The Kingdon Field Guide to African

Histological and histochemical comparative study of the skin of three different locations between gazelle and camel

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Jan 2023

This study was designed to describe and compare the histological features of camel (Camelus dromedarius) and gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) skin. The study was carried out on skin samples collected from healthy adult local camels and gazelle (15 from each) immediately after slaughtering. Five specimens were taken from different skin regions upper lips, perineal, and thigh) fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for 72 hours. The sections were processed using routine histological technique and stained by Harris Hematoxylin and Eosin stain (H&E), Periodic Acid Schiff Reagent (PAS), Alcian Blue (AB), Combined Periodic Acid Schiff and Alcian Blue (AB-PAS), and Masson's trichrome stains. Skin sections revealed an epidermis thin outer layer composed of four strata: basal, spinosum, granulosum, and corneum. The mean total thickness of the epidermis in camel skin was greater than that in gazelle skin; however, the upper lips kin of gazelle and camel has the maximum thickness of the epidermis. The dermis consists of two layers; papillary and reticular, and contains primary and secondary hair follicles, sebaceous, and sweat glands. The dermis of the gazelle revealed a high thickness of papillary and reticular layers in comparison with the skin of the camel. The sebaceous glands were simple alveolar that present in small size of skin of each camel and gazelle. The tubule-coiled sweat glands were numerous and spread in the dermis. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the absence of differences in the general architectures skin in camel and gazelle except for variations in the thickness of skin strata.

