No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
An experimental comparison of the dry matter and nutrient distribution patterns of Typha latifolia L., Typha angustifolia L., Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. and Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel
Abstract
Typha latifolia L., T. angustifolia L., Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. and Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin ex Steudel were grown outdoors during the 1980–1982 growing seasons in low-nutrient sand contained in 30-1 plastic tubs treated with wide concentration ranges of nitrate-N (0, 7.8, 23.4, 46.8 or 93.6 g m−2), phosphate-P (0, 2.1, 6.3, 12.5, or 25.0 g m−2) and potassium (0, 7.8, 23.4 or 41.5 g m−2) fertilizers. Nitrate and phosphate treatments and their interaction strongly affected plant growth, while potassium had little or no effect on all of the species. Tissue production varied from 0 to 3000 g m−2. Nitrate strongly controlled distribution of dry weight between above ground and below ground tissues. The ratio of above ground:below ground dry weight varied by a factor of 3 within a species and was highest with high nitrate. Tissue content of N and P was increased 2–3 times over the levels needed for maximum growth when the respective nutrient was present in excess in the growth medium. Shoot N:P ratios of less than 4 were found with severely N-limited plants; ratios of greater than 12 were found with severely P-limited growth. Typha spp. accumulated excess P preferentially in below ground tissues. S. eurycarpum showed the least resistance to very high nitrate levels.
... À1 ); age is the age of the leaf after the emergence of the cohort (day); k co is the conversion constant from oxygen to ash-free dry weight (g g À1 CO 2 ); PAR(l) is the daily averaged active radiation (mmol m À2 d À1 ) at the l-th layer; K PAR , and K age are the half-saturation constants of PAR (mmol m À2 d À1 ) and the effect of age (days) on the rate of photosynthesis, respectively. K NP is the constant of the availability of nutrients, where K NP = 1 when nutrients are sufficient but decreases due to the shortage of nutrients (Cary and Weerts, 1984; Ulrich and Burton, 1988 ...
... Figure 5A and B show the simulated equivalent values for above-and below-ground maximum biomasses of T. latifolia at latitudes from 10 to 60 , assuming that growth was restricted only by solar radiation and temperature. Level of nutrient availability considerably regulated the above-and below-ground biomasses (Cary and Weerts, 1984; Ulrich and Burton, 1988), therefore, the results of K NP = 1 and 0Á7 have been presented. These figures also include observed biomasses of Typha [extracted from Vymazal (1995) and others listed in Table 2] for comparison. ...
... However, the below-ground biomass can increase markedly as nutrients become limited when a Typha stand invades highly calcareous wetland sediments (Grace and Wetzel, 1981a). Other studies also indicated that the below-ground to above-ground biomass ratio increases with decreasing fertility (Cary and Weerts, 1984; Ulrich and Burton, 1988). This effect of nutrient availability on the growth dynamics of Typha needs further study. ...
The latitudinal differences in the growth characteristics of Typha are largely unknown, although a number of studies have pointed out the effects of climate on the growth and productivity of Typha. Therefore, a dynamic growth model was developed for Typha to examine the effects of latitudinal changes in temperature and radiation on partitioning of the total biomass during the growing season into rhizomes, roots, flowering and vegetative shoots, and inflorescences.
After validating the model with data from growth studies of Typha found in past literature, it was used to investigate the dynamics of above- and below-ground biomasses at three latitudes: 30 degrees, 40 degrees and 50 degrees.
Regardless of the initial rhizome biomass, both above- and below-ground biomass values converged to a latitude-specific equilibrium produced by the balance between the total production and respiration and mortality losses. Above-ground biomass was high from 10 degrees to 35 degrees latitude with sufficient radiation, despite high metabolic losses; however, it decreased markedly at higher latitudes due to a low photosynthetic rate. Below-ground biomass, on the other hand, increased with latitude up to 40 degrees due to decreasing metabolic losses, and then markedly decreased at higher latitudes. Above-ground biomass was enhanced with an increasing number of cohorts regardless of latitude. However, although more cohorts resulted in a larger below-ground biomass at low latitudes, the largest below-ground biomass was provided by a smaller number of cohorts at high latitudes. This difference is due to low production rates of late-season cohorts in high latitudes, compared with consumption for shooting and establishing foliage.
The model could be used to predict the potential growth of Typha in given conditions over a wide range of latitudes and is useful for practical applications such as wetland management or wastewater treatment systems using Typha.
... We hypothesize that N supply via the surface water will increase biomass production of both paludicrops, but that T. latifolia is more responsive to increased N loads and will remove more phosphorus (P) from the soil, as it normally has lower tissue N:P ratios than P. australis (Koerselman and Meuleman 1996;Vroom et al. 2018). Increasing N loads could lead to excess N and higher N:P ratios, which may induce P or K limitation (Ulrich and Burton 1988). Furthermore, we hypothesize that P. australis will suffer from NH 4 + toxicity at high N loads (Tylová et al. 2008). ...
... This could be a result of a higher K loading throughout their experiment. Despite the low N:P ratios and expected N limitation in T. latifolia, (co)limitation of other nutrients is also possible, especially when N loads increase (Ulrich and Burton 1988). Because of very low K availability in the EA soil halfway the experiment, and therefore possible K limitation, extra K was added to all mesocosms twice. ...
Purpose
Paludiculture (crop cultivation in wet peatlands) can prevent carbon and nutrient losses while enabling biomass production. As vegetation in rewetted peatlands is often nitrogen (N) limited, input of N-rich water may promote biomass production and nutrient removal. However, it is unclear how N loading and soil characteristics affect biomass yield, nutrient dynamics, and ecosystem service provisioning in paludiculture.
Methods
We studied the influence of N loading (0, 50, 150, and 450 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) on biomass production and nutrient sequestration of Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail) and Phragmites australis (common reed) in mesocosms containing rewetted agricultural peat soil (intensively managed, near-neutral (IN)). To assess the interaction with soil characteristics T. latifolia was also grown on an extensively managed, acid (EA) peat soil.
