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Climate change and the contribution of transport: Basic facts and the role of aviation
Abstract
There is a world-wide consensus that climate change policy has to be intensified to achieve reduction goals set for 2020 and 2050. But it is heavily debated which contribution should be expected from the transport sector. It is often argued that in the transportation sector CO2 marginal mitigation costs are higher such that – together with high growth of transport activities – the reduction targets for this sector should be relaxed. Green transport policy is contrasting this view and underlines that considerable reductions of climate gases in the transport sector are possible without risking economic prosperity. The aviation industry is in the focus of this discussion and first attempts are being made in the European Union to integrate aviation in an emission trading system. It will be shown that the impact of this policy will be very low in the medium term and that additional measures are necessary to create enough incentives for the aviation industry to exploit their reduction potential.
... In addition, the slow development in air technology means it is urgent to address the efforts required for regulation to ensure that the air travel demand does not exceed the sustainable rate of growth. The aviation and tourism industries must show interest in improving their environmental performance in order to cultivate a positive image and avoid drastic policy actions in the future [2]. ...
... For instance, the aviation industry contributes between 1% and 2% of human-made CO 2 emissions and other forms of emissions such as NOx. Some efforts have to be made if the goal is to achieve a more sustainable aviation sector [2]. In this aim, it is paramount to establish emissions targets for the aviation industry. ...
... For instance, one historical tendency in the aviation sector is to take the view that the economic benefits of the sector outweigh its costs in terms of contamination and congestion. However, significant empirical evidence shows that this is not true [2,3,8]. Therefore, internalizing such costs is the first step towards a change in the current scenario. ...
The existence of aviation subsidies can exacerbate congestion in airports that operate near their maximum threshold. One of the main operational issues in airports, that is, aircraft taxiing operations, could become more difficult and, therefore, produce negative effects on airport capacity management. Air carrier economies, touristic mobility (leisure travel), and the environment could also be negatively affected. Greenhouse gas emissions, passenger travel time, and air carriers’ fuel costs, for example, might rise due to aircrafts’ increased taxiing time. This paper seeks to analyse the impact of regional aviation subsidies for regional hub airports in the Canary Island air traffic network; specifically, the effect it has on airports’ capacity in terms of LTO (landing and taking off) cycle delays and its repercussions for passenger travel time, air carrier economics, and the environment. Therefore, to quantify the extent that the increased traffic from subsidies cause airport ground operations to delay flights, the disturbance between aircraft categories in landing and taking off operations must be considered. The disturbance between aircrafts will be evaluated by employing a simple model of landing intervals considering two aircraft categories (i.e., ATRs-72, ATRs-42, and B737/A320 aircraft families). The above-mentioned methodology provides an approximation of the average processing rate for take-off using the ultimate capacity concept for a variety of aircrafts landing on a single runway of the airport. As a result, it must be noted that there is a potential economic and environmental impact associated with the implementation of the subsidy increase for residents’ interisland travel and from the Canary Islands to the mainland. There is also a negative effect on runways for both airports due to the capacity constraints. These impacts, however, have to be balanced with the social and economic benefits that each regional inhabitant derives from the subsidy in terms of improvement of their mobility for any purpose.
... Recent demands for low aromatic content jet fuels have shown significant increase in the last 20 years (Figure 1.)1234. This was generated by the growing of aviation. ...
... This was generated by the more severe environmental regulations and the increasing quality requirements. Nowadays reduced aromatic hydrocarbon fractions should be used necessarily for the production of jet fuels with good burning properties, too [1,3456. It cannot be left from focus that aviaton generates only 2% of the CO 2 emission of the world. ...
... For the reason of the growing demand more feedstock sources must be taken into account. By using them environment-friendly (low sulphur and aromatic content) fuels with preferable application technique properties can be produced (Figure 2.)234567891011121314151617. During the production of jet fuels efforts must be made to produce high hydrogen/carbon ratio components , so to produce n-and i-paraffins, and cycloparaffins . ...
Recent demands for low aromatic content jet fuels have shown significant increase in the last 20 years. This was generated by the growing of aviation. Furthermore, the quality requirements have become more aggravated for jet fuels. Nowadays reduced aromatic hydrocarbon fractions are necessary for the production of jet fuels with good burning properties, which contribute to less harmful material emission. In the recent past the properties of gasolines and diesel gas oils were continuously severed, and the properties of jet fuels will be more severe, too. Furthermore, it can become obligatory to blend alternative components into jet fuels. With the aromatic content reduction there is a possibility to produce high energy content jet fuels with the desirable properties. One of the possibilities is the blending of biocomponents from catalytic hydrogenation of triglycerides. Our aim was to study the possibilities of producing low sulphur and aromatic content jet fuels in a catalytic way. On a CoMo/Al 2 O 3 catalyst we studied the possibilities of quality improving of a kerosene fraction and coconut oil mixture depending on the change of the process parameters (temperature, pressure, liquid hourly space velocity, volume ratio). Based on the quality parameters of the liquid products we found that we made from the feedstock in the adequate technological conditions products which have a high smoke point (>35 mm) and which have reduced aromatic content and high paraffin content (90%), so these are excellent jet fuels, and their stack gases damage the environment less.
... This ability is an essential part of the economic development and global trade [Khan et al., 2009, Penner et al., 2000. Therefore, the transport sector is one of the fastest growing sectors consuming 26% of the global energy demand [Metz et al., 2007, Rothengatter, 2010. The number one choice to provide energy for the transport sector has always been petroleum sources [Malca & Freire, 2006], since they have optimal characteristics in terms of energy content, performance, ease of handling and price [Hemighaus et al., 2006]. ...
... The increased demand on transportation has been attributed to several reasons, such as population growth, increased income, increased motorization, increased demand on tourism and decreased transportation cost and time [Rothengatter, 2010]. The dependence on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, oil and gas has created a global concern for energy security [Omer, 2008, Hemighaus et al., 2006. ...