Executive Summary

Chapter

Jan 2007

Thomas M. Butynski

INTRODUCTION Because of their high biological diversity and uniqueness, African rainforests are a top global conservation priority (Olson and Dinerstein 1998, Kamdem-Toham et al. 2003, Mittermeier et al. 2004). Forest destruction has been fueled by rapid population growth and also by extensive road building which have greatly increased access to forests (Wilkie and Laporte 2001). The total harvest of wildlife in the Afrotropical region is estimated to be about 5 million tons annually, making this the most intensively hunted tropical region in the world (Fa et al. 2002). Recurring wars, political instability, disease, and endemic corruption have also created serious impediments for African forest conservation. While well over half of all of Africa's rainforests have been cleared and fragmented, Central Africa retains almost 60% of the original forest cover (Naughton-Treves and Weber 2001). The Congo Basin Forest comprises the second largest block of tropical rainforest remaining on Earth. The majority of the Congo Basin Forest lies within the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the third largest country in Africa, covering some 2,344,000 km² at the center of the continent. DRC is the single most biologically rich country in Africa, and, in terms of species richness, is near the top of the list for Africa for virtually every group of organisms. DRC harbors important communities of megafauna and, resulting from its proximity to the second largest river system on Earth, the Congo, DRC also holds a diverse freshwater fish fauna. Conservation International (CI) has identified the Congo Basin Forest as one of the world's High Biodiversity Wilderness Areas and, as such, a global biodiversity conservation priority. Lokutu Lokutu, within the Territory of Basoko, DRC, lies on the southern boundary of the northern-most extent of the Congo River (see Map). The Lokutu area still has forests, some of them within Unilever's Lokutu Oil Palm Plantation concession. Lokutu Oil Palm Plantation concession (630 km²) is an active plantation of which ca. 100 km² are covered with oil palm (and some cocoa and coffee). The remaining ca. 530 km² are lightly to heavily disturbed. At one time, the Lokutu area was completely covered with lowland moist forest (Grainger 1996). The Plantation has been cleared except for narrow strips of forest along streams and rivers, and two (ca. 50 km² each) forest blocks in the northwest of the concession. These two blocks, as well as the forests surrounding the plantation, have been selectively logged. Lokutu Plantation employs ca. 1,900 people. The total population of the Lokutu area is ca. 10,000 people. Lokutu is located in the northeastern section of the region south of the Great Bend of the Congo River, sometimes referred to as the Cuvette Centrale. This is also adjacent to the Maringa-Wamba-Lopori landscape, targeted for conservation and development activities under the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP). Despite the high conservation importance of this landscape, there are no formal protected areas in this region. RAP EXPEDITION OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES The primary objective of this RAP survey was to identify potential areas for long-term investment as part of Conservation International's biodiversity conservation program for the Congo Basin High Biodiversity Wilderness Area. A first short survey of the area around the village of Lokutu in September 2002 examined the opportunity of an involvement of CI into the logging and oil palm concession of Unilever. The purpose of this RAP survey was to investigate the conservation value of the Lokutu area. The specific aims of the expedition were to: • Derive a brief but thorough overview of species diversity within the Lokutu area and evaluate the area's relative conservation importance; • Undertake an evaluation of threats to this biodiversity; • Provide management and research recommendations for this area together with conservation priorities; and • Make RAP data publicly available for decision-makers as well as members of the general public in the DRC and elsewhere, with a view to increasing awareness of this ecosystem and promoting its conservation. The RAP expedition's team of six scientists comprised international scientists specializing in Central Africa's terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity. The RAP team examined selected taxonomic groups to determine the area's biological diversity, its degree of endemism, and the uniqueness of the ecosystem. RAP expeditions survey focal taxonomic groups as well as indicator species, with the aim of choosing taxa whose presence can help identify a habitat type and its condition. We chose to survey plants, odonates (dragonflies), amphibians, reptiles, birds, and larger mammals (with a focus on primates). STUDY AREA We conducted surveys during the dry season in forests within and near Unilever's Lokutu Oil Palm Plantation concession. The surveys were conducted over 14 days (26 October – 8 November, 2004). Surveys focused mainly on four forest sites (see Map, Table 1.1). SUMMARY OF RESULTS Criteria generally considered during RAP surveys in order to identify priority areas for conservation across taxonomic groups include species richness, species endemism, rare and/or threatened species, and critical habitats. Measurements of species richness can be used to compare the number of species per area among areas within a given region. Measurements of species endemism indicate the number of species endemic to some defined area and give an indication of both the uniqueness of the area and the species that will be threatened by degradation or loss of that area's habitats (or conversely, the species that will likely be conserved through protected areas). Assessment of rare and/or threatened species that are known or suspected to occur within a given area provides an indicator of the importance of the area for the conservation of biodiversity. The presence or absence of such species also aids assessment of their conservation status. Many species listed on the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2006) carry increased legal protection, thus giving greater importance and weight to conservation decisions. Describing the number of critical habitats or subhabitats within an area identifies sparse or poorly known habitats within a region that contribute to habitat variety and, therefore, to species diversity. The following is a summary, based on these criteria, of the key findings from our field study. Plants A total of 485 taxa of indigenous plants and 89 taxa of exotic plants were recorded. The low botanical diversity of the palm plantations is compared with almost primary forest. The most interesting of the timber species was Pericopsis elata or Afrormosia. Considering that the Kisangani area is considered to be the last stronghold of this species, the very low stocking rate noted during this survey suggests that the situation is more serious than previously thought. Odonates (Dragonflies) A total of 86 taxa of odonates, mostly Guineo-Congolian running-water species, were found. There were several remarkable range extensions, as well as new species of Platycypha, Elattoneura and Mesocnemis. The species richness for odonates in this area is high, especially since only 24 (28%) species are widespread Afrotropical species; the remaining 62 (72%) are Guineo-Congolian species. Of the Guineo-Congolian group, 47% of the species occur almost throughout the Guineo-Congolian realm (i.e., well into West Africa), but the other 53% are more localized, restricted to the forested center of the continent. Thirteen of the species (almost one in