Results
N loading stimulated biomass production and nutrient uptake of both T. latifolia and P. australis, with T. latifolia showing the most pronounced response. Biomass yield of T. latifolia was higher on IN soil than on EA soil due to the higher pH, despite lower nutrient availability. N was largely taken up by the vegetation, whereas bare soils showed N accumulation in pore and surface water, and 80% loss through denitrification. Soil phosphorus was efficiently taken up by T. latifolia, especially at high N loads.
Conclusion
N loading in paludiculture with T. latifolia and P. australis boosts biomass production while kick-starting peatland ecosystem services including nutrient removal. Nutrient availability and pH appear to be decisive soil characteristics when it comes to crop selection.
... We expect that N supply via the surface water will increase biomass production of both paludicrops, but that T. latifolia is more responsive to increased N levels and will remove more phosphorus (P) from the soil, as it normally has lower tissue N:P ratios than P. australis (Koerselman and Meuleman 1996;Vroom and Xie et al. 2018). Increasing N loads will lead to excess N and higher N:P ratios, which may induce P or K limitation (Ulrich and Burton 1988). Furthermore, we hypothesize that P. australis will suffer from NH 4 + toxicity at high N loads (Tylova et al. 2008). ...
... Despite the low N:P ratios and expected N limitation in T. latifolia, (co)limitation of other nutrients is also possible, especially when N loads increase (Ulrich and Burton 1988). Because of very low K availability in the former agricultural soil halfway the experiment, and therefore possible K limitation, extra K was added twice. ...
Purpose
Paludiculture (crop cultivation in wet peatlands) can prevent carbon and nutrient losses while enabling biomass production. As vegetation in rewetted peatlands is often nitrogen (N) limited, input of N rich water may promote biomass production and nutrient removal. However, it is unclear how N loading and soil characteristics affect biomass yield, nutrient dynamics, and ecosystem service provisioning in paludicultures.
Methods
We studied the influence of N loading (0, 50, 150, and 450 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) on biomass production and nutrient sequestration of Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail) and Phragmites australis (common reed) on a limed agricultural peat soil after rewetting. To assess the interaction with soil characteristics T. latifolia was also grown on a non-limed former agricultural soil.
Results
N loading stimulated biomass production and nutrient uptake of both T. latifolia and P. australis, with T. latifolia showing the most pronounced response. Biomass yield of T. latifolia was higher in the limed soil than in the non-limed soil due to a higher pH, despite lower nutrient availability. N was largely taken up by the vegetation, whereas bare soils showed N accumulation in pore and surface water, and 80% loss through denitrification. Phosphorus in the soil was efficiently taken up by T. latifolia, especially at high N loads.
Conclusion
N loading in paludicultures with T. latifolia and P. australis boosts biomass production while kick-starting peatland ecosystem services including nutrient removal. Nutrient availability and pH appear to be decisive soil characteristics when it comes to crop selection.
... Other studies have reported interactions between N and P availability on plant growth. Ulrich and Burton [26] found that NO 3 − -N and P supply had a strong effect on the growth of Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ...
... The ability of P. australis to adjust the NH 4 + uptake kinetic in response to high NH 4 + and P supply helps the plant to increase its capacity to exploit the excess nutrients and be able to compete with other wetland species. In contrast, in the presence of NO 3 − , it is likely that growth and P accumulation in the tissue positively correlates with NO 3 − -N when the P supply is high [26]. The hybrid Napier Pakchong 1 fed exclusively with NO 3 − -N had a slightly higher RGR at the high P concentration, while the RGR significantly increased in the NH 4 NO 3 treatment. ...
This study aimed to assess effect of nitrogen (N) form and phosphorus (P) level on the growth and mineral composition of hybrid Napier grass. Experimental plants were grown with different N forms (NO3⁻, NH4NO3, and NH4⁺; 500 µM) and P concentrations (100 and 500 µM) under greenhouse conditions for 42 days. Growth rate, morphology, pigments, and mineral nutrients in the plant tissue were analysed. At the low P concentration, the better growth was found in the plants supplied with NH4⁺ (relative growth rate (RGR) = 0.05 g·g⁻¹·d⁻¹), but at the high P concentration, the NH4⁺-fed plants had 37% lower growth rates and shorter roots and stems. At the high P level, the NH4NO3⁻-fed plants had the highest RGR (0.04 g·g⁻¹·d⁻¹). The mineral nutrient concentrations in the plant tissues were only slightly affected by N form and P concentration, although the P concentrations in the plant tissue of the NO3⁻-fed plants supplied with the high P concentration was 26% higher compared to the low P concentration plants. The N concentrations in the plant tissues did not vary between treatments. The results showed that the optimum N form for the plant growth and biomass productivity of hybrid Napier grass depends on P level. Hybrid Napier grass may be irrigated by treated wastewater containing high concentrations of N and P, but future studies are needed to evaluate biomass production and composition when irrigating with real wastewater from animal farms.
... Second, it is quite likely that the competitive balance between the Typha species may be influenced by the local abiotic conditions. A number of studies have indicated differential abiotic effects on Typha species (Hotchkiss and Dozier, 1949;McMillan, 1959;Shay and Shay, 1986;Szczepanska and Szczepanski, 1976;Beare and Zedler, 1987;Grace, 1988b andUlrich andBurton, 1988). While Weisner's observations were from a`hypertrophic' lake with total phosphorus >100 mg l À1 , our studies took place in oligotrophic systems with total water column phosphorus in the range of 0.02 mg l À1 (Geedey, 1990) at the experimental pond complex and approximately 1 mg l À1 (Boyd, 1971) in PAR Pond. ...
... Second, it is quite likely that the competitive balance between the Typha species may be influenced by the local abiotic conditions. A number of studies have indicated differential abiotic effects on Typha species (Hotchkiss and Dozier, 1949;McMillan, 1959;Shay and Shay, 1986;Szczepanska and Szczepanski, 1976;Beare and Zedler, 1987;Grace, 1988b andUlrich andBurton, 1988). While Weisner's observations were from a`hypertrophic' lake with total phosphorus >100 mg l À1 , our studies took place in oligotrophic systems with total water column phosphorus in the range of 0.02 mg l À1 (Geedey, 1990) at the experimental pond complex and approximately 1 mg l À1 (Boyd, 1971) in PAR Pond. ...