... The transport sector can be divided into several subsectors including road transport, marine transport, air transport and rail transport [Metz et al., 2007]. Road transport accounts for the largest share of energy use (77%), emitting about 18% of global CO 2 emissions [Rothengatter, 2010]. As for air transport, it consumes about 13% of the energy used in the transport sector [IATA, 2009b] and emits 3% of global CO 2 emissions [Anger & Kohler, 2009, Scheelhaase et al., 2009, Solomon & Hughey, 2007. ...
... CO 2 emissions from transport should be reduced by at least 50% by 2050 (ibid.). Regulations are becoming stricter to reduce transportation's impact on climate change (Fabbe-Costes et al., 2016;Chen et al., 2020) but in some sub-sectors like aviation, these regulations are considered to be insufficient and other measures are needed to be taken (Rothengatter, 2010). Furthermore, transportation and logistics is a highly relevant sector given individuals' increasing mobility worldwide. ...
... Increasing gender diversity may be one of these other measures called for by Rothengatter (2010) since women are not represented enough in the development of sustainable mobility solutions, which raises issues of transport equality and urban planning (Pojani et al., 2021). To effectively mitigate the impact of transport on climate change, all human beings should be taken into account, thus increasing gender diversity in firms in this sector would help the development of more integrated approaches that account for gender specificities and needs, and in some cases, gender diversity could even reduce the risks of corruption in the sector (Larson, 2020). ...
The criticism concerning environmental externalities of the transportation and logistics sector is mounting; hence, the purpose of this study is to investigate whether board gender diversity stimulates eco-friendly practices and to test whether a CSR strategy moderates this relationship in this sector. The data for the study were retrieved from the Thomson Reuters Eikon database between 2002 and 2019 and fixed-effects regression analysis was executed. The results indicate that female directors are influential in all aspects of eco-friendly practices while they have the greatest impact on eco-innovation. Furthermore, pursuing a CSR strategy fosters the sector's commitment to eco-friendly practices. Moreover, moderation analysis revealed that while CSR strategy moderates the association between board gender diversity and eco-innovation, moderation is not significant for resource use and emission reduction. However, when we use Shannon and Blau indices, we found stronger evidence of the moderating effect of CSR strategy between board gender diversity and eco-friendly practices. In addition, further tests indicated the existence of some quadratic relationships between test variables and eco-friendly practices. The originality of the study is arising from several aspects such as focusing exclusively on the transportation and logistics sector, adopting three proxies of board gender diversity (i.e., female proportion on board, Shannon Index, and Blau Index), exploring the interaction effect of two governance mechanisms on eco-friendly practices, and testing quadratic relationships between gender diversity and CSR strategy and eco-friendly practices. Furthermore, it investigates very specific environmental topics (i.e., eco-innovation, resource usage, and emissions) rather than CSR performance in general.
... Particularly in high-income countries, air transportation is a key ingredient of travel and a highly energy-and carbon-intensive commodity. Although aviation only currently accounts for about 3% of CO 2 emissions worldwide (Rothengatter, 2010), air travel emissions comprise 20% of tourism's global carbon footprint (Lenzen et al., 2018). Furthermore, emissions from the aviation sector are projected to grow by nearly 50% in the near future, while the United States accounts for half of all carbon-dioxide emissions from airplanes around the world (New York Times, 2016). ...
... Although it is now widely acknowledged that aviation is a major contributor to climate change (Dessens et al., 2014;Rothengatter, 2010 andWaitz, 2014), Baumeister (2017, p. 2) recently observed that "only a few studies have discussed the issue of mitigating environmental impacts through behavioral change by air passengers actively selecting airlines or flights that are less polluting." Additionally, previous studies have challenged the conventional wisdom that flying non-stop is always the cleanest option (Schipper & Rietveld, 1997). ...
... Although doing without such trips altogether would engender real hardship, many of us could cut back on them relatively easily. In other cases, particularly on shorter trips, we could travel by train or bus, modes of transportation that sometimes take longer or are less convenient, but which also generate much less carbon per kilometer traveled [23]. ...
... Aviation proponents argue that greater emissions gains may be made in other sectors at lower costs, whether we measure costs in terms of money spent to reduce emissions, profits foregone due to decreased economic growth, or both [2,23]. They may be right. ...
Avoiding potentially catastrophic global climate change is a moral imperative, demanding significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from all important transport sectors, including aviation. However, because passenger flights and freight traffic are increasing much faster than efficiency improvements, the aviation sector will not be able to reduce emissions, or even stabilize them at current levels, without direct, forceful action to reduce demand. This paper reviews the ethical principles and empirical realities supporting the case for reducing worldwide aviation traffic. It argues that most passenger air travel and air freight shipping represents unnecessary luxury consumption, which responsible moral agents should willingly reduce in order to mitigate global climate change. It considers several mechanisms for doing so, and contends that they may succeed, but only if combined with an explicit recognition and binding commitment that for the foreseeable future, aviation must be a slow-growth or no-growth sector of the world economy.
... This objective requires more than the improvement or modification of existing technologies. Technological innovation alone will not suffice to eliminate the negative impacts of aviation on the environment in the near future (Åkerman, 2005;Fluglesvedt et al., 2008;Heuwieser, 2017;Lee et al., 2009Lee et al., , 2021Okonkwo & Smith, 2016;Rothengatter, 2010). Political and social engagement is needed to establish sustainable mobility concepts that take account of people's variable relations with aviation worldwide. ...
Within engineering, economics, and the natural sciences, sustainable aviation is often configured as an ecological and economic problem, which can be solved through technological innovation. In contrast to this, we set up a research project centering on social innovation, named Human demands of sustainable aviation. In the project, we combined theories from Feminist Science and Technology Studies (FSTS) with methods from Participatory Design (PD) and practice-based Ontological Design (OD). In this paper, we use our project as a case study to analyze and discuss how users and non-users are configured within different disciplinary contexts. The findings illustrate that conceptualizations and categorizations of users and non-users are not stable. They denote highly situated phenomena that emerge out of different research approaches and understandings of innovation. Power structures that are entangled with the positions researchers take, including specific theories, methods, and (implicit) values, pervade these contexts and understandings. With this in mind, we advocate for power-critical reflections on the performative effects of knowledge making as processes of world making and for inter- and transdisciplinary research to do justice to the different life worlds we inhabit. We further argue that innovation should be based on collectively negotiated visions of how we want to live in the future, instead of predictions that project our current realities into the status quo of tomorrow.
