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The Reproduction of Mothering
... Após esse período, as teorias feministas começaram a trabalhar mais diretamente com essa temática, seja em trabalhos como o de Gayle Rubin (1975), de característica mais antropossociológica, ou mesmo, os mais psicanalíticos como o de Nancy Chodorow (Chodorow, 1978). Esses são apenas dois dos exemplos em que as críticas feministas às concepções mais clássicas da Psicanálise começaram a ser apresentadas mais categoricamente. ...
... Esse autor destoa dos trabalhos anteriores. Sua perspectiva já se estrutura de maneira mais crítica e até evoca autoras feministas como Chodorow (1978). Contudo, no geral, ele acaba fazendo uma discussão mais centrada em questões relacionadas às defesas psíquicas. ...
... Contudo, o trabalho faz uma reflexão interessante sobre a relação mãe-filha e como, na contemporaneidade, especialmente depois das revoluções culturais e sexuais trazidas pelo feminismo, há uma complexidade muito maior nessas relações. A Psicanálise aparece a partir do clássico texto de Chodorow (Chodorow, 1978) para desmistificar a ideia de uma natureza na condição da mulher para ser mãe. Psicanálise e feminismo unidos para deixar bem claro que a maternidade é da ordem do desejo e das relações sociais. ...
This article aims to investigate psychoanalytical publications in dialogue with the theme of genres. We realize that there has been a significant increase in these productions in the main journals since the early 2000s. The hypothesis that feminist theories may have called Psychoanalysis to respond to the criticisms it received in previous decades. We base our research on the methodology known as psychoanalytic historiography and proceed with the time frame corresponding to the years 1986 to 1997, since this period referred to the first psychoanalytical publications identified in this increase in production already mentioned, but which have not yet directly addressed a more deeply political dialogue.
... La primera ola fue la que logró que las mujeres obtuvieran el derecho al voto; la segunda ola, de finales de los 60 en adelante, promovió la igualdad de oportunidades, reconoció la validez del deseo sexual de las mujeres y propuso el reconocimiento de las diferencias de clase y de raza entre ellas. Las pioneras dentro del entorno "psi" fueron Nancy Chodorow (1978), Betty Friedan (1963), Kate Millet (1969), Ethel Person (1980), Adrienne Rich (1976) … en USA; y Simone de Beauvoir (1949), Juliet Mitchel (1974), Susie Orbach (1986), Eichenbaum y Orbach (1983a, 1983b, Dio Bleichmar (1985) … en Europa (lista muy limitada); proceso que se ha ido completando con el feminismo de la tercera ola, que ha tenido sus teóricas "psi" (Bejamin, 1988(Bejamin, , 1995(Bejamin, , 1998Chodorow, 1994Chodorow, , 1999Chodorow, , 2005Dimen, 2003;Gilligan, 1982;Goldner, 2003;Harris, 2005;Layton, 1998) a las que se han sumado las aportaciones de la teoría queer (Butler, 1993;Corbett, 2002) con el reconocimiento de que ni el género ni la sexualidad son sistemas duales excluyentes, sino que el género y el deseo sexual son flexibles, y flotan libremente dando lugar a múltiples posiciones de la identidad; comprendiendo el cuerpo como expresión personal, la pluralidad de géneros, y los malabarismos entre carrera, sexo y maternidad. Actualmente (Studies in Gender and Sexuality, Vol. ...
... Podemos afirmar que el psicoanálisis es una de las instituciones que ha contribuido a la reproducción de la dominación simbólica. Esta es la tesis que sostienen tanto Nancy Chodorow (1978Chodorow ( , 1994 como Emilce Dio Bleichmar (1997); que Jessica Benjamin (1988) nos ayuda a analizar, con respecto a la feminidad; y que Corbett 4 (1996, 2009) analiza respecto a la masculinidad normativa. ...
... Por lo tanto, lo que Corbett señala es que el discurso del último siglo acerca de la masculinidad gira alrededor de estas ausencias. En los últimos cincuenta años la teoría angloamericana del género (Stoller, 1965;Bemjamin, 1988;Chodorow, 1978Chodorow, , 1994Chodorow, , 1999Butler, 1993, Dimen, 2003Goldner, 2003;Harris, 2005;Layton, 1998) junto con la teoría psicoanalítica del desarrollo (Fonagy, 2001) han construido una teoría consistente que se fundamenta en la comprensión de una matriz que contempla la integración de: relación, cuerpo, mente y social. ...
... Após esse período, as teorias feministas começaram a trabalhar mais diretamente com essa temática, seja em trabalhos como o de Gayle Rubin (1975), de característica mais antropossociológica, ou mesmo, os mais psicanalíticos como o de Nancy Chodorow (Chodorow, 1978). Esses são apenas dois dos exemplos em que as críticas feministas às concepções mais clássicas da Psicanálise começaram a ser apresentadas mais categoricamente. ...
... Esse autor destoa dos trabalhos anteriores. Sua perspectiva já se estrutura de maneira mais crítica e até evoca autoras feministas como Chodorow (1978). Contudo, no geral, ele acaba fazendo uma discussão mais centrada em questões relacionadas às defesas psíquicas. ...
... Contudo, o trabalho faz uma reflexão interessante sobre a relação mãe-filha e como, na contemporaneidade, especialmente depois das revoluções culturais e sexuais trazidas pelo feminismo, há uma complexidade muito maior nessas relações. A Psicanálise aparece a partir do clássico texto de Chodorow (Chodorow, 1978) para desmistificar a ideia de uma natureza na condição da mulher para ser mãe. Psicanálise e feminismo unidos para deixar bem claro que a maternidade é da ordem do desejo e das relações sociais. ...
This article aims to investigate psychoanalytical publications in dialogue with the theme of genres. We realize that there has been a significant increase in these productions in the main journals since the early 2000s. The hypothesis that feminist theories may have called Psychoanalysis to respond to the criticisms it received in previous decades. We base our research on the methodology known as psychoanalytic historiography and proceed with the time frame corresponding to the years 1986 to 1997, since this period referred to the first psychoanalytical publications identified in this increase in production already mentioned, but which have not yet directly addressed a more deeply political dialogue.