The zonation of Typha populations in an experimental pond in Michigan was re-examined 15 years after the original sampling to gain insight into the long-term dynamics. Current distributions of Typha populations were also examined in additional experimental ponds at the site that have been maintained for 23 years. The zonation between T. latifolia and T. angustifolia in the previously studied pond 15 years after the initial sampling revealed that the density and distribution of shoots had not changed significantly. Thus, it appears that previously reported results (based on 7-year old populations) have remained consistent over time. Additional insight into the interaction between these two taxa was sought by comparing mixed and monoculture stands in five experimental ponds that have remained undisturbed for their 23-year history. The maximum depth of T. latifolia, the shallow-water species, was not significantly reduced when growing in the presence of the more flood tolerant T. angustifolia. In contrast, the minimum depth of T. angustifolia was reduced from 0 to 37cm when in the presence of T. latifolia. When total populations were compared between monoculture and mixed stands, the average density of T. angustifolia shoots was 59.4 percent lower in mixed stands while the density of T. latifolia was 32 percent lower, with T. angustifolia most affected at shallow depths (reduced by 92 percent) and T. latifolia most affected at the deepest depths (reduced by 60 percent). These long-term observations indicate that competitive displacement between Typha taxa has remained stable over time.
... Up to now, the performance of the Typha genus has been mainly studied with respect to growth and tissue nutrient content (e.g. Cary and Weerts, 1984;Ulrich and Burton, 1988;Lorenzen et al., 2001;Miao, 2004). By contrast, the associated metabolic features (e.g. ...
... An additional increase in nutrient availability (hypertrophic treatment) did not further stimulate growth and some negative reactions appeared, particularly, in belowground organs. Similarly, positive effects of N, P, and their interactions on growth of T. orientalis (Cary and Weerts, 1984), T. latifolia, T. angustifolia, and other wetland species (Ulrich and Burton, 1988;Vojtíšková et al., 2004) were found only up to certain levels of available nutrients. ...
Performance of Typha angustifolia, a species common in European wetlands, was studied in connection with wetlands eutrophication. Cultivation in a sand culture was used to follow the effect of nutrient availability per se and to study, in detail, both aboveground as well as belowground organs (rhizomes and roots) of the plant in contrast to the possibilities of field study. A complex study of growth, carbohydrate, and nitrogen metabolic relationships, with respect to tissue age, was done in plants growing in nutrient solutions that differed in their levels of N and P (oligotrophic: 0.026 mM N and 0.001 mM P; eutrophic: 2.635 mM N and 0.0999 mM P; hypertrophic treatment: 9.539 mM N and 0.999 mM P).In contrast to the poor growth of Typha plants under the oligotrophic treatment, Typha coped best under the eutrophic treatment. Further increase in nutrient availability to the hypertrophic treatment did not result in additional stimulation of growth, but instead some negative reactions appeared. Changes in the growth and allocation of biomass, in favour of shoots and including rhizomes (as compared with roots) with increasing nutrient availability, were accompanied by an increase in N allocation and content of non-structural carbohydrates in these tissues. Detailed biochemical analysis revealed significant differences between tissues of different ages. These characteristics probably reflect the physiological potential of this species for their successful spreading in natural eutrophic habitats. Moreover, a decrease in the C/N ratio, decreasing proportion of starch/soluble sugars ratio, increasing proportion of hexoses/sucrose ratio (taking into account the type and tissue age of plant organs), with increasing nutrient availability, indicate high metabolic activity of the tissues at the stage of maximum growth.
... T. latifolia in the habitats exposed to high levels of disturbance allocates more resources to sexual reproduction than those in less disturbed habitats. In the dense population, more biomass is allocated to roots rather than rhizomes, implying less vegetative reproduction (Ulrich and Burton 1988;Grace and Wetzel 1981b), although no major effects of water depth were observed on reproductive state distributions. Subsequently, the hierarchy of resource allocation is proposed for T. latifolia in such an order that the first priority of resource allocation of T. latifolia is for competitive structures, then for vegetative reproduction, and finally for flowering (Grace and Wetzel 1981b). ...
... Further increase of N availability (N:P = 66) caused growth inhibition. High phosphate was also shown to alleviate the deleterious effects of high nitrate on Phragmites by Ulrich & Burton (1988). Positive growth response to moderate sewage dose was observed by Č ížková- Končalová et al. (1996). ...
Phragmites australis and Glyceria maxima are fast-growing littoral grasses often competing for similar wetland habitats. Eutrophication affects their competitiveness, but the outcome is not generally predictable due to the complexity of interrelated factors. We hypotheses that pore water N:P and NH4 (+):NO3 (-) modify their growth and metabolic responses to the trophic status of the habitat. The hypothesis was tested under standardized conditions of long-term sand cultures. Application of N + P up to extreme levels in combination with N:P < 10 and NH4 (+):NO3 (-) < 1 triggered positive growth response in both species. In contrast, similar N levels applied in N:P > 90 and NH4 (+):NO3 (-) = 4 caused lower productivity, changes in resource allocation, morphology and metabolic relations (e.g. high shoot density, low shoot diameters and heights, reduced root and rhizome growth). Observed signs of stress resembled the factors associated with the reed retreat at the die-back sites. Unbalanced N levels obviously alter plant susceptibility to stresses (altering, e.g. ventilation efficiency, plant anchorage or below-ground storage capacity). The positive effect of sufficient P supply was pronounced in Glyceria. It might therefore favour Glyceria in competition with Phragmites at highly fertile habitats rich in P.
... Considerable amount of work to be found about the spreading of reeds and other marsh vegetation in connection with different environmental conditions [10] [30] [33] [65]. ...
Abstract. In the years 2002, 2003 and 2004 we collected samples of macroinvertebrates on a total of 36
occasions in Badacsony bay, in areas of open water (in the years 2003 and 2004 reed-grassy) as well as
populated by reed (Phragmites australis) and cattail (Typha angustifolia). Samples were taken using a stiff
hand net. The sampling site includes three microhabitats differentiated only by the aquatic plants inhabiting
these areas. Our data was gathered from processing 208 individual samples. The quantity of
macroinvertebrates is represented by biovolume value based on volume estimates. We can identify taxa in
abundant numbers found in all water types and ooze; as well as groups associated with individual microhabitats
with various aquatic plants. We can observe a notable difference between the years in the volume of
invertebrate macrofauna caused by the drop of water level, and the multiplication of submerged macrophytes.