six) have yet to be found outside the Congo Basin. The RAP results indicate a healthy watershed in the Lokutu area, with limited degrees of pollution and stream-bed erosion. If forest cover and natural stream morphology are retained, the rich dragonfly fauna is expected to persist. The species list is especially long considering the paucity of stagnant water species and the absence of certain Congolian endemics. The observed richness is probably typical of the Congo Basin as a whole and other areas are expected to be even richer. Therefore, the Lokutu area does not require specific conservation action as concerns the conservation of the odonate fauna. This RAP survey demonstrated that it is possible to rapidly obtain a clear picture of odonate diversity, even allowing a partial description of their ecology. The rich and apparently largely natural odonate fauna found contrasts with the impoverished status of the other taxonomic groups studied. Therefore, it is recommended to use odonates more frequently to supplement biodiversity assessments of the more traditional taxonomic groups, especially in the Congo Basin, where sampling odonates may show whether existing conservation priorities also protect watersheds and freshwater biodiversity. Amphibians and Reptiles Twenty-one species of amphibians and 16 species of reptiles were identified. Most species were common savannah or forest species that can adapt to a high level of anthropogenic disturbance. The known distributional range for six amphibian species (Afrixalus equatorialis, Amnirana amnicola, Cardioglossa gratiosa, Dimorphognathus africanus, Hyperolius cf. lateralis and Leptopelis ocellatus) was extended. Given the circumstances of this RAP survey (i.e., inaccessibility of potentially pristine forest patches), the species list reported here does not allow for meaningful conservation recommendations. Birds A total of 204 species of birds were found in the Lokutu area, of which 20 species are Palearctic migrants. No bird species listed as threatened on the 2004 IUCN Red List were encountered. We obtained geographic range extensions for 14 species and one subspecies. Previous logging activity, past and ongoing wide-scale conversion of forests to oil palm plantations and gardens, and heavy hunting pressure were documented. The findings indicate that the Lokutu area is of relatively low value as a site for the conservation of birds. This is due, in part, to a decline in the bird species richness of the site as a result of forest degradation, fragmentation, and clearance, together with unsustainable levels of hunting of some species. A preliminary list of the birds of the Lola ya Bonobo Sanctuary (near Kinshasa) is presented at the end of this report. Mammals Six species of primates and eight species of large mammals were recorded. Previous logging activity, ongoing wide-scale conversion of forests to oil palm plantations and gardens, and heavy hunting pressure were documented. Hunters claimed that they never observed large mammals such as African elephants, African buffaloes, leopards, or gracile chimpanzees (bonobos). The largest mammal present is the red river hog. The Lokutu area is of little conservation value for the conservation of primates and large mammals due to a considerable decline in the biological richness of the site and the collapse of the primate and large mammal communities. This situation has come about as a result of forest degradation, fragmentation, and clearance, together with unsustainable levels of hunting. CONSERVATION CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Given (1) the great loss of biodiversity and other conservation values, (2) the ever increasing human population and concomitant need to exploit the area's natural resources, (3) the lack of interest/will/ability, both of central government and local government, to control and manage the use of the natural resources, and (4) the high costs (both in terms of money and time) of working in the area, we do not find the Lokutu area to be a priority site for conservation investment or action — nor do we recommend that Lokutu be considered part of CI's Congo Basin High Biodiversity Wilderness Area. In other words, there are numerous other forests in equatorial Africa with a far more valuable biodiversity, and with far fewer threats, where much more conservation impact can be achieved for the funds and time invested. Although the necessary permits were obtained from the various ministries in Kinshasa, the local authorities in the Lokutu area had little respect for this authorization, and actively sought out discrepancies — no matter how seemingly insignificant. Central Government has little or no authority in the Lokutu area. This opens the question as to the safety of any financial investment in the area. Based on the above, any investment in this area would be highly risky, not only as far as funding conservation actions is concerned, but also in support of the oil palm industry. If, however, Unilever, or some other source (e.g., USAID), has conservation funds that can only be used for mitigating the negative conservation situation at Lokutu, there are some actions that could be taken. These include: • Establishing active, long-term, family planning and conservation education programs, • Putting into place large community-protected and community-managed conservation areas, together with bushmeat hunter cooperatives, that would allow for recovery of wildlife populations and their sustainable exploitation for bushmeat, • Re-establishing the livestock industry with the aim of replacing a large portion of the bushmeat that is now eaten with beef, goat, sheep and poultry. One of the original objectives of this RAP was to assess the biodiversity over a much wider area, more specifically, of the forests 40 km or more south of Lokutu. We were unable to accomplish this objective due to permit restrictions. Thus, we are unable to say in this report (1) how far south from Lokutu are found the nearest sites of high biodiversity value, (2) what impact the departure of Unilever from Lokutu might have on the survival of that biodiversity, or (3) what kind of conservation strategy would need to be put into place for the Lokutu area in order to conserve any high biodiversity sites that might exist to the south. Thus, an additional conservation recommendation of this report is that all necessary permits be obtained from the central, regional and local government authorities and another survey of about one month be undertaken in the forests located > 40 km to the south of Lokutu. The Congo River is one of Africa's great biological barriers and, as such, the floras and faunas on either side of this River are known to be substantially different. We recommend that more extensive biodiversity surveys be conducted on both sides of the River in the Lokutu area. Table 1.1. Principal survey sites in the Lokutu area, Democratic Republic of Congo. REFERENCES 1 2 IUCN 2006IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.www.iucnredlist.orgGoogle Scholar 3 4 MittermeierR. A. P. R.Gil M.Hoffman J.Pilgrim T.Brooks C. G.Mittermeier J.Lamoreux G. A. B.da Fonseca 2004Hotspots RevisitedCemexMexico CityGoogle Scholar 5 Naughton-TrevesL. W.Weber 2001Human dimensions of the African rain forest.In WeberW. L. J. T.White A.Vedder N.Naughton-Treves (eds.)African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservationpp2046Yale University PressNew Haven, CTGoogle Scholar 6 7 WilkieD. S. N.Laporte 2001Forest area and deforestation in Central Africa: current knowledge and future directions.In WeberW. L. J. T.White A.Vedder N.Naughton-Treves (eds.)African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservationpp119139Yale University PressNew Haven, CTGoogle Scholar