... Part of the journal's mission was to bring Frankfurt School Critical Theory to a U.S. and English-speaking audience. Our collective read fairly widely in Critical Theory, and we read as well some contemporary works in psychoanalysis, e.g., Nancy Chodorow's (1978) Reproduction of Mothering. Notably, we did not read Erich Fromm. ...
... Such work spoke as well to some of the mechanisms by which social characters and social defenses come into being. Chodorow (1978) and Benjamin (1988) were two of the earliest second wave feminist psychoanalytic thinkers to suggest that normative femininity and masculinity were marked by complementary psychic splitting processes: dominant masculinity is marked by defensive autonomy and omnipotence, a denial of one's embeddedness in relationship. Dominant femininity, the devalued member of the pair, is marked by submission, splitting off of assertive strivings, and a fear of rocking relational boats. ...
... Furthermore, under the influence of social arrangements, Chodorow asserts that women develop deep-seated motivations to have children [10]. Men develop the ability to participate in the alienated work structures of developed capitalism, emphasising gender differences rather than social structures. ...
... This ultimately led to men being seen as individuals and women as women. Positively though, as Chodorow [10], Eichenbaum and Orbach [11], Gilligan [12] and Miller [13] articulate the emergence of femininity as emphasising the specificity of women and the richness of women's inner experience with the central theme of encouraging women's culture and celebrating women's unique qualities through inter-female relationships to move away from greater societal sexism gradually. ...
The text focuses on female and male leadership characteristics and images. By demonstrating the relationship between gender and leadership and exploring the current state of the gender gap as an introduction, gender is linked to leadership, demonstrating that male leadership is a transactional leadership style, task-orientated, goal-orientated when in power, able to be decisive, possessing a winning attitude, and likewise possessing the disadvantages of being authoritarian and a climber. In contrast, females predominantly use transformational leadership styles and can diversify their leadership demonstrations to change the Management styles. Womens leadership is based on empowerment, and they can also demonstrate humanistic care in organisations by being democratic and collegial, gaining insight into the needs of their subordinates, and developing and mentoring their staff. Although female leaders also have advantages in intuition and communication, they are more sensitive to things, easily emotional, and less recognised in stereotypes, and these shortcomings can be a hindrance to the promotion of women like executives. Furthermore, different gender combinations can have different impacts on organisational performance. Finally, since male and female gender leadership will tend to be homogeneous with the development of the times, suggestions are made on how to narrow the gender gap and how to use gender leadership according to the three aspects of society, company and individual, to achieve the enhancement of organisational performance.
... Indeed, within a patriarchal and/or capitalist culture, women are tied to traditional responsibilities of caring, serving, conforming, and mothering (Acker & David, 1994). Women are imbued with the cultural roles of caretakers and nurturers when they are girls (Chodorow, 1978;Lewis, 1990;Thorne, 1993). Particularly, the cosmic female principles in traditional stories incorporate fertility, fidelity and submissiveness to her husband, and insanity, which informs the present image of Nepalese women (Schulz, 1998). ...
... Here we can see the power of teacher agency in the decision-making process in which Ms. Trang evaluated herself as incompetent and withdrew from the research work to wholly focus on her family life whereas Ms. Mai was stuck in an internal struggle of being an unfulfilled mother, wife and daughter-in-law. These findings provide corroborating evidence reiterating the significant impact of socio-cultural factors which reward women for being nurturers and caretakers (Chodorow, 1978;Lewis, 1990;Thorne, 1993) on teachers' agency and behaviour (Ahearn, 2001;Biesta & Tedder, 2007). ...
Despite their growing prominence in academia, female researchers have encountered a number of challenges emerging from their household, institutional and societal obligations. More specially, studies investigating female academics’ pursuits of research and publication from a situated perspective remain relatively limited. This study aims to explore the barriers hindering female Vietnamese teachers of English, their resilience and personal efforts in their research pursuits. Agency is utilised as the key theoretical construct to shed light on teachers’ research engagement in temporal and relational contexts that call for certain actions. Biographical data from the case studies of two female language teachers working at a public university in Ho Chi Minh City (aged 45 and 34 respectively) were gathered by using critical reflection and timeline interviews. Findings reveal the critical incidents underpinning the two teachers’ research involvement within the complexity of roles, socio-cultural norms and expectations concerning gender issues that are situated in different settings and at various timescales. These elements significantly impact on the ways in which they exercised their agency in fulfilling their research commitment and other obligations. The present study provides significant implications for policy makers and stakeholders in facilitating and promoting pro-active research involvement among female academics as well as enabling them to develop strategies for tackling the obstacles in their research endeavours.
... It was also a reaction to existing theories in the field of psychology that suggested that gender identities crystalized by about age 5 and were static and fixed moving forward (West & Zimmerman, 1987). Moreover, there was emerging understanding through the works of Chodorow (1978) and others that biological and cultural processes were far more complex and interacted to maintain and reproduce gender-based inequalities. West and Zimmerman, drawing on Goffman, spoke of how 'doing gender' means creating socially constructed differences between men and women that are then used to argue or promote their innate or essential nature. ...
... Es folgten zahlreiche Revisionen und feministische Kritiken an dieser Auffassung, auf die hier nur verwiesen werden soll (u.a. Benjamin 1999;Chasseguet-Smirgel 1974;Chodorow 1978;de Beauvoir 1995;Hagemann-White 1986;Horney 1923Horney , 1926Musfeld 1997;Quindeau 2008Quindeau , 2023bRohde-Dachser 1992;Torok 1974). ...
Kaum ein Thema erregt die Gemüter so sehr, wie das Thema der Geschlechtlichkeit. Ob es um die gendergerechte Sprache geht, um die Anerkennung der Tatsache, dass Geschlechtsidentitäten sich heute mit wachsender Selbstverständlichkeit zunehmend divers präsentieren, ob es ums Selbstbestimmungsgesetz geht, um gendersensible Erziehung oder um Versuche der Entpathologisierung von Phänomenen wie der Geschlechtsinkongruenz (ICD-11) bzw. Geschlechtsdysphorie (DSM-5) – fast immer entflammen Kontroversen um Vor- und Nachteile, Berechtigungen, Übertreibungen und Gefahren. Dies geschieht auch und vermehrt in den vergangenen Jahren in der psychoanalytischen Community.