There are smaller differences between the samples taken in reeds and cattail stands. In the second
half of 2003 – which was a year of drought – the Najas marina appeared in open waters and allowed to
support larger quantities of macroinvertebrates. In 2004 with higher water levels, the Potamogeton perfoliatus
occurring in the same area has had an even more significant effect. This type of reed-grass may support
the most macroinvertebrates during the summer. From the aspect of diversity relations we may suspect
different characteristics. The reeds sampling site proved to be the richest, while the cattail microhabitat is
close behind, open water (with submerged macrophytes) is the least diverse microhabitat.
Keywords: biovolume, reed, cattail, macrophyte, macrofauna, bootstrap, Tukey-test
... Few reports on the interactive effect of N and P on plant growth are inconsistent among wetland plant species. For example, Ulrich and Burton (1988) found that N (NO 3 -N) and P treatments and their interaction strongly affected plant growth and biomass of Typha latifolia L., T. angustifolia L., Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. and Phragmites australis (Cav.) ...
The interactive effects of three levels of N (mM) (low 0.36, medium 2.1 and high 6.4) and two levels of P (mM) (low 0.10 and high 0.48) on growth and resource allocation of Canna indica Linn. were studied in wetland microcosms. After 91 days of plant growth, there was a significant interactive effect of N and P on plant growth, but not on resource allocation (except for allocation of N to leaves and allocation of P to the stems). The plant growth positively responded to the relatively higher nutrient availability (taller plants with more stems, leaves and flowers), but the growth performance was not significantly different between the medium N-low P and high N-low P treatments. At high P, the total biomass in the high N was about 51% higher than that in the medium N and about 348% higher than that in the low N. The growth performance was related to the physiological responses. The photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) increased from 0.843 to 0.855 with an increase in N additions. The photosynthetic rate increased from 13 to 16 μmol m−2 s−1 in the low P levels and from 14 to 20 μmol m−2 s−1 in the high P levels with an increase in N applications, but significant difference was only between the low and medium N levels, regardless of the P levels. The tissue concentrations of N increased with an increase in N applications and decreased with an increase in P additions, whereas reverse was true for tissue concentrations of P. The highest concentrations of N and P in leaves were 30.8 g N kg−1 in the high N-low P treatment and 4.9 g P kg−1 in the low N-high P treatment. The percent biomass allocation to aboveground tissues in the high N was nearly twice that in the low N treatments. The N allocation to aboveground tissues was slightly larger in high N than in low N treatments, whereas the P allocation to aboveground tissues increased with an increase in the N addition. Although some patterns of biomass allocation were similar to those of nutrient allocation, they did not totally reflect the nutrient allocation. These results imply that in order to enhance the treatment performance, appropriately high nutrient availability of N and P are required to stimulate the growth of C. indica in constructed wetlands.
... However, an increase in biomass production as a result of high P availability was found in Carex coriacea (Powell, 1974) and Paspalum dilatatum (Rubio et al., 1997). Ulrich & Burton (1988) and Romero et al. (1999) pointed out the important role of the N:P ratio in the substrate on the growth rate of plants. ...
The antropogenically-induced process of eutrophication is accompanied by changes in the structure and function of the whole wetland ecosystem. Since the shift in a species ability to survive in original habitats is a commonly observed feature, the performance of individual wetland plants under high nutrient load is of a particular interest. Acorus calamus is a common littoral plant species of the European wetlands, which are characteristic by high trophic status. The effect of nutrients (N, P) per se, as a key part of the complex eutrophication process on the growth, biomass allocation, and biometric characteristics of Acorus calamus, is the main aim of the study. The study follows the effects of different levels of phosphorus (0.5 and 1.5 mM) and nitrogen (1.87; 7.5 and 18.5 mM), likewise the effect of NH4
+ and NO3
– form, on the growth of Acorus. Special attention is dedicated to the growth of underground organs, particularly roots, because of their direct contact with the flooded substrate.While P enrichment (1.5 mM) had no substantial effect on the growth of Acorus, high N treatment (18.5 mM) negatively affected its growth. 50, 30 and 50% reduction in shoot, rhizome, and root biomass accumulation, respectively, was found under high N supply. On the whole, lower number of roots with high proportion of short (30–60 mm long) roots, together with higher proportion of young roots with no developed lateral roots and high proportion of injured roots, particularly those more differentiated with developed lateral roots, characterised root system of Acorus plants growing under high N supply in comparison to the conditions of lower nutrient supply. Some similar features found under high N supply were founded also under pure NH4
+ nutrition. Since NH4
+-N was the only N-form elevated under high N treatment, we tried to separate the effect of NH4
+ only nutrition and the effect of high N load. Possible consequences of intensive NH4
+-N nutrition are discussed in connection with differences between the growth reactions of plants under experimental conditions and under eutrophic natural sites where other factors than high N influence growth of the plants.
... Similarly, the interactive effects of N and P on growth of Canna indica have been observed (Zhang et al., 2008). The interaction between N (NO 3 ) and P supply strongly affected growth of Typha latifolia, Typha angustifolia , Sparganium eurycarpum and Phragmites australis in the sand culture experiments (Ulrich and Burton, 1988). However, that interactive effect between N and P supply was not observed for P. australis (Romero et al., 1999) and Typha orientalis (Cary and Weerts, 1984 ) in the hydroponic culture experiments. ...