... It is now widely acknowledged that aviation is a major contributor to climate change (Dessens et al., 2014;Rothengatter, 2010;Schafer and Waitz, 2014) even as the International Energy Agency (2020) expects global greenhouse gas emissions to plummet nearly 8 per cent in 2020 -the largest drop ever recorded. It is likely that COVID-19 may serve as a dry run for what could come -a situation where climate change will cause a similar but longer lasting disruption to global air travel. ...
... • They are simple • They can be prepared with well-known agriculture methods • They can mitigate global warming without changing the old energy conversion systems • They can be used in complicated engines like conventional turbofans (used in aerospace) [64,65] • The regulation of practices worldwide through directives and normalizations • They are available throughout the year, are inexpensive, and are distributed uniformly worldwide, unlike oil, coal, and gas • They can bring about improvement of rural areas and easily generate employment Biofuels are liquid, gas, and solid fuels that are produced based on a wide variety of techniques and mechanisms from biomass. They include bioethanol, biomethanol, biodiesel, vegetable oils, biogas, bio-syngas bio-oil, biochar (obtained after biomass pyrolysis), Fischer-Tropsch (FT) liquids, and biohydrogen (produced by gasification). ...
The emission of greenhouse gases, specifically CO 2 , has reached non-acceptable levels causing global warming with adverse effects. Owing to rigorous ongoing research, these harmful substances might be converted to beneficial sources. The main objective of this study was to review the most effective processes that might utilize carbon dioxide to produce various substances, chemicals, and energy. For this, different existing and projected short-term and long-term strategies have been presented and discussed. Specifically, processes like the artificial tree of Lackner to capture CO 2 , chemical looping combustion (CLC), the application of CO 2 in the food and processing industry, wastewater treatment, supercritical and refrigerant CO 2 , hydrogenation of CO 2 , the cultivation of microalgae, thermolysis, electrolysis, and photoelectrocatalysis techniques for producing hydrogen and biofuels, based on thermochemical processes, are the most promising ways to reduce and reuse CO 2. Such behavioral changes can lead to the exchange of CO 2 between natural reservoirs and help to maintain CO 2 equilibrium among the atmosphere, the upper mixed layer of the sea, and the deep sea. Consequently, the mean global temperature and the climate are directly affected.
... The impacts of climate change can already be observed in many places, including rising sea levels, melting ice and changing weather patterns. Transport facilities, such as seaports, airports and roads, are significantly affected by climate change (e.g., Koetse and Rietveld, 2009;Rothengatter, 2010;Yang and Ge, 2020). Among these facilities seaports are probably the most susceptible to the challenges associated with climate change, including sea level rise and powerful storms (Ng et al., 2019). ...
The two major approaches that seaport operators adopt to address climate change impacts are mitigation (CCM), i.e., reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and adaptation (CCA), i.e., adjusting the facility to moderate the negative outcomes of climate change. This paper is among the first to construct an economic model to compare the impacts of CCM and CCA in affecting the outputs of the executing port and the other ports in its network, considering the effects of market interactions. We find that both strategies can increase the executing port’s cargo traffic, and can either increase or decrease the other port’s cargo traffic depending on the market relationships between the ports. We also implement a numerical case study on four Chinese ports (Ports of Shenzhen, Xiamen, Tianjin and Hong Kong) based on our model.
... Travel pattern or behaviour relates to how individuals travel and this factor was found to differ according to demographics, ethnicity, culture and socio-economic aspects (Brand and Boardman 2008). On the other hand, different modes of transport utilized by individuals have varying contribution on their personal carbon emissions (Rothengatter 2010). The common modes of transport along with their associated emissions of CO 2 are discussed as follows. ...
Personal travelling unfavourably contributes to the emissions of greenhouse gases, which adversely causes long-term damage to the climate. In order to reduce the associated negative impacts of such activities on the environment, there is a wide consensus that enhancements and innovations in the efficiency of vehicles will not be enough, but behavioural changes are needed. For this, individuals should be able to measure their travel-related carbon emissions, and such emissions could be determined by using personal carbon footprint calculators, which proliferated during the previous decade. However, various research questions related to such calculators are yet to be answered in published literature. As such, this paper investigates how key transport-based calculators account for emissions from personal transport-related activities following a top-down analysis. In this endeavour, ten such calculators are investigated through a set of formulated research questions to analyse their scope, calculation approach used, transparency, consistency of results, communication methods utilized and platform differences. Results revealed that the calculators have varying granularity, have limited transparency, provide significantly inconsistent results in some cases and are not fully engaging end users. Based on limitations identified, recommendations have been proposed through a taxonomy to guide policy-makers towards improving such tools.
... Past growth has also had an impact on the emissions released by aircraft. For example, between 1991 and 2003, the carbon dioxide emissions caused by aviation grew by 87% (Rothengatter, 2010). Because the industry itself is currently not facing any restrictions on its emissions growth, it is estimated that aviation's share of worldwide CO2 emissions could increase by a factor between 2.0 and 3.6 between 2000 and 2050 (Owen et al., 2010). ...