Der vorliegende Aufsatz befasst sich mit den Wurzeln der Geschlechtlichkeit, nämlich mit der frühkindlichen Entwicklung der Geschlechtsidentität aus psychoanalytischer Perspektive. Er basiert auf der Herangehensweise, mit der wir die Entwicklung der Geschlechtsidentität an unserem Weiter-bildungsinstitut lehren – insbesondere mit dem Ziel, unsere Weiterbildungsteilnehmenden zu informierten Haltungen in o.g. Kontroversen sowie in ihrer psychologischen Beratungspraxis zu befähigen.
... The approaches defined above confirm the biological, social, and cognitive differences cemented in males and females as part of their gender identity as early as the age of three through the mother-child relationship (Chodorow, 1978). These differences ultimately constitute their gender identity. ...
As audit judgments significantly influence the quality of audits and financial information, it is important to consider the factors affecting them and how they interact. Unfortunately, such factors as gender and accountability pressure and their impact on audit judgments have been historically under-researched. Prior studies show that due to gender differences, female auditors relate to more conservative audit judgments and better audit quality. These gender differences revolve around behavior, socialization, decision-making, information processing, reporting relationships, and career attitudes. However, they are moderated by experience, knowledge, prior commitment, and audit effort related to audit risk. Accountability pressure has also been shown to impact audit judgments based on the type and level of pressure and could be moderated by gender. Yet, existing literature fails to connect gender and accountability pressure to study their combined impact on audit judgments. This literature review seeks to demonstrate that gender combined with accountability pressure results in more conservative audit judgments and, hence, better audit quality. This analysis concludes that since both gender and accountability pressure impact audit judgments, and gender is an individual characteristic with a moderating effect on accountability pressure, the combination of gender and accountability pressure thus positively affects audit judgments. This analysis has implications for practice on factors affecting auditor judgment and extends the academic literature by applying accountability pressure, gender as well as selectivity, and social intuitionist theories to auditor judgment.
... ( Devo pontuar que, diferentemente de parte das autoras sobre o tema, eu insisto no conceito de maternidade para dar conta das relações de cuidado que vão para além dos vínculos biológicos. Sendo assim, não incorporo a noção de maternagem (como tradução de mothering) tal como proposta por Nancy Chodorow (1978), em seu clássico trabalho The reproduction of mothering e tal como teorizada por Michele Walks (2011). No campo da teoria feminista, o conceito de mothering (maternagem) tem sido utilizado como alternativa ao de motherhood (maternidade), percebido como mais estanque e menos fluido. ...
O artigo pretende analisar os arranjos complexos e as solidariedades organizadas entre mulheres nas configurações de relações familiares marcadas pela centralidade feminina. Baseado em histórias familiares de mulheres, em diálogo com uma literatura já vasta sobre maternidades, “famílias de mulheres”, matrifocalidade etc., argumenta-se que as redes articuladas entre mulheres não devem ser entendidas como estratégias face às pressões de uma dita “feminização da pobreza”, mas fazem parte de um “nexo de cultivo” que congrega diversas camadas de cuidado e afeto. Tais práticas de cuidado que envolvem sobretudo crianças e idosos(as), incluem mulheres de diferentes gerações e estratos sociais que, participando em vários graus, compõem um emaranhado que as mantém ligadas umas às outras.
... In gendertheoretischer Perspektive lassen sich die aus dem Diskurs (im Material wie in der Reinszenierung in der Forschungsgruppe) ausgeschlossenen subjektiven Erfahrungsmomente als weiblich dechiffrieren (Chodorow, 1978;Layton, 2007;Marshall & Witz, 2004). Bezogen auf die untersuchten Texte bezeichnen sie schwach diffamierte Praktiken innerhalb eines ›völkischen‹ Diskurskosmos, der keine Komplexität und Differenz zulässt (Winter, 2012). ...
This paper explores an unexpected and notably robust emotional resonance uncovered during a qualitative research inquiry into 'völkisch' youth alliances in Germany: boredom. Situated within an exposition of the project and its fundamentally in-depth-hermeneutic methodology, we analyze the documented manifestations of boredom through material excerpts, including interviews, reports on 'trips' and 'camps,' as well as pivotal segments from the research process, such as transcribed interpretive sessions and affect protocols. Consequently, we advocate for a strongly reflexive research ethos that illuminates novel insights by conscientiously considering researchers' emotional involvements in their attempts to conceptualize the object of their research inquiry.
... It's a feminist viewpoint. From Butler (1989) to Chodorow (1987) to Smith (1990), among others, feminism defines the social environment in terms of gendered sentiments, desires, behaviors, social positions, employment, and entire institutions that are deemed acceptable for men or women or masculine or feminine. ...
This paper applied two panel data on GII (1996 to 2022),and EFI (1996-2022) to understand the trends of gender gap in Nepal. Recently, UNDP (2023b) has developedGSNIbased on data from wave 6 (2010-2014) and wave 7 (2017-2022) of WVS (2023). However, index is not available for Nepal. In this context, this article examined dimensions of WVS by defining gender gap in four thematic areas such as secondary education, representation in parliament, participation in labor force, and life expectancy, suggesting they are associated with ODA and some economic freedom indices.
... However, despite the greater fear of animals, females were more conservation-oriented than males (Liordos et al., 2017;Zinn and Pierce, 2002). These differences in gender attitudes could be explained with the "ethic of care", which is based on the gender socialization theory (Chodorow, 1978). According to the ethic of care argument, women learn to be responsible, nonviolent, and care for the emotions and wellbeing of others, while men learn to be fair, logic, assertive, and competitive (Gellar, 1995). ...