The concentrations of nutrients (N and P) in the wastewater and loading rate to the constructed wetlands may influence the nutrient removal from the secondary-treated municipal wastewater using wetland plants. Three loading rates of N (low 5.7, medium 34.3 and high 103 mg N d(-1)) and two of P (low 3.4 and high 17.1 mg P d(-1)) were studied in simulated secondary-treated municipal wastewater using Schoenoplectus validus (Vahl) A. Löve & D. Löve in the vertical free surface-flow wetland microcosms. After 70-d growth, there were significant interactive effects of N and P on the total, above-ground and root biomass. The below-ground biomass (rhizome and root) was negatively affected by the high N treatment. The tissue concentrations of N increased with an increase in N additions and decreased with an increase in P applications, whereas the tissue concentrations of P increased with an increase in P additions and decreased with an increase in N applications at the low P treatment, but increased at the high P treatment. Significant interactive effects of N and P loadings were found for the removal efficiencies of NH(4) and P, but not that of NO(x). The plant uptake, substrate storage and other losses (e.g. denitrification and formation of organic film) had similar contribution to N removal when N loading was relatively low. The P storage by substrate was the main contribution to P removal when P loading was high, but plant uptake was the major factor responsible for P removal when P loading was low and N loading was high. The high nutrient availability and optimum ratio of N:P are required to stimulate growth of S. validus, resulting in preferential allocation of resources to the above-ground tissues and enhancing the nutrient removal efficiencies, but the high N concentration in wastewater may hamper the growth of S. validus in constructed wetlands.
The purpose of this document is to highlight recent scientific literature that compares functions of diked common reed wetlands – the most extensive wetland type in the Greenbelt and hereafter abbreviated as Phragmites -- to those of the following wetland types:
1. Restored or natural emergent wetlands dominated by Spartina patens and S. alterniflora (cordgrass) marsh – hereafter abbreviated as Spartina – which are supported hydrologically by exchange of estuarine tidal surface waters, and
2. Restored or natural palustrine mixed emergent and shrub wetlands (e.g., Typha, Scirpus, Carex, Salix) – hereafter abbreviated as PEMS -- which are supported hydrologically by a varying array of non-tidal water sources.
The comparison of these particular types is of interest because invasion of tidal marshes by Phragmites has been widely demonstrated to cause a decline in plant diversity (Roman et al. 1984, Chambers 1999, Keller 2000) and because Spartina and other marsh types are proposed as substitutes for Phragmites in the context of wetland restoration and enhancement programs. However, apart from the widely-acknowledged botanical impacts, the ultimate effects of Phragmites dominance are the subject of debate, with some scientists opining that functions [such as]:
“support of higher trophic levels, enhancement of water quality and sediment stabilization… are not diminished when a tidal wetland becomes dominated by Phragmites, provided that tidal flooding is retained” (Chambers et al. 1999)
whereas others have condemned the invasion by Phragmites, asserting or implying that it causes fundamental changes which can only be damaging to estuarine systems (Roman et al. 1984).
While much of the debate has focused on the relative merits of Phragmites vs. Spartina, much less research has been done to directly compare either of these with other wetland types (i.e., palustrine emergents) prevalent in the northeastern United States. Thus, as a reflection of the published literature, this review focuses mainly on the Phragmites vs. Spartina issue. Also, it must be noted that few studies of Phragmites marshes have distinguished functional differences between diked vs. undiked Phragmites. Indeed, some do not even report if the studied marsh is completely diked, partly restricted, or undiked.
Sparganium japonicum Rothert. is designated as a near threatened species by the National Institute of Biological Resources and is restrictively distributed in South Korea. To conserve and restore habitats of this plant, we investigated environmental characteristics and vegetation at five habitats during the growing season. Thirty plant species from seventeen families were found in the S. japonicum community. The species frequently found in this community included Utricularia vulgaris, Potamogeton distinctus, Phragmites japonica, Cicuta virosa, Persicaria thunbergii, Phragmites communis, Hydrilla verticillata. Maximum height of this plant reached at August and average height at five habitats is 120 cm at this time. Water and soil environmental factors showed low values compared with that of other wetlands. S. japonicum lived in not only shallow water level but also deep water level. These results can be helpful for S. japonicum habitat conservation and restoration.
Fifteen relatively narrow stands of Typha angustifolia, including both stands bounded to open water and ridged boundary, were investigated in terms of the distributions of ramet
density as well as the fraction of flowering ramets. The ramet density, fraction of flowering ramet and morphological characteristics
of ramets were measured continuously from one side of the stand to the other, together with depth and the nutrient concentration
of pore water. The rhizome biomass was also measured at the periphery and at the center of the stand. The results indicated
that the shoot density declined gradually from the edge to the center, however, the fraction of the flowering ramets were
significantly higher at the edge while it rapidly declined away from the edge. Statistical analyses indicate that the ramet
density depends on either depth or nutrient level of the pore water; however, the distance from the edge was the most probable
factor to reduce the fraction of the flowering ramets. The rhizome biomass was mostly larger at the periphery than at the
center, likely because the accumulation of the horizontal rhizomes as extension was blocked by the boundary. High flowering
fraction near the periphery was probably induced by the hormonal change caused by the blockage. However, a large fraction
of ramets flowered simultaneously with large rhizome biomass at the periphery, likely because of the preferable light climates
compared with inside the stand.
A dynamic model of regrowth in Typha angustifolia after cutting shoots above the water surface was formulated by characterizing the phenology and mobilization of resources from below-ground to above-ground organs after the cutting. The model parameters were determined by two cutting experiments to investigate the different strategies with flowering and non-flowering shoots after cutting in 2001 and by four cutting experiments to elucidate the regrowth characteristics after cutting on different days from June to September in 2002. A difference was evident both for flowering and non-flowering shoots and for each cutting day. From June to August, non-flowering shoots regrew immediately after cutting, but flowering shoots did not. The shoot regrowth height, number of leaves and shoot biomass were higher with the earlier cutting. The model was validated using the below-ground biomass observed in December 2002 and below-ground dynamics observed in 2003. In the low-flowering shoot zone of the stands, in which the percentage of flowering shoots was small (around 10%), the decrease in below-ground biomass became larger from June (20%) to August (60%). Cutting the high-flowering shoot zone (flowering shoots: 78%) in July 2001, just 1week after peduncle formation, decreased the below-ground biomass by about 50%. In the low-flowering shoot zone, cutting just before senescence is better for decreasing below-ground biomass with a smaller rate of flowering shoots. The difference of below-ground biomass reduction in non-flowering shoots is mainly due to the decrease in downward translocation (DWT) of above-ground material to below-ground organs during senescence, because of the decrease in regrowth biomass. As for flowering shoots, the decrease in the photosynthate transportation from above-ground to below-ground organs and that of DWT are closely related because they cannot grow again within the season.
