's welfare. While taking advantage of this canine ability widely, we understand its foundations and implications quite poorly. We can improve animal welfare by better understanding their olfactory world. In this review, we outline the olfactory processing of dogs in the nervous system, summarize the current knowledge of scent detection and differentiation; the effect of odors on the dogs’ cognitive and emotional processes and the dog-human bond; and consider the methodological advancements that could be developed further to aid in our understanding of the canine world of odors.
... Strategies for reducing veterinary-related fear include conducting the exam on the ground on a non-slip surface, allowing acclimation to the exam room prior to interactions, provisioning of treats (16-20), using calming pheromones or scents (21,22), and using minimally invasive restraint methods (20). These methods are suggested to reduce dog stress (23,24), reduce injury to the handler (16, 25,26), and create a positive experience for the dog and the staff. ...
Introduction
Entering an animal shelter is a stressful experience for dogs that can impair their welfare, adoptability, and shelter staff safety; thus, it is crucial to reduce the stress experienced during intake. This study investigated the current intake practices for dogs admitted in animal shelters in Texas, United States.
Methods
To gather data, an online survey was designed and distributed to shelter employees responsible for intake at animal shelters. The survey collected information about examination procedures, the type of information collected from owner-surrenders, as well as the housing environment for the dogs.
Results
Survey participants (n = 64) were shelter staff from municipal (59%, 38/64) and private shelters (23%, 15/64) in 47 counties. Handling techniques reported to be used during intake exams varied depending on the dog’s behavior, with participants reporting higher restraint for aggressive dogs and lower restraint for calm dogs. If the dog was displaying fear, participants reported offering food and attention (89%, 47/53), using towel restraint (64%, 34/53) and conducting the exam on someone’s lap (49%, 26/53). In cases of aggression, it was commonly reported to use muzzles (81%, 42/52) and catch poles (77%, 40/52), and shorten the exam (71%, 37/52). After the exam, most reported placing dogs on the adoption floor (45%, 27/60) or placing them wherever space was available (20%, 12/60).
Discussion
Results provide descriptive information on current intake procedures and routine handling techniques used in Texas shelters. Future research should explore shelter dog responses to routine handling techniques to support the development of evidence-based protocols during routine intake examinations and procedures.
... Although not considered biologically relevant for many animals, essential oils and other plant-derived odors may be able to improve the welfare of certain species, according to the results of recent work [54]. While some of these odors seem to encourage relaxation and relieve stress, others seem to have a more stimulating effect on animals [56,69,70]. ...
Simple Summary
Equine welfare is a topic that has attracted the attention of both the scientific community and the public. In the domestic environment, horses are often kept in suboptimal conditions that limit the expression of species-typical behaviors and compromise their welfare. Environmental enrichment strategies have been identified as an interesting option to make the domestic environment more interactive and complex, resulting in an improvement in the animal’s quality of life. Olfactory stimulation, a form of sensory environmental enrichment that aims to trigger the sense of smell through the introduction of odors, has shown promise for horses. This review aims to present current information on equine olfaction, demonstrating its relevance as a sensory modality and exploring the potential that olfactory stimulation has as environmental enrichment for the species.
Abstract
Horses constantly face several challenges inherent to the domestic environment, and it is common for the expression of their natural behavior to be drastically limited. Environmental enrichment has been suggested as an alternative to improve the captive situation of domestic horses. Among the recently proposed enrichment strategies, olfactory stimulation has emerged as a method for improving several aspects related to animal behavior. Olfaction is a sensory modality that plays a significant role in the expression of equine behavior, and in recent years, studies have shown that olfactory stimulation can influence the physiological and behavioral parameters of horses. This review provides current information on the anatomical particularities of the equine olfactory system, presents the physiological mechanisms involved in the odor detection process, and demonstrates how stress can interfere with this process. Finally, the use of olfactory stimulation as an environmental enrichment for domestic horses (Equus ferus caballus) is explored. The need for new studies that answer pertinent questions related to this topic is discussed throughout the manuscript.
... Some of these odors appear to encourage relaxation and alleviate stress. The ambient odor of lavender, for instance, has repeatedly been shown to decrease motility in laboratory-housed rodents (Buchbauer et al., 1991;Shaw et al., 2007), and to reduce activity and vocalizations in dogs housed in rescue shelters (Graham et al., 2005). Bradshaw et al. (1998) provided pigs with access to lavender straw in an attempt to reduce stress (salivary cortisol) and travel sickness (indicators, e.g., foaming, repetitive chomping, retching, and vomiting) during transit. ...
Pigs are widely acknowledged for their olfactory abilities. Research on pigs’ olfactory capacities has focused mainly on aspects of olfaction that directly impact production, such as palatability of feed and pheromones to stimulate reproduction. Several basic research questions remain unanswered, such as which odors do pigs like/dislike, and how may odors enrich their lives? This review aims to explore the currently available literature on pig olfaction to elucidate the current knowns and unknowns within the following topics: chemicals in a pig’s environment, the olfactory organs of pigs, olfactory detection and acuity, behavioral reactions to odors, aversive odors, reaction to novel odors, attractive odors, and odors as a management tool in commercial pig production. The review focuses on complex odors of non-social origin (e.g., ammonia), and when information on this topic is lacking we include information from research on other mammalian species. We found that the olfactory organs of pigs are already functional at birth and that piglets can recognize the smell of the sow within 12h postpartum. Compared with humans and several other mammalian species, the pig’s olfactory system is highly developed, and the use of their sense of smell is incorporated into their natural behavior. While sniffing is a well-known behavior in pigs’ exploratory behavioral repertoire, this review points to a lack of knowledge on pigs’ behavioral reactions specifically when exposed to odors. Some odors appear attractive to pigs, whereas others appear repellent. Depending on the properties of the odor, providing pigs access to odors may be a way to stimulate their sense of smell, and could possibly be used in commercial pig production to enrich their lives. The review lastly highlights potential risks for animal welfare caused from lacking knowledge about how pigs perceive odors in their environment, and proposes future research questions and ways to utilize pigs’ sense of smell in the daily management of these animals. Further research on the olfactory abilities of pigs could help to ensure a more sustainable pig production.
... Odors may be a way to enrich the pigs' environment, either in themselves or by increasing and potentially prolonging pigs' interest in enrichment materials or objects. From other mammalian species kept in environments with limited space and complexity, olfactory enrichment has proven to affect a variety of behaviors positively (e.g., activity, explorative, and social behavior) in zoos [primates: (Gronqvist et al., 2013;Wowk and Behie, 2023), felids: (Powell, 1995;Wells and Egli, 2004;Yu et al., 2009)], and in shelters [dogs: (Graham et al., 2005;Binks et al., 2018;Murtagh et al., 2020), cats: (Ellis and Wells, 2010;Machado and Genaro, 2014)]. It is therefore reasonable to hypothesize that olfactory enrichment holds the potential to positively impact other animals with a keen sense of smell kept in environments of similar constraints, including farm animals in intensive production. ...
Pigs are highly motivated to explore their surroundings. When commercially kept pigs are often unable to satisfy their motivation for performing this behaviour, which can be detrimental for both animal welfare and farm economy due to high occurrence of damaging behaviour (e.g., tail biting). Despite the pig’s highly developed sense of smell, the potential to use odours as enrichment tools in modern pig production has only received very little attention. This project aims to investigate the potential of using odours to optimize current enrichment strategies for growing pigs and thereby improve animal welfare alongside farm economy. Through a series of experiments conducted on growing pigs, we have identified a range of odours, which pigs are interested in exploring, and mapped pigs’ odour exploratory behaviour. In the ongoing second half of the project we evaluate the effect of odorant addition on pigs’ interest in the enrichment material and the welfare and behaviour of the pigs. In this talk we will present the findings from the first part of the project and provide an overview of the ongoing second half. Results from part 1 showed that the test paradigm developed was meaningful for testing olfaction in pigs, and pigs were able to detect and discriminate between all 12 odours included in the study (all odours of natural origin). Pigs moreover expressed both sniffing, agonistic, and feeding-related behaviour when exploring odours, which suggests that pigs may perceive natural odours of non-social origin as a resource. Additionally, some odours elicited rubbing and rolling behaviour in some pigs, which are behaviour not previously described in pigs. These collective results show promising indications that odours may constitute relevant enrichment material for pigs in commercial production. We hope this talk will stimulate discussions on pig exploratory behaviour and the use of odours as enrichment in commercial pig production.
... After exposure to cloths scented with ginger, coconut, vanilla, and valerian, dogs displayed reduced levels of vocalization and movement, with coconut and ginger also causing an increase in sleeping behavior [133]. By contrast, dogs spent more time moving and barking upon exposure to peppermint and rosemary [138]. Preliminary, non-peer reviewed research demonstrated that when on a walk, sniffing behavior lowers dog heart rates independent of their walking activity, with sniffing intensity positively correlated with heart rate reduction [139]. ...
Simple Summary
Pet dogs are more prone to exhibit challenging behaviors than ever before. Dog trainers are increasingly tasked with helping pet owners resolve behavior issues, not just teach their charges good manners. The interventions used by professionals to help ameliorate behavior complaints must be evidence-based and include the effectiveness of the intervention, how the intervention is perceived by the learner, and how the intervention affects the learner’s quality of life before, during, and after behavior intervention procedures. The objective of this paper is to review literature from multiple scientific disciplines and demonstrate how concepts from applied behavior analysis and the animal welfare sciences can be used together to ensure that the animal undergoing intervention experiences good welfare during the training process.