Snakes are at the same time valuable and vulnerable because they offer many ecosystem services but are also threatened by humans, both directly through persecution and indirectly through habitat destruction. The implicit human fear of snakes often leads to negative attitudes and behaviors. Increasing support and collecting funds are therefore critical for their future survival. We carried out face-to-face interviews of Greek residents (n = 936) for implementing a multiple-bounded discrete choice approach to estimate willingness to pay (WTP), the effects of cognitions, emotions, and sociodemographics on WTP and infer support for snake conservation. A mean annual WTP of €28.0 per household was estimated, suggesting that about €26.6 million per year could be collected during a fundraising campaign. Survey participants had higher mutualism than domination wildlife value orientations and reported moderately low levels of attractiveness and moderately high levels of fear toward snakes. Participants more mutualism-oriented who found snakes more attractive were WTP a higher amount for their conservation than those less mutualism-oriented who found snakes less attractive. Young, females, with higher income, non-farmers, and pet owners were WTP a higher amount for the conservation of snake species than old, males, with lower income, farmers, and non-pet owners. Findings revealed that considerable funds could be collected for snake conservation, further suggesting pro-conservation attitudes among the participants. Further, findings revealed groups with high and low WTP and support of the animals. This information would be valuable if used for creating and implementing tailored education and outreach programs aimed at increasing public support for the protection and survival of snake populations.
... Stigma theory explains that women can be treated differently due to the perceived inadequacy of being childfree, sometimes leading women to cover their status to avoid rejection (Goffman, 1963). Although there is feminist scholarship to support that women are motivated to have children due largely to their relational nature, societal pressure can influence women's decision-making (Chodorow, 1978). Expectations of having children vary by culture, as well as by gender; while some collectivist cultures view being childfree as shameful, even more individualistic nations hold negative views or assumptions toward childfree individuals (e.g., Chou & Chi, 2004). ...
Overtime, choosing not to have children has become a more common phenomenon. Alongside this change, studies have found that women without children are just as fulfilled, if not more so, in their lives as those who have had children. These studies, in the context of theories of second-wave feminism, psychosocial theory, and stigma theory, are reviewed. This study presents a dissatisfied older woman who has not had children to examine the differences in such cases. As a product of thematic analysis, five themes stand out during Holly's interview: focus on the past, stigma, fear, relationships with younger generations, and regret. Results are discussed in the context of what they may mean for future research and practice with the suggestion that perhaps an over-focus on the past, in lieu of present and future circumstances, may be a factor in childless women's dissatisfaction in life.
... In the present literature, there are two main hypotheses behind this conclusion, gender socialization perspectives and social roles perspectives. The former affirms that males and females are taught different values and social expectations at an early age (Chodorow 1978;Gilligan 1982), leading to their different concerns and actions. For instance, boys are expected to be independent, competitive, and rational, so usually, they grow up in a militarized environment, whereas girls are taught to be cooperative, empathetic, and compassionate and are good at connecting with others. ...
This paper examines the relationship between CSR activities and innovation performance with the moderating effect of CEO gender in the U.S. market. This paper provides evidence about the relationship between CSR and innovation performance from the resources-based views by replacing the common measurements of innovation and R&D expenditures with the number of patents and citations to better measure the innovation quality rather than quantity. The current paper verifies the relationship between CSR and innovation in S&P 500 U.S. listed companies and fills the gaps in the current research on the moderating effect of CEO gender on this relationship. The paper analyzed the panel data for 1204 observations from various databases (Compustat, KLD, U.S. patents by words and Excompustat) from 2014 to 2018. Specifically, the number of patents and citations is set as the measurement of the explanatory variable; innovation performance and CSR scores from KLD are treated as the dependent variable and the proportion of female directors in the top management as the method of moderating indicator. The result in this paper shows a positive correlation between CSR and innovation performance in the U.S. At the same time, the moderating effect of CEO gender has an insignificant impact on this relationship. The findings suggest that the female CEOs do not have a positive relationship with corporate innovation. These results will help companies realize the importance of CSR activities and how to balance gender diversity in their strategies.
... This was partly linked to moves from group-based consciousness-raising to feminist therapy, (pro)feminist group therapy, and individual psychoanalytic work. An insightful commentary on these issues was Ian Craib's (1987) discussion of the contrast between Nancy Chodorow's (1978) model of masculinity, which tended to emphasize its "bullying", over-compensatory nature, with an over developed superego, against Luise Eichenbaum and Susie Orbach's (1983) version of more "fragile" and under-developed masculinity. ...
This chapter reviews empirical and theoretical work within critical studies on men and masculinities (CSMM), drawing on extensive empirical and theoretical studies relevant to psychology and social psychology. The chapter focuses on gender relations and power dynamics, social structures, intersectionality, bodies, practices, and identities, both individual and collective. The chapter first maps the key theoretical developments of CSMM, historically and conceptually, before moving to focus on two important contemporary issues: first, the development of more egalitarian masculinities, and, second, the explanations for various non-egalitarian masculinities, such those linked to incel and Alt-Right movements, both online and offline.
... Por otro lado, una diversidad de teóricos relacionales ha estudiado la dimensión de género de la subjetividad, desde Nancy Chodorow ( [1978, 1999) hasta Jessica Benjamin CeIR Vol. 17 (2) -Octubre 2023 ISSN 1988-2939 -www.ceir.info (1988,1995,1998) y otros más. ...
... A possible explanation for the findings above, as pointed out by Neiva (2006), is that beyond the function of legislating and monitoring, strong upper houses play an important role in controlling the Executive and in the "affairs of State", including those related to security, war, justice, currency, tax issues and international policy -the so-called high politics. There is a degree of consensus in the feminist literature that these are themes generally dealt with by men, leaving to women a leading role in social themes, such as problems related to children, the elderly, the unemployed, the environment, public education, housing, family planning and minorities (Chodorow 1978;Ruddick 1989;Cook and Wilcox 1991;Paxton and Hughes 2007;Finamore and Carvalho 2006, 352;Grossi and Malheiros 2001). 19 Therefore, when dealing more intimately with the so-called "high politics", upper houses would tend to attract more men. ...
... The LH-group women had problems with both parents, but what is most conspicuous is that their fathers were not idealized as a model for a life independent of the mother. At 43, the women in the LH group were nurturant, conflictful, and dependent, with enhanced empathic skills and intraceptive attitudes sometimes associated with confinement in the sphere of the mother (Chodorow, 1978). ...