The growth strategy of an emergent plant, Typha orientalis Presl, was examined in experimental ponds in comparison with two other Typha species distributed in Japan, Typha latifolia L. and Typha angustifolia L. T. orientalis showed the greatest ability of vegetative reproduction at the expense of growth in height. T. orientalis started to produce new ramets earlier than T. latifolia and T. angustifolia. These results suggest that T. orientalis should be a rather pioneer-like species and would be restricted to disturbed habitats.
The above- and below-ground growth of Schoenoplectus validus (Vahl) A. Löve & D. Löve was investigated in piggery and dairy farm wastewaters. Experiments were carried out in batch-fed gravel-bed wetland microcosms (190 1), fitted with root-observation panels. Growth in wastewater was compared with that in diluted and nutrient-amended wastewaters, a complete inorganic nutrient solution and tap water. S. validus was capable of growth over a wide range of nutrient and organic matter strengths. Above-ground growth was up to two times greater in the higher-strength wastewaters than in nutrient solution alone, despite similar or higher nutrient levels in the latter. Even dilute additions of wastewater (N<3 gm−3 and P<10 gm−3) to the nutrient solution (N>200 g m−3 and P>45 g m−3) resulted in significant growth enhancement. Mean above- and below-ground biomass of around 2.0 kg dry wieght (DW) m−2 and 1.25 kg DW m−2, respectively, were recorded in primary dairy wastewater alone, rising to 3.3 kg DW m−2 and 1.5 kg DW m−2, respectively, with nutrient amendment. Maximum crop growth rates of up to 29 g m−2 day−1, and demographic growth rates of up to 25 m (culm length) m−2 day−1, and 24 culms m−2 day−1 were recorded over the 116 day culture periods. Plant uptake of N and P decreased from 435 and 93%, respectively, at low nutrient concentrations to 6% and 7% as the nutrient content of the culture solutions was increased, and below-ground:above-ground biomass allocation decreased from around 3 to 0.45. Rhizomes commonly made up around 8% of the below-ground biomass. Rooting depths in the-strength organic wastewaters tested were reduced compared with those in nutrient solutions with similar or higher nutrient levels, and also with increasing wastewater addition to nutrient solution, suggesting that factors associated with organic compounds present in the wastewater (e.g. biological oxygen demand), rather than increasing nutrients, led to restricted root penetration. Root death was noted in plants growing in piggery wastewaters, where high ammonia concentrations (mean 222 g m−3) were at potentially phytotoxic levels.
Growth strategies are described of five emergent macrophytes, Ludwigia peploides (H.B.K.) Raven, Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vellozo) Verdcourt, Nasturtium officinale R. Br., Hydrocotyle verticillata Thunb., and Oenanthe sarmentosa Presl, which commonly occur in nutrient rich pools, sloughs, and irrigation and drainage canals throughout central and southern California. Because of their creeping mode of growth, the term ‘creeping emergents’ is suggested. These plants are characterized by rapid growth, high nutrogen accumulation, allocation of most biomass and nitrogen into aboveground plant parts, and rapid decomposition.Experiments on L. peploides showed it to be capable of producing up to 50 g dry weight m−2 day−1. In natural stands its average biomass is usually in the range 500–700 g dry weight m−2. In cultivation, with an artificial stem support, it attained a positive growth rate even at high densities, and a biomass corresponding to 1900 g dry weight m−2. It grew well in a broad range of nitrogen concentrations, its biomass production staying approximately the same through the range 20–140 mg l−1 of nitrate-nitrogen in water. Whole plant nitrogen content reached a maximum of 4.5%, leaf nitrogen 6.8%. The rate of photosynthesis decreased in leaves with nitrogen concentrations > 5.5%. L. peploides regenerated well after 95% of the stem length was removed, regaining 67% of biomass of the uncut control in 45 days. Creeping emergents have good potential for use in waste water treatment.
A dynamic growth model was developed for Typha latifolia and Typha angustifolia that took account of their vertical productive structures, life cycle, shoot height, leaf area and aboveground biomass. The model successfully simulated the seasonal variation of the aboveground and belowground biomass for two monospecific stands at 43°N and 47°N and the total biomass for one competitive stand at 42°N in the USA. Introducing the parameter of nutrient availability for photosynthesis markedly enhanced the agreement of the simulated results with the observation, implying that nutritional limitations of growth influenced the observed results. The long-term competitive analyses show that the competition between T. latifolia and T. angustifolia at 42°N and 56°N depends on the ratio of net production between these two species, and the initial biomass of T. latifolia. T. angustifolia, with its taller shoot height, is capable of dominating T. latifolia under a sufficiently small inferiority of T. angustifolia in net production rate related to the initial biomass of T. latifolia. Therefore, in the higher radiation of lower latitudes, even a 30% nutrient constraint enables the dominance of the invading T. angustifolia over the initial advantage of T. latifolia with 500 g m−2, while in the lower radiation of higher latitudes, a less than 10% nutrient constraint is required. The analyses provide a quantitative background for the observed competition between these two species.
A study was conducted between December 1997 and December 1998 in NE Italy on a 3,200 m2 surface flow vegetated wetland receiving agricultural drainage water from a cultivated field of about 6 ha and occasional applications of organic wastes. The study aimed at evaluating: 1) biomass and seasonal nitrogen dynamics in above- and below-ground biomass of Phragmites australis Cav. (Trin.) and Typha latifolia (L.) grown in separate zones; 2) the effectiveness of the wetland in removing nutrients and sediments coming from the fields; 3) the possibility that wetland could treat occasional applications of organic wastes and 4) to collect some general information on whether the wetland can receive heavy loads coming from storm water runoff.
Monthly observations showed that, in both species, aboveground biomass, nitrogen concentration and nitrogen content reached maximum values in summer and minimum values in winter. The contrary occurred in below-ground biomass. The total input of water in the wetland was 66,000 m3 ha-1, of which 7,700 were drained. Total nitrogen input was 526 kg ha-1, of which 58 were discharged out of the wetland.