Abstract
Social validity refers to the social significance and acceptability of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. Animal practitioners, who are often guided by the principles of ABA, lack the benefit of verbal participants (at least with respect to target animals) with which to assess a client’s needs and preferences. The study of a learner’s welfare is useful for determining areas where intervention is needed or how the learner feels about an intervention that is underway. Three tenets of animal welfare measurement include physiological function, naturalistic behavior, and affect, where affect refers to private events, including emotions, which are a function of the same variables and contingencies responsible for controlling public behavior. The development of new technologies allows us to look “under the skin” and account for subjective experiences that can now be observed objectively. We introduce the reader to tools available from the animal welfare sciences for the objective measurement of social validity from the learner’s perspective.
... Odors may be a way to enrich the pigs' environment, either in themselves or by increasing and potentially prolonging pigs' interest in enrichment materials or objects. From other mammalian species kept in environments with limited space and complexity, olfactory enrichment has proven to affect a variety of behaviors positively (e.g., activity, explorative, and social behavior) in zoos [primates: (Gronqvist et al., 2013;Wowk and Behie, 2023), felids: (Powell, 1995;Wells and Egli, 2004;Yu et al., 2009)], and in shelters [dogs: (Graham et al., 2005;Binks et al., 2018;Murtagh et al., 2020), cats: (Ellis and Wells, 2010;Machado and Genaro, 2014)]. It is therefore reasonable to hypothesize that olfactory enrichment holds the potential to positively impact other animals with a keen sense of smell kept in environments of similar constraints, including farm animals in intensive production. ...
Introduction and aimAlthough the sense of smell in pigs is widely recognized as being highly developed, surprisingly little is known about their sensory ability. This study aimed to (a) identify which non-social odors pigs were able to detect and distinguish between, (b) investigate the types of behavior expressed when exploring odors and, (c) compare pigs’ responses to the different odors to evaluate their interest in the odors.Methods
Growing pigs (N = 192) of crossbred commercial breeds were enrolled in the experiment (32–110 days of age, weighing 64.9 ± 10.1kg). Littermate pairs of opposite sex were tested in test pens with two odor insertion points in the pen wall, 55 cm apart. All pigs were habituated to the test pens and experimenters. Twelve odors were tested (eight essential oils and four synthetic perfumes) in groups of three odors, with each pig pair tested once with one set of three odors (all possible orders of the three odors were tested on 24 pairs in total), always against a non-odor control (demineralized water). In a test, each of the three odors were presented during three trials in a row (a total of 9 trials per test; trial duration: 1 min; inter-trial breaks: 2 min; total test duration: 25 min). Response variables included: duration of sniffing, feeding-related behavior (licking, biting and rooting), agonistic behavior (biting, displacement and pushing) and no approach of the odor or control, recorded throughout each 1-min odor presentation.ResultsAll pigs sniffed an odor less when repeatedly presented (LMM: all odors P < 0.05), and significantly longer at the subsequent presentation of a new odor [LMM (3rd vs. 1st presentations): P < 0.001]. Specific odor and odor type (essential oil vs. synthetic perfume) had no significant effect on sniffing duration. Overall, feeding-related behavior and agonistic behavior were expressed significantly more when pigs explored the odor compared with the control insertion point (Paired t-tests: P < 0.001), and specific odor only affected the expression of feeding-related behavior.Conclusion
Collectively, pigs express sniffing, agonistic, and feeding-related behavior when exploring odors, which suggests that pigs perceive odors of non-social origin as a resource. Odors may thus constitute relevant enrichment material for pigs.
... Some of these odors appear to encourage relaxation and alleviate stress. The ambient odor of lavender, for instance, has repeatedly been shown to decrease motility in laboratory-housed rodents (Buchbauer et al., 1991;Shaw et al., 2007), and to reduce activity and vocalizations in dogs housed in rescue shelters (Graham et al., 2005). Bradshaw et al. (1998) provided pigs with access to lavender straw in an attempt to reduce stress (salivary cortisol) and travel sickness (indicators, e.g., foaming, repetitive chomping, retching, and vomiting) during transit. ...
Pigs are widely acknowledged for their sense of smell, but how much do we know about this sensory modality in pigs? There are numerous basic questions that remain unanswered, such as: What odours are pigs able to smell? And what odours are they interested in? These questions need to be addressed to identify the odours best suited to enrich the life of our farmed pigs.
This review aims to explore the currently available literature on olfaction and olfactory abilities of pigs to elucidate the current knowns and unknowns within the topic. We further want to highlight potential risks for animal welfare that the lacking knowledge poses and propose new promising research questions and ways to utilize pigs’ sense of smell in the daily management of the animals.
Where we, as humans, direct our eyes (i.e. vision) towards the point of attention, pigs will direct their ears and/or snout. Studies suggest that the olfactory organ of pigs is functional already at birth and that piglets can recognize the smell of the sow within 12h postpartum. When compared to humans, and several other animal species, the pig’s olfactory system is more prominent, and their olfactory detection threshold is lower than for other mammalian species. Olfaction serves a variety of functions for pigs, for instance pigs use odours for the recognition of familiar individuals/group mates, social status, sexual receptivity, and to keep roaming bands together. Further, sniffing is a well-known part of pigs’ exploratory behaviour. Still, there is a lack of knowledge of pigs’ behaviour when exploring odours (other than sniffing and appetitive behaviour).
Further research on the olfactory abilities of pigs is greatly needed and may ultimately ensure a more sustainable pig production in terms of improved animal welfare. With this review, we want to spark discussion of the challenges this research area may pose to the industry and potential ways to move forward.
... Odors may be a way to enrich the pigs' environment, either in themselves or by increasing and potentially prolonging pigs' interest in enrichment materials or objects. From other mammalian species kept in environments with limited space and complexity, olfactory enrichment has proven to affect a variety of behaviors positively (e.g., activity, explorative, and social behavior) in zoos [primates: (Gronqvist et al., 2013;Wowk and Behie, 2023), felids: (Powell, 1995;Wells and Egli, 2004;Yu et al., 2009)], and in shelters [dogs: (Graham et al., 2005;Binks et al., 2018;Murtagh et al., 2020), cats: (Ellis and Wells, 2010;Machado and Genaro, 2014)]. It is therefore reasonable to hypothesize that olfactory enrichment holds the potential to positively impact other animals with a keen sense of smell kept in environments of similar constraints, including farm animals in intensive production. ...
Even though truffle-hunting pigs are well-known, research into the olfactory abilities of pigs is sparse. This study investigated olfaction by mapping the behaviour of pigs when exposed to non-social odours using a Habituation/Dishabituation test paradigm. The study included 96 pairs of Hampshire pigs, weighing 50-80 kg (13-16 weeks of age). Littermate pairs of opposite sex were tested in four experimental pens each equipped with two odour insertion points (55 cm apart). All pigs were habituated to the experimental pens, equipment and experimenters. Twelve odours were included (vanilla, musk, orange, thyme, jasmine, cinnamon bark, ginger, apple, lavender, cedar wood, aniseed and pine), and each pair was exposed to three odours (all possible combinations were tested), and one control (demineralised water). The three odours were presented during 3 consecutive tests (a total of 9 tests per pig pair, 3 for each odour). For each test, an odour was presented for 1 minute, 3 times in a row with a 2-min interval between presentations. Duration of sniffing (snout in proximity to the odour) was recorded, and all behaviour was continuously recorded throughout each 1-min odour exposure. Preliminary results based on 168 tests (112 pigs, ~ 60% of total tests, full data and analyses will be presented at the conference) show that habituation between same odours (Kruskal Wallis rank sum test: 1st vs 2nd vs 3rd presentations χ2=27.5, p=0.004) and dishabituation between different odours (Pairwise Wilcoxon signed rank test: all 3rd vs 1st, p=0.01) occurred. Pigs sniffed thyme most and vanilla least (largest difference of multiple pairwise comparisons: p=0.0007). The most common behaviours were appetitive behaviours (licking, biting and rooting; avg. (sec) per test: 2.5), and aggression and displacement, indicating guarding of the odours (avg. (freq) per test: 0.4), which were expressed for all odours except vanilla. Interestingly, rubbing against the odour (as seen in dogs) was also expressed when exposed to all odours except vanilla. This behaviour has never before been described in pigs, and we will thus propose a definition and show videos of this behaviour at the conference. As rubbing behaviour was correlated with appetitive behaviour (Pearson correlation: t=3.7, p=0.0002), this behaviour may be indicative of excitement or pleasure. Our experiment is the first to compare pigs’ interest in different odours of non-social origin. Although individual differences exist, all odours except vanilla elicited both sniffing, appetitive, guarding and rubbing behaviour, indicating that these odours may have enriching properties to pigs’ environment.
... playing background music, 18,19 having the dog wait outside and not in the waiting room of the clinic, 7 examining the dog in an examination room and not a common treatment room, 20 placing the owner and pet into the examination room instead of a waiting room, 21 and having the owner present during the examination might be beneficial in reducing stress in dogs. 2,22 Additionally, administration of nutraceutical products 23 and the use of pheromone products might further reduce dogs' stress in the veterinary clinic. 24 Another commonly used method is pharmaceutical intervention with several classes of drugs with a short latency to effect. ...