Aviation plays a crucial role for economic development and social welfare, but at the same time it also significantly contributes to climate change. Therefore, if the industry wants to follow the same growth path as it has in the past, it will need to mitigate its environmental impacts more seriously or it may otherwise face regulatory restrictions. The current literature has discussed five mitigation strategies. These are technological changes, market-based changes, operational changes, regulatory changes and behavioural changes. While several authors have regarded behavioural changes as the measure with the greatest mitigation potential, it is also the measure that has received far less attention in the literature. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to investigate the potential of behavioural change as an instrument to mitigate the environmental impacts of aviation. The study is conducted in the form of a literature review. We first discuss issues related to the consumer's environmentally responsible self-concept that often conflicts with the environmental impacts of flying, the so-called flying dilemma. We then provide an overview of aviation's environmental impacts and present the five mitigation strategies in greater detail. After that we have a closer look at the concept of behavioural change. We then discuss separately measures of behavioural change from the perspective of the aviation industry and the air passengers. While the literature on the aviation industry presents many opportunities in which airlines can engage in behavioural change, the literature on air passengers is rather limited and focuses mainly on carbon offset. We instead have chosen another stream of literature that focuses on the novel idea of air passengers engaging in behavioural change by actively selecting airlines which are more environmentally friendly. We conclude this literature review with a discussion of how to bring green offer and demand together by drawing the conclusion that, in order to be able to mitigate the climate change impacts of aviation through behavioural change, an instrument to connect both ends would be needed.
... For organization economic cooperation and developed countries members, this share was even more than 29%. From different transportation methods, road transport contributes from 18% to 23% for worldwide, whereas aviation was responsible for two third of carbon dioxide emissions (Werner, 2010) [11]. In the rich countries the share of aviation, land transportation, and marine transport is even higher. ...
... Transport, which refers to the movement of people, animals or goods from one place to another, is considered as a nonseparable part of the contemporary society. Modes of travel and frequency of both local and international trips principally through road, air, rail and marine transport have a major contribution to personal carbon emissions (Chapman, 2007;Rothengatter, 2010). Transport represents 27% of global GHG emissions (EPA, 2015) and emissions from personal travel were found to steadily increase in both developed and developing countries during recent years (Brand and Boardman, 2008;Wadud, 2011;Stern, 2007). ...
... Past growth had also an impact on the emis- sions released by aircraft. For example, between 1991 and 2003, aviation's car- bon dioxide emissions grew by 87% (Rothengatter, 2010). ...
Climate change is the biggest challenge humanity has ever faced and there is no doubt that human activities are the main cause. One activity that has received much attention in this discussion is air transportation. Although its contribution is still moderate, this industry is growing at a very fast rate and with that its impact on climate change. In order to enjoy its social and economic benefits also in the future and to avoid regulatory restrictions, the industry’s contribution needs to be kept in check. Various mitigation strategies exist such as technological, market-based, operational, regulatory and behavioral changes. This dissertation focuses on behavioral change. One instrument leading towards behavioral change is the eco-label.
This dissertation presents and examines the idea of introducing an eco-label for the airline industry. It has the following two objectives: 1) to study prerequisites essential for the use of an eco-label in the airline industry and 2) to study the potential outcome an airline eco-label could have on the behavior of air passengers aiming at the mitigation of climate change.
This dissertation is based on four articles and follows a mixed-method approach. It utilizes data from two surveys (N=148, N=554), 12 industry expert interviews and flight and fuel data from secondary sources.
The results showed that it is difficult for air passengers to identify green flight options. However, air passengers actively selecting greener flight options can make a real difference as it was found that there are tremendous differences in the environmental performances of individual flights. An eco-label could promote behavioral change as it helps air passengers to easier identify greener flights. The results showed that an airline eco-label had influenced the booking decision of air passengers and led to behavioral change. Air passengers chang-ing behavior would also demand the airline industry to improve its environ-mental performance. This could also lead to more environmental competition within the industry.
Based on the findings a clear recommendation can be given to the airline industry to implement an industry wide eco-label. An eco-label would lead to behavioral change among air passengers which in turn would mean less emissions and a reduced impact of air transportation on climate change.
... In the past the aviation industry saw a growth of about 4.4 per cent per annum (ICAO 2011a) and for the future an even stronger growth is predicted (Button 2007). This growth also had an impact on the emissions released by aircrafts as between 1991 and 2003 the aviation's carbon dioxide emissions grew by 87 per cent (Rothengatter 2010). At the same time also the competition in the aviation industry has increased tremendously, due to liberalization and the opening of markets, which resulted in falling airfares bringing huge changes especially to the established airlines, mainly state carriers (Baumeister 2010). ...
In recent years there has been increasing interest in the environmental impacts of aviation, and some airlines have begun to address this issue more seriously. At the same time competition in the aviation industry has become much tougher. This study focuses on the question whether showing pro-active environmental behaviour could work as a differentiation strategy for airlines which are acting more responsibly, thus helping them to improve their competitiveness. For this purpose one airline showing strong pro-environmental behaviour in recent years was chosen as an example: Finland’s flag carrier, Finnair. This paper presents the results of a questionnaire conducted among 148 Finnair customers on their opinions and attitudes towards environmental aspects of flying, such as a modern and fuel-efficient fleet, direct flights, carbon offset, and emissions calculators. The results showed that indeed there are air passengers who consider the environment when booking a flight, although this was not the majority. The study also found that the participants saw additional value in a modern fleet and direct flights, but not all of them were ready to pay any extra for that.
... This growth has also had an impact on the emissions released by aircraft. For example, between 1991 and 2003, aviation's carbon dioxide emissions grew by 87% [6]. At the same time, however, competition in the aviation industry has also increased tremendously due to liberalization and the opening of markets, changes which have resulted in falling airfares and caused huge changes to the established airlines, state carriers in particular [7]. ...
In recent years there has been increasing interest in the environmental impacts of aviation, and some airlines have begun to address this issue more seriously. At the same time, competition in the aviation industry has become much tougher. This study focuses on the question of whether showing proactive environmental behavior could work as a differentiation strategy for airlines that are acting more responsibly, and thus help them to improve their competitiveness. This paper presents the results of a questionnaire conducted among 148 air travelers on their opinions and attitudes towards environmental aspects of flying, such as a modern and fuel-efficient fleet, direct flights, and carbon offset. The results showed that indeed there are air passengers who consider the environment when booking a flight, although they were not in the majority. The study also found that the participants saw additional value in a modern fleet, direct flights, and carbon offset, however, not all of them showed a willingness to pay a premium for those aspects.