The third vector score (competence) of the revised California Psychological Inventory (CPI) and ego level as assessed by the Loevinger Sentence Completion Test (SCT) are measures of alternative ways of conceptualizing maturity: as the ability of the individual to function effectively in society or as the degree of intrapsychic differentiation and autonomy. A longitudinal study of women (for the CPI, N = 107; for the SCT, N = 90) provides these two measures of maturity at age 43. Competence and ego level were correlated with antecedent and concurrent measures selected from inventories and life history material concerning work, marriage, relations with parents, and so forth, to assess aspects of maturity adapted from Allport: self-extension in significant endeavors, reality orientation in perception of self and others and in the conduct of one's activities, capacity for intimacy, emotional security, and individuality of personal integration. Results from the age-21 data indicate that competence and ego level are enduring trait complexes. Despite considerable overlap, they differ conspicuously in the greater emphasis of competence on emotional security and of ego level on individuality of personal integration. Analysis of the patterning of competence and ego level in the whole sample and in homogeneous groups high on one or both measures suggests psychological reasons why the two types of maturity diverge and why the relation of ego level to adjustment seems to be curvilinear.
... Less challenging thinkers, such as Nancy Chodorow, describe mothering as a core component of womanhood and theorize about how maternal subjectivity should be symbolized (Chodorow, 1978). The process of becoming a mother has earned the name "matrescence", acknowledging the identity shift that occurs when one becomes a mother (Sacks & Birndorf, 2019). ...
Western societies exact a tall order on women who choose to have children. Western norms include an unspoken critique of working women: Are you someone who prioritizes paid work over child caregiving, or do you prioritize child caregiving over work? This double objectification of women who are mothers is their double jeopardy. Although there are multiple jeopardies for those who are not of the dominant caste, for women, the greatest second jeopardy is that of a mother. I outline the jeopardy of being a woman in Western societies, focusing on the history of demonization, including a brief discourse on how psychiatry has perpetuated this demonization. I give historical reference to exceptional women of courage and strength, women who have not yet reached the public imagination. I outline the history of the idealization and vilification of mothers and its reach into the practices of parenting. I propose some solutions to resolve the problem of double jeopardy.
... Pioneering psychologists in the field of gender norms and psychology emphasized that gender norms are enforced because they provide an organized, collective, and dichotomous understanding of gendered behavior (Pleck, 1987). For example, examining the construction and maintenance of feminine norms helps us understand how feminine norms are developed over time (Bem, 1981;Chodorow, 1978;Kagan, 1964;Kohlberg, 1966;Mahalik et al., 2005). Studies suggest that children at age two begin to develop and learn conceptions of what is considered appropriate behavior for men and women (Lytton & Romney, 1991), and by age five children develop more rigid stereotypes about these gendered behaviors (Trautner et al., 2005). ...
A burgeoning body of research suggests that nuanced sociocultural factors influence college women’s health. Feminine norms, or the beliefs and expectations of what it means to be a woman, is one important factor that may help explain psychological distress. Emerging research has found that conformity to feminine norms is significantly associated with several health outcomes including substance use and eating disorder symptomatology. Guided by the gender role strain paradigm, we examined the role of conformity to feminine norms on psychological distress among college women. Data was collected from 1,700 female undergraduate women attending one university in Southern California with a mean age of 20.18. The sample consisted of 76.8% Asian American women and 23.2% white women. We conducted regression analyses to examine the association between nine feminine norms (i.e., Sweet and Nice, Relationship, Thinness, Modesty, Domestic, Care for Children, Romantic Relationship, Sexual Fidelity, and Invest in Appearance) and psychological distress. Findings revealed that the feminine norms of Modesty, Appearance and Thinness were positively associated with psychological distress, while age, Children, and Relationship decreased risk of distress. This study provides evidence of the nuanced ways in which conformity to feminine norms is associated with psychological distress. The results of this study highlight how researchers and practitioners may consider examining how specific feminine norms are associated with psychological distress instead of homogenizing all aspects of femininity.
... 95-96). By following the idea of the ritual, it is important to recall how motherhood has been described throughout history as a basic, instinct mission, integral part of the woman's life to guarantee the healthy growth of children and stability of family, as a natural and self-explanatory fact (Chodorow 1978). Over time, the system surrounding the mother is viewed as a set of conditions and challenges to be embraced, accepted, or renegotiated. ...
This paper aims to understand whether and how a particular ideology concerning motherhood is represented and re-discussed in advertising from a semiotic point of view, with reference to particularly lively debates concerning the maternal body, postnatal pressure and mothers' presence at/return to work after their maternity leave. The first part of the text is devoted to a conceptual outline of the notion of imperfection and an overview of the thematic figure of the "good mother" in historical advertising, while its second part focuses on some recent advertising campaigns concerning motherhood and their social implications.
... Voor deze externe aanpak geldt de kritiek dat zij slechts gedeeltelijke verklaringen voor in specifieke situaties biedt en dat voor de discriminatie zelf geen verklaring volgt (Walby, 1990 : 5). (Chodorow, 1978). Niettemin kan slechts in beperkte mate verklaard worden waarom de vrouwelijke 'rol' quasi universeel geassocieerd wordt met ongelijkheid en achterstelling. ...
Hoewel iedereen erkent dot een zekere sociale ongelijkheid tussen vrouwen en mannen een empirische realiteit is in alle moderne samenlevingen, wordt dit thema in de sociale wetenschappen veelal stiefmoederlijk behandeld. Deze bijdrage onderzoekt wat het verband is tussen sociale ongelijkheid en geslacht. De klemtoon ligt daarbij zowel op de mate waarin de factor geslacht sociale ongelijkheid verklaart, als op het verband tussen geslachtsgebonden ongelijkheid en andere vormen van sociale ongelijkheid. In eerste instantie wordt de Belgische situatie inzake sociale ongelijkheid en geslacht kort geschetst. Daarna volgt een theoretisch overzicht van de belangrijkste verklaringen omtrent het bestaan en voortbestaan van sociale ongelijkheid tussen mannen en vrouwen. Vervolgens wordt nagegaan welke gevolgen deze ontwikkelingen hebben voor empirische navorsing. Het artikel besluit met enkele beschouwingen omtrent toekomstig onderzoek.