Objective:
To evaluate the effects of a single dose of orally administered gabapentin in alleviating stress at a veterinary visit in privately owned dogs.
Animals:
22 healthy client-owned dogs (1.5 to 8.5 years old) were enrolled in this study.
Procedures:
Each dog received a 50-mg/kg oral dose of either gabapentin or placebo 2 hours before the beginning of each visit protocol. The dog's behavioral responses were coded from recorded video clips during a 5-minute-long standardized physical examination and pre- and post-physical examination phases. The veterinary technician separately rated each greeting behavior at each visit. Physiological variables during veterinary visits (ie, eye surface temperature and salivary cortisol concentrations) were also compared between the pre- and post-physical examination phases. The owner was queried 24 hours after a visit to determine the incidence of adverse events.
Results:
The greeting test score, eye surface temperature, and cortisol concentrations did not differ substantially between the gabapentin and placebo treatment groups. Lip licking frequency during the physical examination phase was significantly lower in the gabapentin treatment group than in the placebo group (P = 0.001). Lip licking frequency during the pre- and post-physical examination phases was also significantly lower in the gabapentin treatment group than in the placebo treatment group (P = 0.004). No serious adverse events were reported by the owners following gabapentin treatment.
Clinical relevance:
Results showed that the 50-mg/kg dose of gabapentin was well tolerated without serious adverse effects in healthy dogs. Further studies are recommended of dogs with documented stress in response to a veterinary visit.
... Accelerometers or activity collars can be used to collect activity level measurements, like active/inactive or step count (for a review of activity collars available see Belda et al., 2018). To date, studies using activity level monitors have demonstrated a correlation between shelter dogs activity levels and behavioral and physiological indicators of stress, including impact of kennel size (Bebak and Beck, 1993;Campbell et al., 1988;Neamand et al., 1975), length of stay , and different enrichment techniques (Graham et al., 2005;Gunter et al., 2019). Compared to owned dogs, shelter dogs vary in their activity level patterns. ...
Animal shelters have been found to represent stressful environments for pet dogs, both affecting behavior and influencing welfare. The current COVID-19 pandemic has brought to light new uncertainties in animal sheltering practices which may affect shelter dog behavior in unexpected ways. To evaluate this, we analyzed changes in dog activity levels before COVID-19 and during COVID-19 using an automated video analysis within a large, open-admission animal shelter in New York City, USA. Shelter dog activity was analyzed during two two-week long time periods: (i) just before COVID-19 safety measures were put in place (Feb 26-Mar 17, 2020) and (ii) during the COVID-19 quarantine (July 10-23, 2020). During these two periods, video clips of 15.3 second, on average, were taken of participating kennels every hour from approximately 8am-8pm. Using a two-step filtering approach, a matched sample (based on the number of days of observation) of 34 dogs was defined, consisting of 17 dogs in each group (N1/N2=17). An automated video analysis of active/non-active behaviors was conducted and compared to manual coding of activity. The automated analysis validated by comparison to manual coding reaching above 79% accuracy. Significant differences in the patterns of shelter dog activity were observed: less activity was observed in the afternoons before COVID-19 restrictions, while during COVID-19, activity remained at a constant average. Together, these findings suggest that 1) COVID-19 lockdown altered shelter dog in-kennel activity, likely due to changes in the shelter environment and 2) automated analysis can be used as a hands-off tool to monitor activity. While this method of analysis presents immense opportunity for future research, we discuss the limitations of automated analysis and guidelines in the context of shelter dogs that can increase accuracy of detection, as well as reflect on policy changes that might be helpful in mediating canine stress in changing shelter environments.
Many stressors have been identified for shelter dogs, and while stress is a natural physical response, exposure to shelter stressors has been implicated in poor dog welfare including the formation of maladaptive behaviors that manifest as unappealing responses toward humans. Inappropriate behavioral reactions to humans lead to longer lengths of stay in the shelter, so identifying ways to reduce these responses to human presence would not only benefit the immediate welfare of the dog but could also decrease the amount of time the dog spends in the shelter. Previous studies have shown that response-independent food paired with an auditory stimulus reduced behaviors that likely prolong time to adoption; however, these interventions used an explicit discriminative stimulus where a more easily deployed design would be effective without requiring an additional stimulus to precede the food. The purpose of the present study was to extend that work to evaluate the effect of noncontingent reinforcement on reducing behavioral reactions to humans in the presence both of the experimenter and other people. Overall, the intervention was effective at decreasing human-directed behavioral responses but did not decrease the dogs’ length of stay. Changes in reactive behaviors appear to be limited to the presence of the experimenter during the first and last trials, with improvements generalizing to non-experimenters only for two behaviors: staying in the front half of the kennel and facing the kennel front. Our recommendation for shelters is that this intervention would be most effective at improving behaviors directed at a person delivering treats to the dog.
The positive impact of essential oils (EOs) on stress release has been demonstrated in both humans and dogs. Among the EOs known for their anxiety-reducing properties, including Cananga odorata, Citrus aurantium, Cupressus sempervirens, Lavandula angustifolia, and Litsea citrata, there is a lack of consensus on the optimal concentration for efficacy. This exploratory study sought to investigate the effects of olfactory enrichment with a blend of these EOs on dogs introduced to an unfamiliar environment. The authors sought to determine the minimum concentration required to achieve increased relaxation. In a randomized controlled crossover study design, 54 dogs were exposed to 0, 1, 5, and 10 drops of the EO blend applied to their collars before entering an unfamiliar room with their owners. Behavioral observations were employed to quantify the total duration of activity and relaxation related behaviours for each dog under each treatment condition. A significant difference in panting was identified among the treatments (χ2(3) = 9.88; p = 0.020). Dunn-Bonferroni post-hoc tests revealed a significant reduction in panting during the 10 drops treatment compared to the control treatment (p = 0.047). No significant differences were observed for other behaviors. To provide a comprehensive overview of behavioral tendencies in this canine population, owners also completed the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ), revealing low scores for anxiety in the study group. These preliminary findings suggest that a concentration of 10 drops of the EO blend on a dog's collar induces increased relaxation, specifically reflected in decreased panting behavior. Lower concentrations did not exhibit a significant relationship with the observed behaviors. These initial findings underscore the importance of exposing dogs to an appropriate concentration of EOs when exploring their potential benefits on welfare among dogs with low anxiety levels. Further research in this area is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the potential benefits of EOs for canine welfare.
The temperament of a total of 30 small puppies of 4 breeds in the period of their primary socialization was typified. The number of sanguines, cholerics, phlegmatics and melancholics was determined separately according to the breed of the animals along with the possibility of building a successful behavioral model for representatives of different breeds according to their temperament. The fastest socialization was reported in Shih Tzu puppies, followed by Bichon Frise, Pekingese, Dachshund, and lastly Poodle. There was a relationship between temperament and breed in dogs.
Shelters are stressful environments for domestic dogs which are known to negatively impact their welfare. The introduction of outside stimuli for dogs in this environment can improve their welfare and life conditions. However, our current understanding of the influence of different stimuli on shelter dogs’ welfare is limited and the data is still insufficient to draw conclusions. In this study, we collected 28 days (four weeks) of telemetry data from eight male dogs housed in an Italian shelter for a long period of time. During this period, three types of enrichment were introduced into the dogs’ pens for one week each: entertaining objects, intraspecific, and interspecific social enrichment, by means of the presence of female conspecifics and the presence of a human. To quantify their impact, we introduce novel metrics as indicators of sheltered dogs’ welfare based on telemetry data: the variation of heart rate, muscle activity, and body temperature from an average baseline day, quality of sleep, and the regularity for cyclicity of the aforementioned parameters, based on the day-night cycle. Using these metrics, we show that while all three stimuli statistically improve the dogs’ welfare, the variance between individual dogs is large. Moreover, our findings indicate that the presence of female conspecific is the best stimulus among the three explored options which improves both the quality of sleep and the parameters’ cyclicity. Our results are consistent with previous research findings while providing novel data-driven welfare indicators that promote objectivity. Thus, this research provides some useful guidelines for managing shelters and improving dogs’ welfare.
Smell is a well-developed and predominant sense in dogs and so it is unsurprising that olfaction is tightly linked to dog welfare. The extent to which a dog can use their olfactory abilities and the types of odours they smell, have been shown to affect their behaviour, memory, and wellbeing, and similarly an animal’s state of health and welfare impacts upon its olfactory ability. There are several natural scents whose effects upon dogs have been well studied. Lavender has been shown to induce calm and resting behaviour, whilst there is some evidence that peppermint, rosemary, and laurel may lead to increased activity in kennelled dogs. Several olfactory-administered products have sought to mimic these natural calming effects and have been marketed to mitigate fear and anxiety in dogs. Pet Remedy a Valerian-based product and synthetic Dog Appeasing Pheromone (DAP) are relatively well tested. Whilst some studies present promising findings of their potential benefits, particularly of DAP in puppies, the body of research remains unconvincing regarding the efficacy of both products especially for adult dogs. With the increasing array of scent-based tasks that dogs are trained to perform, the way they are reared, housed, trained, and cared for all have the capacity to affect their welfare. There is evidence of the value of a range of aspects of housing and husbandry that can improve welfare. Research on the interface between olfaction and welfare although growing, remains in its infancy, which we see as evidence of sensory biases in human approaches to dog behaviour and welfare.