... Indeed, with 16,000 commercial jet aircraft in the world, aviation generates more than 600 million tons of CO 2 per year which is nearly equivalent to all human activities in Africa [22]. The effects of aviation on climate change has been extensively studied by Brasseur et al. [8], Dessens et al. [14], Lee et al. [26], Penner et al. [37], Prather et al. [43], Rothengatter [45], Wuebbles et al. [59]. The aviation industry has made diverse efforts in design and materials in aircraft and different practices in order to reduce airplane fuel consumption since the past three decades. ...
The increased use of carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) has raised the environmental concerns on waste disposal and consumption of non-renewable resources as well as economic awareness for the need to recycle CFRP wastes stemming from aircraft. This study develops an optimisation approach of CFRP waste management with the simultaneous objective of minimising cost and global warming potential impacts along the the entire network. Various CFRP waste types are involved with multiple available techniques of fibre/no-fibre recovery techniques. The scenarios that are investigated are based on the current situation in France. The large inventory of the existing sites concerning aerospace CFRP industry is carried out to predict the waste quantity that is likely to be generated in the future. The objective is to develop waste allocation strategies, which are both good for economic and environmental aspects. The results obtained show that the economic interest and the environmental effect are conflicting. Transportation turns out to be an important factor of waste management.
... As a result, attempts to regulate emissions at an international level can bring more problems than solutions (Hoof, 1983, p. 189; Fahey & Curtin, 2014, p. XIV). Rothengatter points out that the ICAO, which is in sole charge of imposing taxation and charges in international civil aviation by virtue of the Chicago Convention, is unable to do so because of conflicting interests among member states (Rothengatter, 2010, p. 11). Any convention that seeks to impose such charges, and practically every convention that aims to regulate emissions at an international level, therefore has to include them, and must cooperate closely with the ICAO. ...
Emissions of black carbon from aerospace vehicles pose a challenge to international regulators. This mode of transport is still in its infancy, but is predicted to develop rapidly. Despite the lack of comprehensive scientific research, it has been argued that black carbon is the main contributor to climate change after greenhouse gases.
... So some strong government interference seems inevitable. Several studies have looked at taxes or inclusion of aviation in emission trading (Anger, 2010;Hofer et al., 2010;Rothengatter, 2010;Mayor and Tol, 2010a). The general outcome is that emissions will be reduced at very low ratios only. ...
Tourism's greenhouse gas emissions are increasing rapidly, adding to the global atmospheric CO2 concentration and to anthropogenic radiative forcing. This is arguably tourism's most profound contribution to overstepping planetary boundaries. If tourism's growth trend continues unabated, tourism will use up the world's entire carbon budget within 40 years. Drastic reductions are required. Maximum energy efficiency in transport and accommodation facilities needs to be pursued but is not enough: there is no technological fix. A radical change in behavior is needed too, in particular with respect to air travel. Reducing distances and flying less is the key to returning to a climatically safe operating space.
... All information in the Engineering and ICT pillar was derived mainly from ETPs' documentation and the literature review. Each of the four transport modes included in the first pillar was further studied in depth by means of a desk analysis (Schäfer et al., 2009;Uherek et al., 2010;Rothengatter, 2010;Cascetta, 2001). ...
Research is a key factor for a successful reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transport. This paper summarizes the main results of REACT, a project co-financed by the European Commission, which aimed to develop a European Strategic Research Agenda for low GHG transport. A literature review and a multi-stage expert consultation process were used to map technological and non-technological research areas and evaluate them according to different criteria (i.e., GHG emissions reduction, cost-efficiency, feasibility, timeframe of research stages). We consulted the research agendas of the European Technologies Platforms on transport and current EU research programs. Expert opinions were collected through web forms, interviews and participation in structured workshops. The REACT Research Agenda identified the following research priorities for a more climate-friendly transport system by 2030: (a) in the short term, cost-effective solutions consist of (1) more efficient, lighter vehicles with advanced internal combustion engines, (2) reducing road transport demand and (3) fostering GHG emission legislation; (b) in the medium/long-term, the focus shifts towards (1) electric vehicles and hydrogen, (2) Intelligent Transport Systems, and (3) spatial planning and economic and social measures to reduce transport demand. In addition, one of the main findings identified strong links between technology research and planning, social sciences and economy.
... In particular, CO 2 emissions are still growing at a rapid pace and have more than doubled over the last two decades, producing more than six times the emissions of the rail sector (Brack, 2013). This expansion is primarily due to a substantial increase of the air transport demand, expected to rise by 3.7 per cent per annum in the next years (Rothengatter, 2010; Capoccitti et al., 2010) and driven by several factors. First of all, the gradual change in consumers' behaviours has determined a growth in both tourism and trade flows (Gössling et al., 2012). ...
The attention of policy makers on aviation environmental impacts has increased meaningfully over the last years. In order to limit the CO2 emissions in the transport sector, the EU has decided to include the aviation industry in the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU-ETS), from 1st January 2012 with the Directive 101/2008/EC.
The aim of this paper is to provide an estimation of the direct costs linked to EU-ETS that the aviation sector is standing, reporting the case of Italy. In details, this work proposes a calculation of the EU-ETS direct costs that Italian airline companies under the scheme, afforded over the period 2012–2014. Then, it presents a forecast of the EU-ETS direct costs for the years 2015–2016, referring to three scenarios related to different hypotheses on emission permit price (low, medium, high bounded scenarios), and on pass-through of these costs onto final passengers. Finally, the paper measures the effects of these costs in terms of change in airfares, revenues, and social costs. The calculations are obtained by following an economic model designed by the authors, which can also be extended to investigate other sectors covered by the EU-ETS.
... That is why policy makers are more and more concerned by the future evolution of air transport, especially in Europe, and aim at limiting its CO 2 emissions (Rothengatter, 2010, Zhang et al., 2010. Against this background, the international climate negotiations aim at reducing GHG emissions as much as possible, and compatible with the objective of limiting global warming by +2 • C (degrees Celsius) compared to the pre-industrial era 3 . ...