A conspicuous feature of many plant communities that is often considered evidence of competitive displacement is the segregation of species along a habitat gradient. The extent of competitive displacement is examined in a recently established association of cattails (Typha latifolia L. and T. angustifolia L.). To accomplish this, potential and realized distributions of these two species were compared along a gradient of water depth in a small pond. These two species together comprised more than 95% of the plant biomass along the gradient and as such constituted a natural two-species association. Comparisons between potential and realized distributions permit a direct estimate of the reductions in abundance of each species by the presence of the other species and the reduction in potential niche overlap along the habitat gradient. In addition, the study of competitive interactions between T. latifolia and T. angustifolia provides us with an opportunity to evaluate the classification of these two species as respectively r-selected and K-selected (McNaughton 1975).
Morphological characteristics and biomass allocation were examined for two species of Typha in a small pond. Typha latifolia differed from T. angustifolia in having shorter leaf height, wider leaves, greater leaf surface area, greater allocation to leaves, greater number of smaller rhizomes, greater allocation to vegetative reproduction, smaller allocation to sexual reproduction, and fewer number of flowering plants. For both species, those plants growing in deeper water had taller leaves, a greater allocation to leaves, and a decreased allocation to sexual and vegetative reproduction. Previous studies of these populations have demonstrated that these two species are segregated according to water depth with T. latifolia being competitively superior in shallow water (less than 15 cm) but T. angustifolia having the potential to grow in deeper water than T. latifolia. Results from this study indicate that T. latifolia is competitively superior in shallow water because of its greater leaf surface area but that T. angustifolia's tall, narrow leaves and large rhizome storage permit it to grow in deeper water than T. latifolia. The greater amount of sexual reproduction in T. angustifolia is correlated with its more restricted distribution and fugitive nature.
In order to examine the relations betveen the nutrient availability and net production in helophyte communities in fishpond littorals, chemical analyses were made in their water, sapropels, bottom soils, and plant biomass. To compare the chemistry of different habitats, only monocenotic communities (their dominating species) were analyzed, as in main production analyses. The importance of the water chemistry for mineral nutrition of rooted aquatic plants cannot be denied. The accessory aquatic roots of emergent plants rooted in the bottom, such as Phragmites or Typha, play an important part in the additional water and nutrient supplies to the plant; for details and references see Dykyjová and Hradecká (1976). The finely branched aquatic roots develop in the submerged basal parts of the stems. They are formed especially in erosion biotopes on poor sandy bottoms. In fertilized fishponds, these roots can acquire a significant portion of mineral nutrients which cannot be absorbed via the roots growing in nutrient-poorer deeper layers of the bottom. This is why even the communities of Phragmitetum communis growing in erosion habitats of the Opatovický fishpond such as the Phragmites V biotope have a high biomass and production. These morphological and physiological adaptations of helophytes to the absorption of nutrients from both the bottom soils and the aquatic environment allow a more intense nutrient uptake than is the case in dry land plants.
This chapter describes the special soil conditions that exist because of waterlogging and discusses the effect of these conditions on the transformation and availability of nitrogen and phosphorus. Waterlogging causes changes in the properties of soils, which profoundly affect the nutrition of lowland rice. The root zone is changed from an aerobic to an anaerobic or near-anaerobic environment because of the drastic decrease in the oxygen supply in the soil. Oxidation–reduction systems in the soil, which are generally stable as long as the soil is bathed in oxygen, become unstable when the oxygen supply is restricted. Nitrate, manganic compounds, ferric compounds, and sulfate are stable in well-aerated soils but become unstable when the oxygen supply of the soil is cut off. Nitrate nitrogen is subjected to loss through denitrification because of the ability of facultative anaerobes to substitute nitrate for oxygen. Manganous manganese and ferrous iron are produced from the oxidized compounds of these elements under waterlogged conditions. If reduction is intense enough, sulfate is reduced to sulfide by anaerobic bacteria. Both nitrate and ammonium ions can be assimilated by the rice plant, but better stability of the ammonium form in waterlogged soils make it the superior form of nitrogen for lowland rice. Advantage can be taken from the reducing conditions in waterlogged soils to increase the utilization of nitrogen fertilizer. Several forms of phosphate that are coprecipitated with ferric oxide are released as a result of the reduction of ferric oxide in the soil. These reactions usually result in a larger amount of phosphate becoming available to a flooded rice crop than would be the case with an upland crop.
A Manual of Aquatic Plants can be said to be a classic; it made the identification of aquatic plants in sterile as well as in flowering or fruiting condition as simple as possible, and covers a region from Minnesota to Missouri and eastward to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Virgina.