Cats are commonly chosen as companion animals, however, for numerous reasons, many end up in rescue shelters awaiting a new home. Cats are particularly sensitive to stress, which poses a threat to welfare through development of detrimental mental and physical conditions due to prolonged episodes of anxiety. Pet Remedy (Unex Designs) is a valerian-based product developed to calm and de-stress companion animals. Literature regarding feline stress is limited, with no prior research into how Pet Remedy affects cats in rescue shelters. This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted to investigate the efficacy of Pet Remedy. Forty-six participants were randomly organised into one of three treatment groups: control, placebo or pet remedy. Participant details, stress score and respiration rates were recorded prior to treatment, and again 30 minutes post-treatment. Exposure to Pet Remedy was associated with a significant decreases in stress score (P=0.000) and respiration rate (P=0.003). Efficacy of product was not affected by sex, neutering status or age, though this could benefit from further investigation. The results of this study suggest that Pet Remedy would significantly reduce stress-related behaviours in shelter cats, which may improve overall welfare of cats residing in rescue shelters.
Dogs and cats are popular companion animals that live together with humans. This special issue provides topics about the scents and olfaction of dogs and cats from the viewpoint of ethology. The first half introduces the significance of odors of feces, urine, and body, which is easily perceived as unpleasant odors, and how to deal with them. The second half mainly introduces the olfactory ability, the application of “Nosework” to animal welfare, and the effects of the owner’s body odor on the attachment behavior, in dogs and cats.
Simple Summary
Boredom may be an overlooked animal welfare problem because of monotonous or predictable routines and confined living conditions that often typify captivity. We investigated whether pet ferret owners believe ferrets are able to experience boredom and which behaviours they use to recognise ferret boredom using an online questionnaire. We also explored whether owners’ beliefs of ferret boredom were linked to environmental enrichments (e.g., toys and shelters) or housing they provided or the style of training they used for their ferrets. Of the 621 responses, most (93%) owners believed that ferrets could experience boredom. Owners who doubted that ferrets could feel bored gave their ferrets significantly fewer types of environmental enrichment than other owners did. The analysis of behaviours that owners linked with boredom showed that ferrets ‘scratching at enclosure walls’ and ‘sleeping more than normal’ were key behaviours that owners use to distinguish ferret boredom from other emotions. This fits with the idea that boredom causes both active seeking behaviour and excessively inactive behaviour. Owners suggested housing with other ferrets, human interaction, and exploration as most important for preventing boredom. These results suggest that pet ferrets are at risk of poorer welfare if their owners doubt that ferrets can experience boredom.
Abstract
Boredom is a potential chronic but overlooked animal welfare problem. Caused by monotony, sub-optimal stimulation, and restrictive housing, boredom can therefore affect companion animals, particularly those traditionally caged, such as ferrets. We surveyed owners’ (n = 621) perceptions of ferrets’ capacity to experience boredom, behaviours they associate with it, and whether their perception of their ferrets’ capacity for boredom influenced training techniques, housing, and environmental enrichment (EE). Most (93.0%) owners believed that ferrets could experience boredom, but owners who doubted that ferrets experience boredom (7.0%) provided slightly but significantly fewer EE types to their ferrets. Heat map and classification tree analysis showed that owners identified scratching at enclosure walls (n = 420) and excessive sleeping (n = 312) as distinctive behavioural indicators of ferret boredom. Repetitive pacing (n = 381), yawning (n = 191), and resting with eyes open (n = 171) were also suggested to indicate ferret boredom, but these overlapped with other states. Finally, ferret owners suggested social housing, tactile interaction with humans, and exploration as most important for preventing boredom. These results suggest that pet ferrets are at risk of reduced welfare from owners who doubt they can experience boredom, highlighting an opportunity to improve welfare through information dissemination. We recommend further investigation into ferret boredom capacity, behavioural indicators, and mitigation strategies.
While the growing global obesity crisis in humans has attracted a great deal of attention from the media and healthcare professionals alike, the rapid increase in weight problems reported amongst pets is now attracting widespread recognition too. In humans, the emerging science of gastrophysics offers a number of concrete suggestions as to how people can be nudged into eating less by means of the enhanced multisensory design of both foods and the environments in which they choose to eat. In this narrative review, the potential relevance of gastrophysics to helping tackle the growing problem of overweight and obese domestic dogs is reviewed. This involves discussion of both the important similarities and difference in the way in which people and their pets perceive food, and the likely role of various product-extrinsic factors on consumption in the two cases. Nevertheless, despite the differences, a number of suggestions for future research are forwarded that may help to address the growing problem of overweight pets, and the behaviours that give rise to it.
Of the millions of dogs that enter animal shelters in the United States each year, many exhibit behaviors labeled as fear, which can decrease their likelihood of adoption. Current dog training procedures to treat these behaviors can take months or even years to show significant change. When these procedures are used in shelters, they mainly focus on reducing fear, as opposed to teaching specific behaviors to increase adoptions. The goal of the current study was to teach fearful shelter dogs to interact with a novel person. A seven‐step shaping procedure used the removal of the novel person as a reinforcer. The dogs learned a series of behaviors, starting with looking at the person and small head movements and progressing until the dog was approaching the front of the kennel and voluntarily interacting with the person. All three dogs completed the program in a short amount of time (under 40 min) and showed an increase in approaching the front of the kennel, sniffing, tail wagging, and accepting petting. These behaviors persisted during a return‐to‐baseline condition, suggesting that the newly shaped behaviors had come under the control of positive reinforcement in the form of social interaction with the experimenter.
Some dogs entering shelters exhibit extreme fearfulness, often after experiencing cruelty or neglect. Dogs displaying extreme fearfulness are difficult to assess and treat using the tools and protocols available in most shelters. Without effective treatment, these dogs have an unacceptably poor quality of life and are unlikely to be successfully adopted. Treatment protocols using behavior modification techniques such as desensitization, counterconditioning and operant conditioning were developed to reduce fear of stimuli that pet dogs typically experience in adoptive homes. From 2013–2020, outcomes were recorded for dogs that went through this behavioral rehabilitation program. The graduation rate from the program was 86% (380/441). Graduated dogs spent an average of 98 (SD=55) days in the program, experiencing an average of 78 specific treatment sessions. They showed a significant improvement in behavior in a standardized behavior assessment (df=440, t=28.3836, p=0.001) before meeting criteria for placement. Once offered for adoption, they had a 99% adoption rate and a 96% adopter satisfaction rate. These results indicate that an appropriately designed behavioral rehabilitation program for dogs displaying extreme fear in a shelter setting can prove highly successful, resulting in improved quality of life and reduced need for behavioral euthanasia.
Dogs experience a variety of stressors within the shelter that could negatively impact their welfare. The use of enrichment interventions that provide social interaction, either with a human or canine; object enrichment; and sensory stimulation (auditory, olfactory, or visual) is necessary for dogs living in animal shelters, along with the assessment of engagement and determination of benefits. There are a wide range of sampling and measurement techniques for monitoring enrichment usage and its behavioral effects, and such efforts are only worthwhile if the data being collected are used. Data‐informed decisions about which enrichment types are provided, on both the shelter‐wide and individual dog levels, must be consistently re‐evaluated based on the current population of dogs and can allow shelters to most usefully employ their resources and best serve the dogs in their care.
Our relationship with dogs runs thousands of years deep. Today, we might know dogs intimately as members of our human family, but we can also know and consider dogs on their own terms, as members of Canis familiaris , with a unique evolutionary history and species‐specific characteristics and needs. This chapter is a resource for all types of dog knowers and caretakers. It relies heavily on empirical research to anchor readers in the foundations of canine behavior—such as dog behavioral development, normal dog behavior, factors influencing behavior, and relationships with people—and considers how these topics affect dogs of all ages and backgrounds who find themselves in the shelter environment.
Behavioral welfare concerns for shelter pets can be a result of the shelter environment itself or due to behavior disorders preexisting the intake of a sheltered pet. Addressing immediate welfare concerns and anticipating long‐term behavior concerns can help to improve adoptability, facilitate a smoother transition to the new home, and often lead to a shorter‐term treatment overall for shelter animals. Understanding the indications and goals for behavior medication use, factors to consider prior to prescribing, requirements to prescribe, monitoring, and medication choices are keys to success. Practitioners must also recognize that behavioral medications should not be used alone, without a working diagnosis, and other aspects of a treatment plan (environmental management, behavior modification). Even shelters with limited resources can do something to meet the requirements of a comprehensive behavior treatment plan that includes the use of medications to improve shelter animal health and welfare.
Facility design and animal care practices impact the quality of life of sheltered dogs, and there is a growing body of data and anecdotal information showing that appropriate housing and husbandry can mitigate the negative impact of many detrimental features commonly attributed to shelters. Using the facility and caring for animals in a way that balances behavioral, medical, and operational considerations while ensuring opportunities for assessment, enrichment, training, and rehabilitation is essential to operating a humane animal shelter. A well‐designed and maintained physical facility can facilitate the development and delivery of an efficient and effective behavioral program in a shelter, with the quality of housing substantially impacting animal health and well‐being.