... Also important was emotional closeness, and the mothers in their study typically expressed a closer tie to daughters than to sons, hereby contributing to discussions of the uniqueness of the mother-daughter bond (e.g. Chodorow, 1978). ...
How to meet the demands of long-term care is a pressing issue in ageing societies. In most countries, care systems depend on the capability and willingness of family members to fill the gap between existing needs and formal service provision. Understanding the motivations of adult children to engage in parent care is, therefore, of central importance. The existing research literature offers different explanations, and here we concentrate on two key perspectives: normative and affectual commitments. Based on longitudinal data from two waves of the Norwegian Life Course, Ageing and Generation Study (2007 and 2017), we investigate to what extent adult children's previous attitudes towards filial responsibility norms and their perceived quality of the relationship to parents (in 2007) are associated with subsequent care-giving to ageing mothers and fathers (in 2017). The analyses show no evidence of a correlation between support of general filial responsibility norms and provision of help and care 10 years later. Perceived quality of the relationship, on the other hand, is associated with subsequent help and care-giving. The patterns are similar for daughters and sons. We conclude that within the context of a comprehensive welfare state, like the Norwegian, care-giving seems to be more of an individual choice than a societal prescription.
This article examines the effects of the heteronormative gender binary construct on identity formation, by offering a comparative reading of Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar (1963) and Stephen Chbosky’s The Perks of Being a Wallflower (1999). With a focus on the respective protagonists, Esther and Charlie, the reading analyzes the characters’ deviances from social constructs, and the subsequent punishments and effects on their behaviors. The present paper seeks to demonstrate how rigid social constructs undermine the complexity of the human experience, as exemplified by the two novels, and for which they remain relevant contributions to the larger present-day gender debate.
The separation of sex/gender and then not supervening gender over sex, which has been proposed in social sciences, is one of the most important social issues of scientific approaches due to the legal and cultural requirements and of course the science. To identify the way to enter the debate and judge such a duality, the first question is how to attain the methodological literature of this debate and identify this type of debate and, based on that, draw the discourse of this debate so that instead of confronting the approaches, it is possible to discuss approaches. In this way, it is possible to identify the concerns and methodological arguments of the proponents of this separation and provide a common literature to advance the discussion. Then, in another stage, it is possible to judge about this separation and then its claim that gender is not based on sex through an authentic method.
Method:
The method of this article to achieve such goals is a combination of a special kind of historical study combined with common sense reasoning.
Access to measurement and comparison between scientific approaches and paradigms requires a type of scientific and intellectual studies that is a combination of a special type of historical studies along with access to public arguments; Arguments that the human mind dictates regardless of paradigms and intellectual approaches. In this article, we identified the historical and intellectual roots of the separation of the two concepts of sex and gender in the history of the formation of sociological knowledge and its concepts in the works of Emile Durkheim. In the history of classical sociology, Durkheim used the conceptual distinction of individual and social conscience throughout his works. Based on this distinction, he was able to explain the social realities, the changeable identity of social reality, and laws as the norms that protect the society, and in this way, he established the theory of mechanic and organic solidarity in the description of traditional and modern societies. Durkheim did this through the concepts of similarity differentiation and division of labor. The division of labor leads to the formation of a special type of solidarity between people, while solidarity is based on the distinction in the social consciences of people. This type of division of labor and as a result this type of solidarity leads to the formation of a new social reality along with its special rights. This historical study shows us what intellectual foundations needed for this separation were how the intellectual space was ready for the birth of this conceptualization in the 70dicades and what conditions caused the emergence of this conceptual separation; A situation that may not be directly described in the current literature on gender issues and feminist studies. Much earlier, the conceptual and intellectual process to explain the transformation of the social rights of feminist movements for the realization of women's rights in Western society had begun, but it had not yet found the scientific and conceptual basis to penetrate the stream of social science until 1972 by Oakley. The distinction between sex and gender based on the fact that gender is something that is determined by society rather than having a natural basis was explicitly established in sociology, and the way of legal struggles in an official and scientific form was provided for feminist movements and found its proper conceptual and scientific basis.
But is this primary sociological background in distinguishing individual and social conscience and this determined form in distinguishing sex from gender a correct conceptual distinction?
The answer to this question requires a scientific and universal tool for judging and measuring conceptualizations in social science. This tool is nothing but knowledge that is not dependent on any specific scientific theory and viewpoint, and every human being can provide an answer to it. This tool is a general argument that precedes any theory and Allameh Tabatabai stated it before presenting the theory of Etebariat.
An anthropological argument as the basis of social sciences, which is taken from Allameh Tabatabai's meta-theory of Etebariat, makes it possible to make an intellectual comparison between the concepts of the common intellectual stream of social sciences with the practical wisdom of the Islamic era, and secondly, the above conceptual separation can be judged.
According to this argument, two levels of human life are depicted, one is the natural physical part and the other is the mental, active, and social part. To show which of these two levels is the main level and the other is considered its subsidiary, Allameh Tabatabai raises a question when death occurs which one of these two parts is lost? Is the death due to the closure of the first part or due to the closure of the second part? The answer is clear. As a result, the main part will be the first part that makes human life possible and the second part will supervene on the first part. We called the first part Sex base and the second part Gender structure.
In other words, we showed that human and social realities are supervened by the main part and the "base" in humans and proportion to it, in such a way that the gender structure cannot be considered independent of the sex base and in some way separate sex and gender. The structure of people's gender, which is made by society, is not only built based on society but this social structure is based on something called the basis of sex, which is his physical and physical nature. Therefore, the separation of the two concepts of sex and gender, which implies the idea that gender is created independently of sex and is simply created by society, cannot be correct and therefore a correct conceptualization; Because the concepts and separation between them involve contents that automatically impose themselves on human thought and society.
Therefore, the use of this conceptual separation introduces contents into the intellectual and cultural literature of the society that is not compatible with common sense. Therefore, to transfer this knowledge obtained from universal reasoning, in addition to the absence of conceptual differences, this fact must also be applied in the words referring to it. Therefore, two words "sex base" and "gender structure" which express the existential relationship between the structure and the base, and the non-separation of the base from the structure were proposed for the linguistic level of this knowledge. With this definition, gender cannot be considered as something constructed by society, although in the order of survival and reproduction, it is the society that decides whether to preserve or reproduce the female or male structures or to preserve the society and the lives of the members of the society. To change this principle can also be explained by Allameh Tabatabai's Etebariat theory under "change Etebariat".