... In recent years, several studies have found that improved aircraft technology and highly efficient allocation can reduce an aircraft's carbon dioxide emissions. In addition, changing the attitude of airline passengers toward carbon emissions during travel and expanding advocacy and public education about the understanding of carbon emissions can facilitate the implementation of low-carbon policies [10,11]. ...
An important source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is the air transport sector, which accounts for approximately 2% of global GHG emissions. Therefore, reducing GHG emissions from aircrafts has become a major challenge for transportation authorities worldwide. In recent years, much research has focused on tax ideas related to the CO2 emissions produced by air transport, such as the voluntary carbon offset (VCO). This study investigates the willingness of economy class air passengers to pay to compensate for the CO2 emissions produced during their journeys from Taiwan to Hong Kong. Together with the Spike model, a framework known as the contingent valuation (CV) method offers a way to investigate how much the air passenger would be willing to pay to offset a journey’s airplane-generated CO2 emissions. The Spike model was applied to address the problem of zero willingness to pay (WTP). The results obtained in this study are consistent with the results found in previous studies and therefore can provide valuable insights into pricing strategies for airlines.
... So with the term 'dangerous climate change' we always refer to a climate change of less than 2 C. To avoid dangerous climate change an emission reduction of 60%e90% with respect to global emissions in 2000 is needed Parry, Palutikof, Hanson, & Lowe, 2008;Rogelj et al., 2011). First, the aviation sector will not fit within such a sustainable future without a reduction in the (growth of) air transport (Lee, 2012;Mayor & Tol, 2010;Rothengatter, 2010), i.e., without changes in travel behaviour (Dubois, Ceron, Peeters, & Gössling, 2011;Peeters & Dubois, 2010). These changes refer to travelling shorter distances and a modal shift to low-carbon transport modes (Peeters & Dubois, 2010). ...
Stronger demand for medium- to long-haul air transport is the main driver of the tourism industry's increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, causing the current development of global tourism to be environmentally unsustainable. Efficiency improvements and biofuel usage are unlikely to maintain pace with the projected growth in transport volume. Therefore, curbing the growing demand for air transport has been suggested as another option for the sustainable development of tourism. However, the political and industry discourse concerning the restriction of air transport tends to label such a restriction as unethical, as such limits would impair the development that tourism brings to poor countries. This paper investigates the possible impacts of air travel restrictions on the least developed countries (LDCs) and non-LDCs by examining global tourism. The impacts on LDCs are found to be 'neutral' on average, with both losses and gains in tourist arrivals. The extent of any losses does not appear to be beyond the scope of possible economic compensation.
... The need for mechanisms that promote more efficient use of transport has encouraged the use of fuel taxes or charges, given their considerable benefits in terms of the achievement of a "double dividend" through the improved efficiency of the tax system (Bovenberg and Mooijr, 1994) and efficient compliance with the "Polluter Pays Principle". Because tourism is one of the most transport-intensive sectors, these principles have led to different purposes aimed to directly tax those activities less environmentally respectful, particularly the increase of fuel prices which is one of the last options that have recently emerged in the context of tourism policy (Mayor and Tol, 2010;Rothengatter, 2010;Tol, 2007;Zhang et al., 2010). ...
This paper estimates the monthly aggregate demand for diesel oil and gasoline in a mass tourism region, characterized for a high level of seasonality. Using time series models, price elasticities are estimated with special emphasis in evaluating differences between seasons in order to assess the consequences of a fuel tax applied exclusively during the high season. Using the case study of the Balearic Islands (Spain) from January-1999 to December-2010 results from a partial adjustment model show a relatively low price-elasticity, evidencing how the internalizing mechanism that could be argued for introducing the tax in order to reduce transport externalities does not work. Additionally no statistical differences have been found between seasons for both fuels invalidating the argument that tourism activity reacts differently to host activity.
... This highlights the crucial importance of policies aimed at reducing the negative costs associated with an increase in vehicle traffic. Cars have been recognized as being the foremost means of transport at tourist destinations (Rothengatter, 2010). In the context of tourist mobility, policymakers have a wide range of measures at their disposal to intervene in the transport market. ...
A rise in the number of tourists at many destinations and their increased mobility in host countries or regions have led to a growth in tourism-associated externalities. Although there is a trend for governments to centre their transport policies on the supply side, promoting the development of different infrastructures and services or intervening in tourism markets, this paper presents an alternative way of thinking by analysing tourist demand profiles to detect those that tend to opt for private transport. The authors investigate different strategies in tourism policies designed to reduce the number of tourists using private motor vehicle transport and to promote public, group or charter transport at destinations. Taking the Balearic Islands as a case study, discrete choice models are employed to assess different ways of modelling the transport demand function for hire cars, other private cars, public buses and coaches, and thus to identify the corrective potential of the proposed policies.
... Numerous lowemission scenarios have demonstrated that the goals of the Kyoto Protocol cannot be achieved without providing a large role for biofuels by 2050 in the global energy economy. Among the reasons why biofuels are appropriate for such a transition are the following: (i) their simplicity; (ii) their production via well-known agricultural technologies; (iii) their potential for mitigation of climate warming without complete restructuring of the current working energy system; (iv) the use of existing engines for their transportation (even considering the conventional turbofan used in aviation) (Kleiner, 2007;Rothengatter, 2010); (v) their potential to facilitate worldwide mobilization around a common set of regulations; (vi) their potential as a directly available energy source with good public acceptance; (vii) their more uniform distribution than the distributions of fossil fuel and nuclear resources; and (viii) their potential to create benefits for rural areas, including employment creation. ...