Veterinary professionals (VPs) are often the first source of advice for clients struggling with their dog's behaviour, and pulling on the lead is a commonplace undesirable behaviour VPs will encounter regularly in practice. Excluding bites, being pulled over while walking on a lead is the leading cause of non‐fatal dog‐related injuries in the UK. This narrative review investigates lead pulling as a welfare concern in pet dogs, highlighting aspects of the literature of particular interest to VPs.
Lead pulling could negatively affect walk quality, frequency and duration, causing weight gain, while decreased environmental enrichment could trigger other undesirable behaviours. Aversive equipment to prevent lead pulling can cause pain, distress and injury, but even equipment considered humane can have welfare consequences. Punitive training methods could cause dogs stress, fear and anxiety and trigger aggressive behaviour. While these lead pulling outcomes are welfare concerns in themselves, they could also weaken dog–owner attachment, a risk factor in pet dog relinquishment.
Given lead pulling could affect the welfare of patients in a VPs care, clinical implications and opportunities for client education are outlined. Educating clients on humane prevention and modification of lead pulling could make walks easier, safer and more enjoyable, with positive outcomes for clients, canine welfare and the practice.
There is public interest for the welfare of dogs that spend at least part of their lives housed in kennel facilities, such as working, shelter and sporting dogs. The impacts of living in environments that limit social, physical, and behavioral opportunities are generally well understood in other animals, such as livestock and zoo animals. Research exploring the effects of the kennel environment and its enrichment on the behavior and physiology of dogs is emerging. However, human perceptions concerning what is important to the welfare of kenneled dogs have been overlooked. What people believe is important will influence their behavior, with direct relation to care provided to animals and the underlying social license of related industries to operate. This study evaluated the perceived importance of specific kennel management practices relating to canine health, kennel facility design and routine, social interactions, and environmental enrichment. Over 2,000 self-selected adults completed a voluntary, internet-based questionnaire. Differences in beliefs and attitudes were identified based on kennel facility experience, employment role, age, and gender, highlighting potential areas of discordance that may contribute to occupational stress and staff turnover. The results also suggest that research findings published in the scientific literature may not be successfully translating into evidence-based changes in industry practice. Future models to assess animal welfare should include the critical dimension of human-animal interaction. The beliefs, attitudes, and consequent behaviors of people interacting with dogs housed in kennels will determine how living in captivity impacts upon the experiences and welfare of the resident dogs.
Husbandry training and environmental enrichment are both important advancements associated with current behavioural welfare practices. Additionally, the use of training procedures has been proposed as a form of enrichment, with the implication that training can produce beneficial behavioural welfare results. This paper examines the concept of training as enrichment through three distinct ways training procedures could enrich: (i) training facilitates enrichment usage; (ii) training modifies interactions, conspecific or otherwise; and (iii) training expands behavioural repertoires. Within each category, the paper focuses on past research that provides empirical support for training functioning as enrichment, as well as related areas of research that provide additional evidence. Previous studies support the claim that training is enriching, with additional research necessary to better understand how prevalent and under what conditions training procedures function as enrichment. Future training research should examine these potential enrichment effects, including methodology that allows for comparisons to traditional enrichment, the use of welfare diversity/variability indices, and the effects of learning on trainers and trainees alike.
Veterinary practices can be stressful places for dogs. Decreasing stress during veterinary consultations is therefore a major concern, since animal welfare matters both for owners and veterinarians. Stress can be expressed through behaviour modifications; monitoring canine behaviour is thus one way to assess stress levels. We also know that the owner can affect dog behaviour in different ways. The aim of this study was therefore to assess the effect of the presence of owners on the behaviour of their dogs in veterinary consultations. We studied 25 dog-owner dyads at two standardised veterinary consultations, conducted at intervals of 5-7 weeks; the owner was present for the first consultation and absent for the second (O/NoO group, n = 12), or vice versa (NoO/O group, n = 13). A consultation consisted in three phases: exploration, examination, greeting. Dog behaviours were compared between the two conditions using a video recording.
Despite some limitations (e.g. no male owners, the exclusion of aggressive dogs, a limited sample size, minimally invasive veterinary examinations, restricted owner-dog interactions), our results showed that the presence or absence of the owner had no significant effect on the stress-related behaviour of the dog or the veterinarian’s ability to handle the animal during the examination phase (P > 0.05). Nevertheless, the behaviour of the dogs towards people was affected before, during, and after the veterinary examination. In the presence of their owner, dogs were more willing to enter the consultation room (P < 0.05), and they appeared more relaxed during the exploration phase (P < 0.01). During the examination, dogs looked in direction of their owner in both situations (owner present and behind the door, respectively; P < 0.001). These results suggest that allowing the owner to stay in the room during veterinary consultations is a better option for canine welfare.
Excessive barking is a major source of noise pollution in dog kennels and negatively impacts welfare. Because resources are often limited, minimizing barking in the simplest and most easily implementable way is imperative. This pilot study implemented a Quiet Kennel Exercise (QKE) that utilized classical counterconditioning to change the dogs’ negative emotional state (which can lead to barking) to a more positive emotional state. Therefore, barking motivation is reduced, so barking should decrease. This study aims to show proof of concept that decreasing barking through classical counterconditioning is effective. It was conducted in one ward of day-time boarding kennels at North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine. Data was collected three times per day and included decibel readings, number of dogs present, and number of dogs barking during a 5-day initial baseline and 10-day intervention period. During baseline, people passing through the ward acted as they normally would. During intervention, passersby were asked to simply toss each dog a treat regardless of the dogs’ behaviors in the kennel. Descriptive results show improvement in maximum level of barking after QKE, fewer dogs barking over time, dogs barking less each time, and the most improvement noted in the afternoon.
Synopsis Subjects performed a visual sustained attention (vigilance) task for 40 minutes during which they received periodic 30-second whiffs of pure air or a hedonically positive fragrance, Muguet or Peppermint, through a modified oxygen mask. The former fragrance had been independently judged as relaxing, the latter as alerting. Subjects receiving either fragrance detected significantly more signals during the vigil than unscented air controls. Subjective reports of mood and workload indicated that the subjects experienced the vigilance task as stressful and demanding. However, the fragrances had no impact on the latter measures. These results provide the initial experimental evidence to indicate that fragrances can enhance signal detectability in a task demanding sustained attention, though the exact characteristics of effective fragrances have yet to be determined.
A study was conducted over 24 days to evaluate the effects of three environmental enrichment techniques (frozen balls of ice containing fish, various scents, hanging logs) on four captive African lions (Panthera leo). Behavioural data on activity level and behavioural diversity were collected daily during a baseline and an enriched session. All enrichments produced positive changes in behaviour. Enrichment was also associated with increased use of space by the lions. The enrichment techniques evaluated in this study each produced distinct and positive changes in behaviour thus reinforcing the need for variety to be exercised in captive enrichment programmes. Providing different enrichments allows animals to perform a greater range of behaviours, become more active in captivity, and will decrease the likelihood of habituation to certain enrichment items. Environmental enrichment should be a part of any management protocol for animal welfare and health.
The sedative properties of the essential oil of Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Miller) and of its main constituents--linalool and linalyl acetate--were investigated in mice followed up in a series of experimental procedures. The significant decrease in the motility of female and male laboratory animals under standardized experimental conditions is found to be closely dependent on the exposure time to the drugs. Nevertheless after an injection of caffeine into mice a hyperactivity was observed which was reduced to nearly a normal motility only by inhalation of these fragrance drugs. In particular the correlation of the motility of the animals to linalool in serum is experimentally proven, thus furnishing evidence of the aromatherapeutical use of herbal pillows employed in folk medicine since ancient times in order to facilitate falling asleep or to minimize stressful situations of man.
Plasmacortisol levels were examined to assess the stress of dogs in a county animal shelter. Groups of dogs confined in the shelter for their 1st, 2nd, or 3rd day had higher cortisol levels than did a group maintained in the shelter for more than 9 days. Dogs in the shelter for an intermediate period (Day 4-9) had intermediate levels of cortisol. The cortisol concentrations of dogs during their first day in the shelter were greater than either those of the same dogs on Day 4/5 in the shelter or those of a group of pet dogs sampled in their own homes. There was no overall effect of 20 min of social interaction with a human (e.g., petting) on the plasma cortisol levels of dogs in the shelter on Day 1-3. However, the gender of the petter did affect cortisol levels. Those dogs interacting with a female had lower cortisol concentrations at the end of the session than did dogs interacting with a male. The results suggest that confinement in a public animal shelter produces a prolonged activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Further, it appears that some subtle aspect of interaction with a human may be capable of moderating this response. Possible implications for the welfare of confined dogs, and for the development of behavior problems in dogs obtained from shelters, are discussed.
To observe pigs during road journeys in order to establish whether lavender straw was likely to decrease stress and incidence of travel sickness.
Forty 70-kg Large White pigs were transported by road for 2 hours, 20 animals each day, over a 2-day period.