(1) The growth, production, decomposition and nutrient content of shoots of Phragmites communis and Typha angustifolia were studied at Alderfen Broad, Norfolk, with subsidiary work on decomposition at Upton Broad. (2) Shoots of Phragmites and Typha emerged in April. The peak shoot density of Phragmites, occurring in July, was 127/m2 in 1972 and 72/m2 in 1973, the decrease being caused largely by the grazing of coypus in April 1973. Loss of dead standing shoots occurred mainly in the spring and summer, some dead shoots surviving for over two years. Typha shoots reached a maximum density of 100/m2 in May 1973, thereafter declining steadily through a self-thinning process. (3) The mean peak weight of Phragmites shoots was the same in 1972 and 1973, there being no compensation for a decreased shoot density. The mean peak weight of Typha shoots was greater. The peak standing crop of Phragmites was 942 g dry wt/m2 in 1972 and 524 g/m2 in 1973 and that of Typha 1118 g/m2 in 1973. The net productivity was estimated as 1080 g/m2 and 551 g/m2 for Phragmites in 1972 and 1973 and 1445 g/m2 for Typha in 1973. (4) Growing shoots of Phragmites and Typha showed marked, and different, seasonal changes in nutrient content and seasonal changes in rhizomes were also detected. No autumnal increase in the nutrient content of rhizomes occurred, whereas nitrogen and phosphate in the interstitial waters of the swamp showed a large increase in autumn. A large proportion of nutrients appeared to be leached out of the shoots at senescence. (5) The large-mesh litter bags held high numbers of animals, including decomposers; animals were excluded from the small-mesh bags. No significant differences were recorded in the decomposition rates of Typha in Alderfen and Upton Broads. Phragmites broke down at a faster rate than Typha. There was no statistically significant difference in breakdown rate of Typha and Phragmites in large- and small-mesh bags but the time for 50% decomposition of both species was 10% shorter in large- than in small-mesh bags, probably owing to the presence of animals. The respiration rates of decomposing tissue from large- and small-mesh bags showed no significant differences. (6) Sodium, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus leached out of material in the litter bags in the first month, after which there was a constant residual level. The calcium level showed less change owing largely to precipitation out of the water, and the nitrogen level increased due largely to microbial activity. (7) Bacteria present on the surface of decomposing Typha leaves in the water had a density of 4.5 × 106/cm2, the majority of which were pectolytic. Yellow Cytophaga, Erwinia sp. and Pseudomonas spp. were identified. (8) In laboratory experiments, Lymnaea peregra, allowed to graze over Typha litter, increased the oxygen uptake of the litter, presumably by stimulating microbial activity. In contrast, Asellus aquaticus and Gammarus pulex had no effect on the oxygen consumption of Phragmites litter and the differences are explained in terms of the feeding methods of the animals. The metabolic activity of the animals' faeces and of material comminuted, but not ingested, was markedly higher than the initial litter. Some of this enhanced microbial respiration could be suppressed by the addition of streptomycin. When decomposer animals, at approximately natural densities, were fed coarse (diameter >0.5 mm) litter in the laboratory the weight of small (
The mineral element composition of plants, being a multivariate phenotypic trait, reflects the genotypic and environmental interactions influencing chemical content, including those related to ecological niche. Multivariate discriminant analysis was used to describe the position and area of nine different plant species in an ''elemental hyperspace'' based on the mineral element composition of leaves. With the exception of woody species, there was considerable interspecific variation in elemental concentrations and distinct separation among species in the element space. Semiaquatic macrophytes were quite distinct in their mineral element composition. The region each species occupies in the element space presumably corresponds to an adaptive zone of mineral element concentrations that enable each species to survive in the environment. Some evidence presented indicates that phenotypic variation in mineral element composition in a species reflects niche size in the nutrient environment. Interelement correlations in concentrations across 110 plant species were explored using principal components analysis. Four principal components were extracted from a correlation matrix. The component structure was interpreted on the basis of biochemical functions of elements in cells. Principal component 1 was a nucleic acid-protein set correlated with concentrations of P, N, Cu, S, and Fe. Component 2 was a structural and photosynthetic set correlated with concentrations of Mg, Ca, and Mn. Component 3 was an enzymatic set correlated with concentrations of Mn, K, and Mg. Future research on the mineral element composition of different plant species might begin by considering these three hypothetical element sets.
A comparison of environmental and population parameters between sites differing in length of frost-free period indicated that populations from short growing season locations should be more subject to r-selection, while populations from locations with a long growing season should be more subject to K-selection. Properties of population samples of three species of Typha conformed to the theory. Specifically, the following hypotheses were confirmed: (i) r-selected genotypes have a greater developmental speed; (ii) r-selected genotypes have higher fecundity; (iii) r-selected genotypes produce more offspring, but invest less energy in each offspring; (iv) r-selected genotypes show less evidence of selection for traits increasing competitive ability in high density situations; (v) there is a selective trade-off between mechanisms contributing to colonization potential and those contributing to competitive potential. Superimposed on the selection pattern along the climatic gradient was an r-K dichotomy between the species occurring throughout the gradient, T. latifolia, and the two species, T. angustifolia and T. domingensis, restricted to different ends of the gradient.
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel was grown outdoors during the 1980 growing season in 30-1 plastic tubs in a sand medium treated with 64 different combinations of nitrate, phosphate and potassium fertilizers. Potassium fertilization (0–41.6 g m−2) was found to have no significant effect on plant growth and nutrient uptake. Nitrate (0–46.8 g m−2) and HPO42− (0–12.5 g m−2) fertilization both strongly and interactively affected nutrient uptake and plant dry weight. As the level of nitrate fertilization increased, above-ground growth increased up to 15 times and the ratio of dry weight below-ground to dry weight above-ground decreased from 2.2 to 0.75. Phosphate fertilization also increased dry weight up to 15 times but did not significantly affect the ratio of below-ground to above-ground dry weight.
Experiments on the establishment and harvest ofPhragmites
australis,Zizania
aquatica,Typha
latifolia,Typha
angustifolia,Sparganium
eurycarpum andSpartina
pectinata were conducted in three 0.4 ha clay-bottomed man-made marshes in the central portion of the lower peninsula of Michigan.
Propagules consisted of seeds for the annualZ. aquatica and root and rhizome clumps for the other species.S. eurycarpum showed rapid establishment but was subject to invasion by other species.Typha spp. established stands more slowly but maintained better stand density and purity.P. australis sent out mainly tillers from propagule clumps rather than rhizomes and vertical shoots.S. pectinata andZ. aquatica failed to establish. Multiple harvests ofTypha spp. at intervals of 3 or 6 weeks resulted in biomass removal of 130% and N and P removal of 150% of the controls. Nutrient
budgets developed for the three marsh-ponds after six years of intermittant operation showed a net removal of fixed N from
flow-through waters but a variable situation with total P.
The water depth in marshes occurring along Lake Michigan is largely controlled by fluctuations of the Lake Michigan water
level. The role of water level in controlling the distribution and cycling of N and P in emergent (Sparganium
eurycarpum,Scirpus
validus, andTypha
latifolia) and wet meadow (Calamagrostis
canadensis,Carex
stricta, andCarex
aquatilis) communities of a Lake Michigan river mouth marsh was studied. Nutrient uptake was determined from biomass sampling and tissue
analysis. Community distribution at various lake stages was determined from aerial photographs.
The role of emergent macrophytes to nitrogen and phosphorus cycling in a Great Lakes marsh
- Kelley
Kelley, J.C., 1985. The role of emergent macrophytes to nitrogen and phosphorus cycling in a Great Lakes marsh. Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 170 pp.
A Treatise on Limnology. Volume III. Limnological Botany
- G E Hutchinson
Hutchinson, G.E., 1975. A Treatise on Limnology. Volume III. Limnological Botany. J. Wiley, New York, NY, 660 pp.