Climate change severely impacts critical facets of human capital across the life cycle. This is particularly alarming as both the frequency and intensity of extreme weather shocks continue to increase, and extremes appear to be the main channel of causality. At the same time, human capital has a vital role in driving effective climate change mitigation and adaptation. While substantial progress has been made in recent years in assessing the economic impacts of climate on economic outcomes, there has been comparatively less advancement in evaluating its effects on human capital. In this paper we provide a framework for analyzing the multiple interlinkages between climate change and human capital. We document the existing evidence on the impacts of climate change damages, and the effects of climate change mitigation and adaptation, on human capital across the life cycle. The framework distinguishes between two channels through which human capital is affected: direct effects on health, nutrition, and wellbeing, and indirect effects through changes in economic systems, markets, and through damage to infrastructure. These two channels call for different policy interventions, focusing on the different stages of the life cycle. For mitigation and adaptation, we find that while these are overall clearly beneficial, they are also associated with significant human capital costs for specific sectors and groups in society. Ignoring these costs can only lead to worse outcomes, as it can lead to diminishing public support for the required mitigation and adaptation responses.
“Aerotropolis” refers to an airport planning model, popularized and promoted by John D. Kasarda, that envisages the globally connected airport not merely as a transport and logistics facility but as a catalyst for various kinds of development, including commercial, residential, hospitality, entertainment, and retail. Under this model, the airport and its adjacent developments can become a destination in itself. Although the aerotropolis model first took root in the western world, it has become very popular in Asia, where scratch‐built aerotropolises have become important symbols of nation‐building and economic power.
The global community has aligned themselves with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Airlines could play an important role in achieving these as they facilitate air travel, offer employment opportunities, and provide other socio-economic benefits. On the other hand, air travel generates a series of socially and environmentally adverse effects. Finding a way to magnify the positive impacts and mitigate the negative ones is crucial given the projected growth of this sector. Action towards the SDGs might be a path forward but at present little is known about how individual airlines engage with the SDGs, a gap this research seeks to fill. Using the membership of the International Air Transportation Association (nearly 300 airlines), we examine airline reports, websites, and other published documents for explicit mention of the SDGs. Findings indicate that ∼30% of airlines show various levels of engagement and ∼50% refer to sustainability more broadly. Combining these results with a wide range of variables related to airline action and basic descriptors as well as government policy and regulation, we find that existing sustainability related actions taken by airlines (e.g., reporting to prominent sustainability indices and producing a CSR report) are strongly correlated with higher levels of SDG engagement. In addition, geographical location as well as ownership structure seem to impact engagement. These findings lead us to our main recommendation of developing partnerships across the sector to overcome clear barriers to engaging with the SDGs.
Negatywne efekty zewnętrzne w transporcie to problem wyjątkowo aktualny w odniesieniu do pogłębiających się zmian klimatycznych i szerzących się chorób cywilizacyjnych. W książce autorzy skupili się na szczegółowym przedstawieniu Czytelnikowi aktualnego stanu sektora transportowego w Polsce oraz wybranych teorii ekonomicznych powiązanych z pojęciem efektów zewnętrznych. Kluczowym było jednak wyczerpujące przedstawienie wybranych metod szacowania poziomu negatywnych efektów zewnętrznych transportu, co umożliwi Czytelnikowi łatwiejsze ich wykorzystanie we własnych badaniach.
The first ever ecological and ethical assessment of animal gelatin in analogue photographic film, calculating the environmental impact of film and the moral quandary that arises from using a product so tied to the structural violence of industrial animal agriculture - ultimately asking, is art a legitimate reason to exploit nonhumans and devastate our natural environment?
Air quality (AQ) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission management are the key drivers related to sustainability goal around the world today because most of the aforementioned issues are attributable to fossil fuels burning. Biofuels are the clean, alternative fuels that are derived from biomass-based resources. It addresses efficient management of air pollution problems and the collective goal of climate change mitigation. Recent times have witnessed accelerated growth in biofuel production worldwide. The Government of India has been very keen on promoting manufacture and blending of ethanol derived from sugarcane molasses, and biodiesel from non-edible and waste oils for mixing with diesel. India’s biofuel policy (2003), dealing with bio-ethanol and biodiesel, sights to channelize biofuels into the energy and transport sector to address energy security and improvement in the living standard of rural areas. Biofuels as an alternative energy source can help to lessen the dependency on imported fossil fuel oil, achieve sustainability goal and several other societal requirements.
While it may seem obvious from common sense that retail fuel prices should be higher in touristic rather than in nontouristic cities, the related empirical literature has failed either to clearly support this assumption or to qualify and quantify the effect of tourism on retail fuel prices. Using a selfcreated data set that includes prices across a large sample of petrol stations located in mainland Spain and the Balearic Islands, we seek to evaluate the effects of tourism on local destination retail petrol prices. The estimations prove three main effects: Petrol prices are higher in cities with high levels of tourism, nearby beaches, and/or with the socioeconomic influence of a national park. In fact, petrol stations add a margin of around 6.6% and 6.4% for unleaded gasoline 95 and diesel, respectively, in touristic cities. Second, the more touristic the city, the higher these prices. Third, in the case of touristic municipalities, the percentage of travelers from abroad and being within the area of influence of a national park are two of the main drivers that explain this overpricing.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an international scientific body established jointly by the United Nations (U.N.) and the World Meteorological Organization, has stood by its claim that global temperatures are rising because of rapid increases in greenhouse gas emissions caused by human activity. Accepting the IPCCs claim, therefore, the international community of states adopted a consultative agreement, the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which establishes a non-binding intergovernmental process to develop numerical targets for carbon dioxide emissions reduction. A plausible aviation emissions reduction agreement can ensure that aviation does its part by reducing the sector's emissions to a sustainable level without sacrificing its economic viability. Under the canopy of a sectoral treaty among like-minded states, international aviation can responsibly reduce its environmental impact while remaining a force for dynamic economic growth in the coming century.