On day 1, ample wheat straw was provided as bedding such that the floor of the vehicle was entirely covered (straw condition). On day 2, lavender straw was provided as bedding (lavender condition). During the journey, direct behavioral observations of the individually marked pigs were made by scanning every 10 minutes for incidence of standing and lying along with the less severe symptoms of travel sickness (foaming at the mouth and repetitive chomping). Incidences of retching and vomiting were noted as they occurred. A general activity index was also scored every 10 minutes (5 = high activity, 1 = low activity). Saliva samples were taken from each animal at different stages of the journey for analysis of cortisol.
Pigs stood more when in the straw condition, but were more active when standing in the lavender condition. Symptoms of travel sickness appeared to be less acute in the lavender condition, with more animals exhibiting the less severe symptom, foaming and chomping (a total of 3 in straw compared with 6 in lavender), but fewer animals showing the more severe symptoms of retching and vomiting (in straw, 3 retched, 6 vomited; in lavender 0 retched, 3 vomited). A total of 6 animals retched or vomited in the straw condition but only 3 in the lavender. There was a significant difference in mean concentrations of cortisol between conditions but this was due to a difference in mean baseline concentrations between groups.
Addition of lavender straw appeared to decrease incidence and severity of travel sickness but not overall levels of stress (as measured by concentrations of salivary cortisol).
The present study was conducted to further explore plant-derived essential oils that possess an anticonflict effect using the Geller type conflict test in ICR mice. The benzodiazepine anxiolytic diazepam increased the response (lever pressing) rate during the alarm period (i.e., an anticonflict effect), but the 5-HT1A partial agonist buspirone did not. Oils of juniper, cypress, geranium and jasmine did not produce any effect in this test. Frankincense oil decreased the response rate during the safe period at 1600 mg/kg, but did not exhibit any effect on the response rate during the alarm period. In contrast, lavender oil increased the response rate during the alarm period in a dose-dependent manner in the same manner as diazepam. These results indicate that not only rose oil but also lavender oil possess an anticonflict effect in mice.
This study was designed to assess the olfactory impact of the essential oils of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and rosemary (Rosmarlnus officinalis) on cognitive performance and mood in healthy volunteers. One hundred and forty-four participants were randomly assigned to one of three independent groups, and subsequently performed the Cognitive Drug Research (CDR) computerized cognitive assessment battery in a cubicle containing either one of the two odors or no odor (control). Visual analogue mood questionnaires were completed prior to exposure to the odor, and subsequently after completion of the test battery. The participants were deceived as to the genuine aim of the study until the completion of testing to prevent expectancy effects from possibly influencing the data. The outcome variables from the nine tasks that constitute the CDR core battery feed into six factors that represent different aspects of cognitive functioning. Analysis of performance revealed that lavender produced a significant decrement in performance of working memory, and impaired reaction times for both memory and attention based tasks compared to controls. In contrast, rosemary produced a significant enhancement of performance for overall quality of memory and secondary memory factors, but also produced an impairment of speed of memory compared to controls. With regard to mood, comparisons of the change in ratings from baseline to post-test revealed that following the completion of the cognitive assessment battery, both the control and lavender groups were significantly less alert than the rosemary condition; however, the control group was significantly less content than both rosemary and lavender conditions. These findings indicate that the olfactory properties of these essential oils can produce objective effects on cognitive performance, as well as subjective effects on mood.
Previous research has indicated that odorant presentations can have both positive and negative effects on psychological perceptions of athletic task performance. The present study extends past research by assessing how the administration of peppermint odor affects actual athletic task performance. Forty athletes undertook a series of physical tasks under conditions of no-odor or peppermint odor. The peppermint odor condition resulted in increases in running speed, hand grip strength, and number of push-ups, but had no effect on skill related tasks such as basketball free-throw shots. The implications are particularly salient in regard to enhancing athletic performance using a nonpharmacological aid and as an adjunct to athletic training and physical therapy.
Male and female subjects performed several tasks either in the presence or absence of an environmental source of positive affect (pleasant artificial scents produced by two commercially manufactured air-fresheners). Consistent with the findings of previous research on the impact of positive affect, results indicated that several aspects of subjects' behavior were influenced by this variable. Participants exposed to pleasant scents set higher goals on a clerical coding task and were more likely to adopt an efficient strategy for performing this task than subjects not exposed to such conditions. In addition, males (but not females) reported higher self-efficacy in the presence of pleasant artificial scents than in their absence. Participants exposed to pleasant scents also set higher monetary goals and made more concessions during face-to-face negotiations with an accomplice. Finally, subjects exposed to pleasant scents reported weaker preferences for handling future conflicts with the accomplice through avoidance and competition. Analyses of covariance suggested that these differences stemmed largely from contrasting levels of positive affect among subjects in the neutral and pleasant scent conditions. Together, these results suggest that pleasant artificial scents may provide a potentially useful means for enhancing the environmental quality of work settings, and hence the performance and attitudes of persons in them.
An odor of ambiguous quality was shown to shift in rated odor character after presentation of more prototypical odors, always in a direction contrasting with the previous context. The terpene aroma compound, dihydromyrcenol, is perceived as partially woody (pine-like) and partially citrus (lime-like) in odor character. Citrus ratings of this odor increased following exposure to woody odors. Conversely, woody ratings of dihydromyrcenol increased following exposure to citrus odors. Possible explanations for this sequential contrast effect include shifts in cognitive category boundaries, response frequency biases, and simple sensory adaptation.
The effects of the odors of lavender and cloves on three cognitive skills—memory, affective reaction to the experiment and mood—of college students are studied in two sessions, separated by 1 week. Essential oils of lavender or cloves were diffused throughout the laboratory, or no odor was presented. In the second session, approximately the same number of subjects from each odor condition of the first session influenced arithmetic reasoning in the first session (3 × 3 factorial design). Lavender adversely influenced arithmetic reasoning in the first session. At the same time, subjects' affective reactions to the experiment were more favorable with lavender present, though cloves decreased willingness-to-return. In the second session, effects on cognitive functioning were not evident, and effects on affect were complex: relative to no-odor controls, groups that had odor in at least one session expressed negative affect and unwillingness-to-return. Discussion concerned implications for the claim that lavender is physiologically relaxing, the surprising absence of an effect of an effect of odor change on memory, and possible interactions of odor and personality factors.
The value of olfactory enrichment for captive-housed animals is now well recognised. Large cats have been shown to benefit from the introduction of odours to their captive environment, but to date the effect of odour introduction on the behaviour of small cats remains unknown. This study investigated the behaviour of six zoo-housed black-footed cats, Felis nigripes, in response to four odours (no odour [control], nutmeg, catnip and body odour of prey) introduced individually on cloths into the animals’ pens over a period of 5 days. It was hypothesised that the cats’ behaviour would differ significantly between the control and experimental odours and that interest in the experimental odours would wane over time. All of the experimental odours influenced the cats’ behaviour, resulting in an increase in the amount of time that the animals spent in active behaviours, i.e. moving (average increase of 8.3%), grooming (average increase of 5.9%), exploring the cloth (average increase of 10.9%) and exploring the pen (average increase of 9.2%). The experimental odours also resulted in a decrease in the amount of time that the cats spent in sedentary behaviours, i.e. standing (average decrease of 2.8%), sitting (average decrease of 5.2%) and resting (average decrease of 25.9%). Nutmeg exerted less of an effect on the cats’ behaviour than catnip or odour of prey. The cats’ response to all of the experimental odours waned over the course of the 5-day observation period, suggesting that the animals habituated to the stimuli. The results highlight the potential for odour to be employed as a method of environmental enrichment for small captive-housed felids, if presented in an appropriate manner.
An experiment was conducted to investigate the potential effects of pleasant fragrances on task performance. Participants performed a word formation (anagrams) task under moderate or low stress and in the presence or absence of two different fragrances previously rated as pleasant by a large group of judges. In addition, some participants received a small gift at the start of the experimental session. Results indicated that both exposure to pleasant fragrances and receipt of a small gift significantly increased performance on the anagrams task; moreover, this was true under conditions of moderate as well as low stress. In addition, both exposure to pleasant fragrances and receipt of a small gift increased participants' willingness to help the experimenter by serving as uncompensated volunteers. These results are consistent with an interpretation suggesting that pleasant fragrances can enhance task performance by serving as a source of environmentally generated positive affect.
Traditionally, match-to-sample designs are used for forensic scent identifications: the scent of a perpetrator on a corpus delicti is matched to the scent of a suspect. In a number of cases, e.g. when the suspect is innocent, no match is possible, which leads to specific difficulties. In a new design an odd-even paradigm was followed, and care was taken to meet forensic prerequisites in the experimental setup. Four dogs were trained to compare a human scent (odour 1) on stainless steel tubes, training objects, or typical forensic objects to a human scent on a stainless steel tube (odour 2). Comparisons could be either 'odd' (1 not equal 2) or 'even' (1 = 2). If the dogs performed poorly in the beginning of an experimental series, they were disqualified from making forensically interesting comparisons. Realistic experiments demonstrated the ability of dogs to compare scents following this protocol, but also showed that the results were influenced by the type of odour 1 and by the type of comparison. The performance of the dogs is compared to the performance of operational dogs in a match-to-sample design: the level of matching 'even' scents is comparable, but the level of non-matching in 'odd' comparisons is substantially higher in the new design. Scent identifications following an odd-even paradigm seem to be more reliable than the customary design. Introducing this new design would however require significant changes in attitude and working conditions of the police.