Keywords
Practical Wisdom Sex/Gender Sex base Gender structure Theory of E&rsquo؛ tebariat Feminism
This paper explores and and questions the distinction between friendship and romantic love, as these two types of relationship are usually understood. We argue that the search for an essential and necessary distinction between them is misguided, since the distinction is most plausibly viewed as being based solely on a cluster of contingent social norms. Furthermore, we seek to show that there are good reasons for not drawing this distinction, such that we should try to change our social norms in this regard. The friendship-romantic relationship binary, we argue, is unhelpful for the flourishing of both friendships and romantic relationships, and unnecessarily limits access to certain goods, notably affectionate touch. Furthermore, this binary raises specifically feminist concerns: that it prioritizes cross-gender relationships over relationships between women, that it imposes limits on intimacy between men, and that it is implicated in problems concerning sexual consent. Our romantic relationships, our friendships, and our gender politics would therefore benefit from dissolving this socially-created distinction. Finally, in service of responding to a potential objection, we offer a preliminary sketch of a positive proposal for how our relationships might be structured in the absence of a friendship/romantic relationship binary, according to which relationships are structured around shared projects. On this proposal, the projects we engage in with other people can function to give definition to our relationships to them, but it is up to us which projects we want to engage in and with whom. Most importantly, this should be negotiated on an individual basis rather than being governed by social norms restricting us to either romantic relationships or friendships.
This chapter analyses how the myth of motherhood was construed and enforced on Romanian women in two recent epochs. While in the latter part of communism women were expected to be “mothers of the nation” and produce five or more children for the country and the party, due to an infamous decree passed in 1966, the postcommunist period saw the same pressure put on women to fulfill their “patriotic duty,” this time in the neoliberal logic and in congruence with the Western model. Women imagery is consistent with this role, and this chapter provides insights into how primary school textbooks, together with the main documents and legal initiatives of the two periods, impacted the social expectations of motherhood and affected the Romanian women.
Although women's participation in the workforce has steadily grown in recent decades and their representation in senior leadership positions has risen, much of the research continues to focus on explaining the barriers that prevents their upward advancement. In contrast, understanding what has enabled women to reach the top, has received much less attention. Due to this gap, the aim of this study was to explore and understand the lived experiences of women who have become senior leaders. An Heideggerian interpretative phenomenological approach was adopted. Purposive sampling was used to select eleven women from across the British Isles who were employed in positions at director level or above in the Finance, Education, Health, Law, Sports and Culture sectors. Braun and Clarke's six phase approach to reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyse data from semi-structured interviews conducted during 2018-2019. The study found that three personal attributes were instrumental to the women's career advancement into senior leadership, which formed the basis to propose a novel framework. Resilience provided them with the ability to combat challenges, overcome hurdles and bounce back from adversity. Ambition gave the women a sense of purpose, the desire for success, a determination to seek out new opportunities and the courage to push themselves beyond their comfort zone. Wisdom armed them with an intuitive, authentic and superior understanding of themselves and a moral, social and emotional maturity. This study contributes to knowledge and practice by presenting the Resilience, Ambition and Wisdom (RAW) Framework for women's leadership success and identifying the value of early professional coaching for career advancement. It also emphasises the importance of resilience and ambition combined, for career mobility and highlights the value of wisdom for women's leadership practice. Recommendations from this study are that the RAW framework is used at an individual and an organisational level to guide the development of resilience, ambition and wisdom. Women should engage in early career coaching to help them gain focus, alleviate failure anxieties and develop effective leadership strategies. Organisations should proactively promote coaching as part of their roles in helping these individuals access positions of responsibility early in their careers. Further research examining the emerging RAW framework including the development of a self-assessment scale and the relationship between personality type temperament and women's career advancement, is also recommended. 3
This chapter analyzes the close, though often neglected, relationship between masculinity and emotion in culture and history and, in doing so, the political potential of emotions to transform existing sociocultural relations and structures. To illustrate this, the chapter discusses the political potential of profeminist men’s emotions as part of the feminist struggle for social and gender equality. As a concrete example, focus is given to several existing “new fatherhood” models that pervade not only culture but also contemporary literature. Although patriarchal structures undeniably keep oppressing women—as well as some (homosexual) men—the fact that some men are actively and emotionally involved in feminism—as well as caring for their daughters and sons—seems to challenge monolithic views of masculinity as synonymous with patriarchy.
Focusing on some contemporary literary revisions of male violence, this chapter draws on a selection of contemporary white male fictions that seem to question and rewrite from particularly innovative perspectives the traditional cultural conception of violence as a symbol of virility. Although concentrating mostly on subversive images of male violence, such revisionary depictions, most of which were by U.S. novelist Richard Ford, will be preceded by, and contrasted with, more traditional fictional approaches to the subject, which in this chapter will be exemplified not only through literature but also through cinema, from the Ernest Hemingway to Russell Bank’s fiction to contemporary films as popular as Fight Club, directed by David Fincher and based on Chuck Palahniuk’s novel of the same name, among others. Even though the association of masculinity with violence is particularly recurrent in most contemporary literature and cinema, this chapter will also make use of other films, such as In a Better World by Danish director Susanne Bier, in addition to some stories by Hemingway himself, as examples of the deconstruction of said relationship. In analyzing subversive rewriting vis-à-vis more conventional representations, the chapter tries to provide examples not only of traditional constructions but also of the possible deconstruction of male violence in contemporary fiction and cinema. In doing so, it provides some alternative images of being a man with a view to visibilizing less violent and more gender-equal societies.