Findings and conclusions: This has resulted in the identification of 277 articles from 69 journals by year of publication, journal, and topic area based on the two classification schemes related to FCO research, published between, 1973 to December- 2014. In addition, the study has identified the 4 dimensions and 98 decision variables affecting the fuel consumption. Also, this study has explained the six categories of FCO research methodologies (analytical - conceptual, mathematical, statistical, and empirical-experimental, statistical, and case studies) and optimization techniques (linear programming, mixed integer programming, dynamic programming, gradient based algorithms, simulation modeling, and nature based algorithms). The findings of this study indicate that the analytical-mathematical research methodologies represent the 47 % of FCO research. The results show that there is an increasing trend in research of the FCO. It is observed that the number of published articles between the period 1973 and 2000 is less (90 articles), so we can say that there are 187 articles which appeared in various journals and other publication sources in the area of FCO since 2000. Furthermore there is increased trend in research on FCO from 2000 onward. This is due to the fact that continuously new researchers are commencing their research activities in FCO research. This shows clearly that FCO research is a current research area among many research groups across the world. Lastly, the prices of jet fuel have significantly increased since the 2005. The aviation sector’s fuel efficiency improvements have slowed down since the 1970s–1980s due to the slower pace of technological development in engine and aerodynamic designs and airframe materials.
International aviation is growing rapidly and held responsible to contribute to about 2.5% of the global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. In answer to the increasing public and political awareness of aviation’s influence on Climate Change, from 2012 the European Union aims to include air traffic on their territory into the existing EU Emission Trading Scheme. Beside the various measures airlines can take to improve carbon intensity of their activities, joint collaboration in a global strategic alliance offers airlines an opportunity in passenger transportation to cope better with the planned regulation. In this paper we analyze the influence of a strategic alliance membership on determinants of carbon intensity in passenger transportation by using a unique data sample of the years 2004–2008. We find that alliance members on average had a higher utilization rate than non-aligned airlines, but their older average fleet age indicates that they did not take full advantage of the potentials offered through common aircraft investment activities. With regards to the planned Emissions Trading Scheme we show that European carriers on average had a better carbon intensity than Non-European airlines, so that competitive disadvantages for European airlines might be less than expected, if their carbon intensity maintains on this level.
Results from research based on Danish data and information into socio-demographic factors, long distance travel, land use and urban form, determinants of capacity utilization in freight, and the policy implications of research based knowledge
Research funding and innovation processes are key instruments to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transport. This paper presents a contribution to the development of a European strategy on climate-friendly transport research funding. A Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) was set up, in order to define research priorities, develop future roadmaps, and suggest targets that can be actually achieved in the field of climate friendly transport. The SRA future vision is inspired by the EU strategic objectives towards 2020, e.g. shares the same targets for carbon reduction. The SRA has been built taking into account the current EU research programs on transport and mobility, analyzing the research agendas of selected European Technologies Platforms, and considering the points of view of different stakeholders (market players, academics, policy makers) through a consultation process. The SRA considers all the research areas in transportation that tackle the GHG emission problem, considering not only research on technology but also on policy, economy and social issues. The identification of the most promising research areas is expected to support EU to understand what are the research topics strategically recommendable to be financed in the next decades.
Factors, such as overpopulation, resource reduction and loss of biodiversity are considered most threatening for humanity and their interaction in the history of mankind are shortly revisited. These are the driving forces that led governments worldwide to the implementation of renewable energies. Among, the renewable energies that started to contribute to the energy grid, biofuels are considered as an obligate step. Here, an attempt has been made to overview the particular case of Jatropha curcas L. and show how the international scientific community has concertedly contributed to draw it from anonymity in just few years and worked to implement it as an alternative biodiesel option to feed the energy grid.
Globally, tourism is a non-negligible contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, primarily through tourist transport, and in particular rapidly increasing air travel. A number of policy proposals to reduce GHG emissions from domestic and international aviation have been introduced between 2005 and 2009. Oil price volatility, especially since 2008, has forced airlines to make adjustments to flight schedules and even to add fuel surcharges to plane tickets. Tourism destinations dependent on long-haul air travel have expressed concern about the potential impact of change mitigation policies and high oil prices on tourist mobility and arrivals to their countries. A tourist arrivals model was constructed to examine whether aviation sector mitigation policy introduced in the major market regions of the European Union and North America, coupled with a return to recent oil price market volatility might adversely affect tourist arrivals to the Caribbean region. A sensitivity analysis that included 18 scenarios with different combinations of three GHG mitigation policy scenarios for aviation (represented by varied carbon prices), two oil price projections, and three price elasticity estimates, representing the range in the air travel economics literature, was conducted to examine the impact on air travel arrivals from eight outbound market nations to the Caribbean region. Results indicate that under proposed aviation sector mitigation policies and the range of oil price projections currently available, growth in visitor numbers through to 2020 would decrease only slightly (−1.3% to −4.3%) relative to a reference scenario based on recent growth trends. A detailed case study of Jamaica further revealed the different sensitivity of market segments (package vacations) to climate policy and oil price related increases in air travel costs and the economic implications of reduced growth in tourist arrivals. As the international policy framework for managing GHG emissions from bunker fuels (air and marine transport) solidifies, further research will be required to understand the implications for tourist mobility, tour operator routing and the longer-term risks to tourism development in the Caribbean.
In: Presentation to the Symposium on Climate Change and Transport Strategy Draft Directive for Integrating Aviation into the Emission Trading Scheme. Brussels. European Environmental Agency Climate for a Transport Change The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change
- D Edenhofer
Edenhofer, D., 2007. Costs and strategies or climate stabilization. In: Presentation to the Symposium on Climate Change and Transport Strategy. Tokyo. European Commission, 2006. Draft Directive for Integrating Aviation into the Emission Trading Scheme. Brussels. European Environmental Agency, 2008. Climate for a Transport Change. Copenhagen. INFRAS/IWW, 2004. Facts on the Competition in the European Transport Market. Research Project for the UIC. Zürich and Karlsruhe. Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change, 2007. Fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change 2007. Geneva. IWR, 2007. Internationales Wirtschaftsforum Alternative Energien. CO 2 -Ausstoß weltweit. IWR On-line. Münster. Nordhaus, W., 2007. The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change. Yale University, New Haven (CT 06511-8268).
Internationales Wirtschaftsforum Alternative Energien. CO2-Ausstoß weltweit. IWR On-line
- Iwr
Urban Transport and the Environment
- Itpc Wctrs
Presentation on concepts for CO2 reduction policy
- K H Zierock
Costs and strategies or climate stabilization
- D Edenhofer
The Economics of Climate Change