Many institutions which house dogs cage their animals separately in an attempt to reduce the transmission of disease and/or injury. Under such conditions, dogs are usually able to receive auditory and olfactory stimulation from other animals. However, many kennels are designed in such a way to prevent visual contact with conspecifics. To date, the influence of visual conspecific contact on the behaviour of sheltered dogs has not been specifically addressed. This research examined the effects of visual contact with other dogs on the behaviour of dogs housed in a rescue shelter. Four hundred and seven dogs were studied: 212 dogs were housed in cages that allowed for visual contact with dogs in opposite pens; 195 dogs were deprived of visual contact with other dogs by being housed in cages opposite empty pens. The dogs' position in the cage (front, middle, back), activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over a 4 h period. Dogs which were allowed visual conspecific contact spent significantly more of their time at the front of the pen (in a position to see other dogs) than animals denied such contact (87.7% vs. 24.6%, respectively). Visual canine contact had no effect on dog activity or vocalisation, and it is suggested that tactile contact is necessary before these behaviours are altered. Overall, results indicate that where dogs have the opportunity to observe others dogs, they take it. Where dogs are housed singly, the provision of visual intraspecific contact may help to reduce the under-stimulation commonly associated with single housing. Housing dogs in conditions which encourage the animals to the front of the cage, e.g., constructing pens which face opposite each other, may also help to improve a dog's chances of finding a new home by positively promoting visitors' perceptions of dog desirability.
Domestic dogs can be housed in a variety of confined conditions, including kennels, shelters and laboratories. Concern over the well-being of dogs housed in human care has prompted much research in recent years into the enrichment of environments for kennelled dogs. This paper highlights the findings and recommendations arising from this work. Two types of general enrichment method are discussed, namely animate (i.e. enrichment through the provision of social contacts with conspecifics and humans) and inanimate (i.e. enrichment through the provision of toys, cage furniture, auditory and olfactory stimulation). The benefits and, where relevant, possible disadvantages, to these various types of enrichment method are highlighted throughout.
Because of very real practical constraints, conditions in animal shelters are often reminiscent of those in early primate deprivation studies. Dogs are frequently surrendered to shelters because of behavior problems, and aspects of the shelter environment may induce anomalous behavior, increasing the chances that adopted dogs will be returned to the shelters. Comparative psychologists, psychobiologists, and other behavioral scientists possess the knowledge and techniques to help shelters intervene in this cycle. Experience suggests human interaction and the application of basic conditioning procedures can reduce the impact of the shelter environment, and ease the transition into the adoptive home. A program developed to meet these goals is described. Shelters can provide opportunities both for the training of students in animal-related exercises and for limited applied research. Behavioral scientists stand in a unique position to help transform conditions in animal shelters to the benefit of all involved.
The behavior of visitors towards dogs housed in rescue shelters has been subject to little research. This study explored the behavior of 76 visitors to a rescue shelter in Northern Ireland as they toured the dogs' kennels. The number of dogs that visitors stopped to look at, the nature of all interactions that visitors initiated with the dogs and the outcome of the visitors' tour of the shelter, were examined. The influence of the visitors' sex and the size of the group touring the kennels, on the visitors' behavior was also explored. On average, the visitors stopped to look at 29% of the total number of dogs available for purchase. Dogs housed in cages closest to the shelter entrance were more likely to attract attention from the visitors than those housed further away. When they stopped to look at a dog, visitors spent an average of 70 seconds in front of the animal's cage. Thirty-one of the visitors initiated an interaction with a dog, which lasted for an average of 20 seconds. Three visitors purchased a dog at the end of their tour of the shelter. Individuals who purchased a dog spent significantly more time standing in front of their future pet's cage, and engaged in more interactions with this animal, than dogs that they did not purchase. The size of the group touring the shelter was significantly related to the visitors' behavior. Individuals touring the shelter alone stopped in front of more dogs' cages, spent more time in front of the dogs' enclosures, initiated more interactions, and purchased more dogs, than those visiting in pairs or groups. The visitors' sex was unrelated to their behavior. The findings suggest that visitors to rescue shelters only show an interest in a small proportion of dogs available for purchase. Elucidating exactly what factors influence visitors' perceptions of, and behavior towards, sheltered dogs may further our understanding as to why so many animals are overlooked for purchase every year.
This study explored the influence of five types of auditory stimulation (human conversation, classical music, heavy metal music, pop music, and a control) on the behaviour of 50 dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each type of auditory stimulation for 4 h, with an intervening period of one day between conditions. The dogs' position in their kennels (front, back), their activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and their vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over 4 h at 10 min intervals during each condition of auditory stimulation. The dogs' activity and vocalisation were significantly related to auditory stimulation. Dogs spent more time resting and less time standing when classical music was played than when any of the other stimuli were played. Exposure to heavy metal music encouraged dogs to spend significantly more of their time barking than did other types of auditory stimulation. Classical music resulted in dogs spending significantly more of their time quiet than did other types of auditory stimulation. It is suggested that the welfare of sheltered dogs may be enhanced through exposure to appropriate forms of auditory stimulation. Classical music appears particularly beneficial, resulting in activities suggestive of relaxation and behaviours that are considered desirable by potential buyers. This form of music may also appeal to visitors, resulting in enhanced perceptions of the rescue shelter's environment and an increased desire to adopt a dog from such a source.
Every year sees an increase in the number of dogs admitted to rescue shelters. However well these dogs are cared for in the shelter it cannot be ignored that being in such a situation is stressful and the time spent in the shelter may change the dogs' behaviour which may in turn influence their chances of being bought from the shelter. This research examined the behaviour of stray and unwanted dogs on their first, third and fifth days in an Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (USPCA) shelter. A questionnaire was also distributed to members of the public to determine how popular the USPCA was as a place from where to purchase a dog, and what factors about a dog's physical characteristics, behaviour and environment influenced potential buyers. Results revealed no significant difference between the behaviour of stray and unwanted dogs although the public viewed stray dogs as much less desirable than unwanted dogs. Time in the shelter had no adverse effects on the dogs' behaviour. Indeed those changes which did occur during captivity, dogs being more relaxed in the presence of people and eating food more quickly, may be considered as positive changes. The USPCA was viewed as a popular place from which to buy a dog. Off actors influencing the public's choice, the dog's environment and behaviour appeared more important than its physical characteristics. The presence of a toy in the dog's cage greatly increased the public's preference for the dog, although the toy was ignored by the dog. The welfare implications of sheltering dogs are discussed
Animal rescue shelters provide temporary housing for thousands of stray and abandoned dogs every year. Many of these animals fail to find new homes and are forced to spend long periods of time in kennels. This study examined the influence of the length of time spent in a rescue shelter (<1 month, 2-12 months, 1-5 years, >5 years) on the behaviour of 97 dogs. The dogs' position in their kennels (front, back), their activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and their vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over a 4 h period at 10 min intervals. The dogs' behaviour was significantly related to the length of time the animals had spent in the rescue shelter. Dogs housed in the shelter for over five years spent more of their time at the back of their kennels, more time resting, and less time barking than dogs housed in the shelter for shorter periods of time. The age of the dog could not account for the significant results found, suggesting that environmental factors were responsible for the change in the dogs' behaviour. The findings suggest that lengthy periods of time spent in a captive environment may encourage dogs to behave in a manner that is generally considered unattractive by potential buyers. This may decrease the chances of such dogs being adopted, resulting in longer periods of time spent in the kennel environment and the possible development of further undesirable behaviours.
Recorded EEG data from 20 adults while they inhaled room air through the mouth or the nose. It was found that EEG alpha activity in the left hemisphere was reduced for Ss inhaling through the nose and that EEG beta activity showed greater spatial diversity during nose inhalations. Results demonstrate that room air passing through the nose has a desynchronizing effect on EEGs and may contain odor information not available through mouth inhalation. Findings support the hypothesis that undetected odors markedly alter ongoing central nervous system (CNS) activity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Fragrance compounds and essential oils with sedative effects influence the motility of mice in inhalation studies under standardized conditions. A significant drop in the motility of mice was registered following exposure to these fragrances. The same results were achieved when the mice were artificially induced into overagitation by intraperitoneal application of caffeine and subsequently subjected to inhalation of fragrance compounds and essential oils. These results proved the sedative effects of these fragrants via inhalative exposure in low concentrations. Blood samples were taken from the mice after a 1-h inhalation period. Chromatographic and spectroscopic methods were used to detect and characterize the actual effective compounds after solid-phase extraction. Serum concentrations of 42 different substances, including fragrance compounds, were found in low ranges (ng/mL serum). The results contribute to the correct interpretation of the term aromatherapy (i.e., a stimulating or sedative effect on the behaviour of individuals only upon inhalation of fragrance compounds).
Abstract Effects of aromatherapy (odorless condition, lavender, and hiba oil) on mood and anxiety were investigated in 14 female patients who were being treated with chronic hemodialysis. A control period consisting of natural hospital smells was established before each test session, and then aromatic test conditions were systematically evaluated for odorless conditions as well as aromatic conditions containing lavender and hiba oil aromas. The effects of aromatherapy were measured using the Hamilton rating scale for depression (HAMD) and the Hamilton rating scale for anxiety (HAMA). Hiba oil aroma significantly decreased the mean scores of HAMD and HAMA, and lavender aroma significantly decreased the mean scores of HAMA. The mean scores of HAMD and HAMA in an odorless condition were not significantly different from those of the control conditions. These results indicate that in chronic hemodialysis patients hiba oil is an effective, non-invasive means for the treatment of depression and anxiety, and that lavender alleviates anxiety.