Mesleğe yeni başlayan bir aile terapisti ilk oturumda aile ile yüz yüze geldiğinde bütün bir oturum aile ile ne yapacağım diye düşünebilmektedir. Bu durum bize terapistin uygulama eksikliğinin olabileceğini göstermektedir. Bir terapistin uygulama eksikliği varsa bu durum onun kuramsal bilgilerine de gölge düşürmektedir. İlk oturumda ne yapacağını bilmeyen bir terapistin yakınmalarını ilk defa süpervizyonda duymuştum. Mesleğe yeni başlayan aile terapistlerinin yaşadıkları kaygı ve ikilem kafamı uzun süre meşgul etmişti. Yüksek lisans derecesini bitirmek üzere olan bir kişi aile terapisi üzerine yazılmış kuramlar hakkında bilgi sahibi olmuştur. Yapısal yaklaşımlardan stratejileri ayırt edebilmektedir. Farklılıkları ve üçlü durumları kolaylıkla tartışabilir. Aile sınırlarının ve koalisyonlarının onun için çok hassas anlamları vardır. Bu tür bilgilere aile terapistleri genelde sahiptir. Fakat aynı şeyi kendilerinin de yapıp yapamayacaklarından şüphe duymaktadırlar. İlk görüşmesiyle karşı karşıya olan terapist kitaplarda öğrendikleri ile uygulama arasında büyük bir boşluk olduğunu hissetmektedir.
This paper presents a new approach to theorizing and empirically investigating a phenomenon variously described by sociologists as internalized oppression or symbolic violence. Located at the intersection of internal worlds and external reality, the intrapsychic and the interpersonal and social, this object of inquiry—here termed self-negation—is crucial to many forms of societal domination. The paper explores its inner workings, analytically disaggregating it into an array of psychosocial processes drawn from the psychoanalytic theory of the defenses. Much of the work’s originality consists in showing how these processes operate across multiple systems of domination and drive many and varied outward manifestations of the phenomenon.
Tomar conciencia de la vulnerabilidad humana y de la mutua interdependencia es condición esencial para el compromiso y la transformación social. De ahí la necesidad de situar el cuidado en el centro del debate social y político, más allá de cualquier rol de género. El objetivo del artículo es revisar la propuesta de masculinidades cuidadoras de reciente aparición pues, como señala Joan Tronto, cambiar los valores y las prácticas sobre cómo los hombres se relacionan con el cuidado es la siguiente fase de la revolución democrática. A la luz de ese objetivo el artículo se organiza en cuatro apartados. El primero dilucida las dos dimensiones del cuidado: como praxis y como principio, señalando el modo en que la praxis del cuidado contribuye al cultivo y desarrollo del cuidado como principio. El segundo apartado se acerca al campo de estudios de masculinidades para revisar el concepto emergente de masculinidades cuidadoras y su potencial. Por otro lado, sin abandonar los estudios de masculinidades, el tercer apartado trata de clarificar algunos malentendidos sobre el cuidado que han llevado a otros autores a desatender las aportaciones del cuidado en el camino hacia unas nuevas masculinidades. Finalmente, en el cuarto apartado, se revisa la delicadeza como eje vector que une el cuidado y la justicia como hebras de un mismo tapiz, superando dicotomías reduccionistas. Se concluye con una propuesta de masculinidades justas y cuidadoras, conscientes de la necesidad de cultivar el modo-de-ser-cuidado como parte de la agencia pacifista.
Tomar conciencia de la vulnerabilidad humana y de la mutua interdependencia es condición esencial para el compromiso y la transformación social. De ahí la necesidad de situar el cuidado en el centro del debate social y político, más allá de cualquier rol de género. El objetivo del artículo es revisar la propuesta de masculinidades cuidadoras de reciente aparición pues, como señala Joan Tronto, cambiar los valores y las prácticas sobre cómo los hombres se relacionan con el cuidado es la siguiente fase de la revolución democrática. A la luz de ese objetivo el artículo se organiza en cuatro apartados. El primero dilucida las dos dimensiones del cuidado: como praxis y como principio, señalando el modo en que la praxis del cuidado contribuye al cultivo y desarrollo del cuidado como principio. El segundo apartado se acerca al campo de estudios de masculinidades para revisar el concepto emergente de masculinidades cuidadoras y su potencial. Por otro lado, sin abandonar los estudios de masculinidades, el tercer apartado trata de clarificar algunos malentendidos sobre el cuidado que han llevado a otros autores a desatender las aportaciones del cuidado en el camino hacia unas nuevas masculinidades. Finalmente, en el cuarto apartado, se revisa la delicadeza como eje vector que une el cuidado y la justicia como hebras de un mismo tapiz, superando dicotomías reduccionistas. Se concluye con una propuesta de masculinidades justas y cuidadoras, conscientes de la necesidad de cultivar el modo-de-ser-cuidado como parte de la agencia pacifista.
The development of information technologies and the Internet has created an enormous economy. In line with this digital transformation, cultural change has come about. Global companies create new trends focused on vanity and pleasure in social media that follow the patriarchal capitalist ideology. Motherhood has also been included in this process, and "perfect motherhood," as an extension to new generation motherhood, has been popularized on social media. Perfect motherhood requires mothers who are responsible for looking after children and the home to also be successful in their professional and personal lives while looking beautiful, young, chic, sexy, and fit. Recently the celebrification of motherhood, which can be seen on Instagram, became another quality added to the requirements of being a perfect mother. Heightened during the new post-COVID times, the "Instamom" phenomenon conceals the fact that women are driven to more states of increased precarity and vulnerability, alongside unemployment, exploitation, and ecological and economic crises. This study analyzes the perfect motherhood myth through Instamom case studies and attempts to show how Instamoms are perceived by mothers and mothers-to-be. By adopting the digital ethnography method, 30 Instamom accounts (with followers ranging from 135,000 to 3.5 million) in Turkey were observed for a year via passive participant observations. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six Instamoms and 12 follower mothers and mothers-to-be. In conclusion, it was discovered that Instamoms were perceived by their followers as exemplars of knowledge and beauty. Furthermore, the study revealed that both groups were part of the celebrification and branding process, and those who shared knowledge based on experience were considered sincere and created a bigger impression on their followers. It was also discovered that when sharing on social media, these Instamoms attempted to look their best. Moreover, Instamom accounts that prominently use children to increase viewer interaction demonstrate issues related to the "commercialization of childhood." Tangible advice for transformative change is included at the end of the research.
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