Thesis (Ph. D.)--Queen's University of Belfast, 1996.
Twenty-two subjects were asked to visualize positive and negative phrases following exposure to either chamomile oil or placebo. Chamomile oil significantly increased the latency for all images, and shifted mood ratings and frequency judgements in a more positive direction, suggesting a possible mode of action for such oils.
One hour after the addition of 0.5 ml rosemary oil per cage for evaporation (141 of volume) the concentration of 1,8-cineole in the blood, 11.15 nl/g, approached that in the breathing air, 13.65 nl/ml. Inhalation and oral administration of various doses of rosemary oil produced dose-related increases in blood levels of 1,8-cineole. An increase in locomotor activity was observed in both cases. The disappearance of 1,8-cineole from the blood immediately after the termination of a 60-min inhalation period was biphasic: a rapid phase of elimination of about 10 min with a short blood half life (t/2 = 6 min) was followed by a slower rate of elimination (t/2 = 45 min).
Since the blood levels of 1,8-cineole (if taken as an indicator for the blood levels of rosemary oil) associated with the stimulation of locomotor activity were similar regardless of whether the oil was administered by inhalation or orally, it is suggested that the stimulation of locomotor activity by rosemary oil is due at least in part to the direct pharmacological action of one or more of its constituents.
We found that inhaling chamomile oil vapour decreased restriction stress-induced increases of plasma ACTH level in ovariectomized rat. The plasma ACTH level decreased further when diazepam was administered along with inhaling chamomile oil vapour. Flumazenile blocked the decrease in plasma ACTH level induced by inhaled chamomile oil vapour.
EEG activity, alertness, and mood were assessed in 40 adults given 3 minutes of aromatherapy using two aromas, lavender (considered a relaxing odor) or rosemary (considered a stimulating odor). Participants were also given simple math computations before and after the therapy. The lavender group showed increased beta power, suggesting increased drowsiness, they had less depressed mood (POMS) and reported feeling more relaxed and performed the math computations faster and more accurately following aromatherapy. The rosemary group, on the other hand, showed decreased frontal alpha and beta power, suggesting increased alertness. They also had lower state anxiety scores, reported feeling more relaxed and alert and they were only faster, not more accurate, at completing the math computations after the aromatherapy session.
The majority of sheltered dogs are overlooked for purchase because they are considered undesirable by potential buyers. Many factors may determine a dog's appeal, although of interest here are the dog's behaviour and cage environment which can influence its desirability. People prefer dogs which are at the front rather than the back of the cage, quiet as opposed to barking, and alert rather than non-alert. Potential buyers also prefer dogs which are held in complex as opposed to barren environments. This study examined the behaviour of sheltered dogs in response to environmental change, to determine whether it influenced dog behaviour in ways that could be perceived as desirable to potential dog buyers, and/or had any effect upon the incidence of dogs purchased from the shelter. One hundred and twenty dogs sheltered by the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals were studied over a 4-h period. The dogs' position in the cage, vocalisation, and activity were investigated in response to increased human social stimulation, moving the dog's bed to the front of the cage, or suspending a toy from the front of the dog's cage. Social stimulation resulted in dogs spending more time at the front of the enclosure, more time standing, and slightly more time barking. Moving the bed to the front of the cage encouraged dogs to this position, but did not influence activity or vocalisation. Suspending a toy at the front of the pen exerted no effect on dog behaviour, although its presence in the pen may help to promote more positive perceptions of dog desirability. The incidence of dogs purchased from the rescue shelter increased whenever the dogs' cages were fitted with a bed at the front of the pen, whenever the dogs were subjected to increased regular human contact, and whenever a toy was placed at the front of the enclosure. Findings highlight the important role that cage environment can play in shaping the behaviour of sheltered dogs and influencing whether or not an animal will become purchased.
Various plant-derived essential oils (EOs) have traditionally been used in the treatment of mental disorders, despite a lack of scientific evidence. In a previous study, we demonstrated that certain EOs possess behavioral effects, a finding that supports our original hypotheses that EOs possess psychoactive actions. The present study was conducted in order to obtain further evidence to support our hypothesis. Peppermint oil, a type of EO, is believed to be effective for treating mental fatigue. When the oil was administered intraperitoneally to ICR mice, the ambulatory activity of mice increased dramatically. We identified alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, (R)-(+)-limonene, 1,8-cineol, isomenthone, menthone, menthol, (R)-(+)-pulegone, menthyl acetate and caryophyllene as constituent elements of peppermint oil by GC-MS analysis. We then examined the effect of each constituent element of peppermint oil on ambulatory activity in mice. Intraperitoneal administration of 1,8-cineol, menthone, isomenthone, menthol, (R)-(+)-pulegone, menthyl acetate and caryophyllene significantly increased ambulatory activity in mice, suggesting that these chemicals are the behaviorally active elements of peppermint oil. Intravenous administration of these substances to mice induced a significant increase in ambulatory activity at much lower doses. The present study provides further evidence demonstrating that EOs possess pharmacological actions on behavior. In addition, our finding revealed that the action of peppermint oil comes from its constituent elements.
The effect of the lavender odorant on a Japanese version of Cox and Mackay's stress/arousal adjective checklist for three groups was studied. One group of 14 was placed into a (2 x 2- x 3 m) sound protected room for 20 min without the presentation of an odor, an analogous group of 15 received the odor oil, and one group of 13 received a nonstressful condition. Analysis suggested that lavender odorants were associated with reduced mental stress and increased arousal rate.
The perception of odors is well identified as having strong emotional correlates. The effects of ambient odors on arousal level and task performance have also been suspected but remain poorly assessed in the literature. The present study compared the reaction times of subjects between ambient odor conditions (pleasant and unpleasant) and a no-odor condition. The results showed that the reaction time in simple tasks (responses to visual or auditory stimulation) significantly decreased in the ambient odor conditions (whatever the pleasantness of the odors) compared with the no-odor condition. These results underline the importance of the olfactory environment in human behavior.
It has been reported that cedarwood oil has sedative effects when inhaled. In this study, we evaluated sedative effects of inhaled cedrol, which is a major component of cedarwood oil. Accumulative spontaneous motor activity was significantly decreased in the cedrol-exposed Wistar rats. Similar results were confirmed in caffeine-treated Wistar rats, spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), and ddY mice. In addition, exposure to cedrol prolonged pentobarbital-induced sleeping time in Wistar rats. To investigate whether cedrol, which has a very faint aroma, affects the olfactory system, the nasal cavities of Wistar rats were treated with zinc sulfate to reduce olfactory function. Two days later, the pentobarbital-induced sleep time was measured as described above. Compared to intact rats, the sleep prolongation effect was decreased in a lavender-roman chamomile mixed oil exposure positive control group, indicating that olfactory function was impaired. In contrast, prolongation of the sleeping time did not change in the cedrol exposure group. The above findings indicate that cedrol inhalation had marked sedative effects regardless of the animal species or the functional state of the autonomic nerves, suggesting that the mechanism of action is via a pathway other than the olfactory system.
Subjective and respiratory differences of fragrances: interactions with hedonics Dogs in animal shelters: problems suggestions and needed expertise
- G E Schwartz
- D Whitehorn
- J C Hernon
- M Jones
- D S Tuber
- D D Miller
- K A Caris
- R Halter
- F Linden
- M B Hennessy
Schwartz, G.E., Whitehorn, D., Hernon, J.C., Jones, M., 1986. Subjective and respiratory differences of fragrances: interactions with hedonics. Psychophysiology 23, 460. Tuber, D.S., Miller, D.D., Caris, K.A., Halter, R., Linden, F., Hennessy, M.B., 1999. Dogs in animal shelters: problems suggestions and needed expertise. Psychol. Sci. 10, 379–386.
Measuring Behaviour Effects of ambient odours on reaction time in humans
- P Martin
- P Bateson
- Cambridge
- J L Millot
- G Brand
- H Morand
Martin, P., Bateson, P., 1986. Measuring Behaviour. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Millot, J.L., Brand, G., Morand, H., 2002. Effects of ambient odours on reaction time in humans. Neurosci. Lett. 322, 79–82.
The performance of dogs in identifying humans by scent. PhD thesis. Department of Criminalistics and Forensic Science The Netherlands Making scents: using the olfactory senses for lion enrichment
- G A A Schoon
Schoon, G.A.A., 1997. The performance of dogs in identifying humans by scent. PhD thesis. Department of Criminalistics and Forensic Science, University of Leiden, The Netherlands. Schuett, E.B., Frase, B.A., 2001. Making scents: using the olfactory senses for lion enrichment. Shape Enrichment 10, 1–3.
On a roll: novel objects and scent enrichment for Asiatic lions
- Pearson
Pearson, J., 2002. On a roll: novel objects and scent enrichment for Asiatic lions. Shape Enrichment 11, 7–10.
Reduction of mental stress with lavender odorant
- Motomura