Amphibians and Reptiles of Lokutu

Chapter

Jan 2007

During a short rapid assessment survey (RAP) of the Lokutu region, Democratic Republic of Congo, we recorded 21 species of amphibians and 16 species of reptiles. Most species were common savannah or forest species which can adapt to a high level of anthropogenic disturbance. The known distributional range for six amphibian species (Afrixalus equatorialis, Amnirana amnicola, Cardioglossa gratiosa, Dimorphognathus africanus, Hyperolius cf. lateralis and Leptopelis ocellatus) has been extended. Given the circumstances of this RAP survey (i.e., inaccessibility of potentially pristine forest patches), the species list reported here does not allow for meaningful conservation recommendations. INTRODUCTION Most amphibians and reptiles have very specific habitat requirements and are, therefore, excellent habitat indicators. Amphibians, especially, represent other biodiversity (e.g., phytodiversity) very well (W. Küpper et al. unpubl. data). However, their performance as habitat indicators is best in humid areas. Reptiles are highly valuable indicators for arid areas. Hence the combination of both groups effectively reflects the state of an area under investigation. However, the potential value of amphibians and reptiles as indicators is limited by the lack of knowledge concerning the biology, taxonomy and distribution of many species. As with other groups of organisms, the herpetofauna of most parts of DRC remains largely unknown. The only comprehensive herpetological work dates back to 1919, 1923 and 1924 (Schmidt and Noble 1998). Therefore, the distribution maps for many species, well documented, for example, in Cameroon and Uganda, still show large gaps in Central Africa. It is currently unclear whether this is due to missing data or represents real distributional gaps. Hence, our predominant aim during this survey was to provide a first assessment of the herpetological diversity of the region, contributing to a better understanding of the distribution and taxonomy of Central African amphibians and reptiles. MATERIAL AND METHODS Study sites From 26 October to 9 November 2004 we searched for amphibians and reptiles mainly in three areas (For details on study sites, see Introduction and Map in this report). Site 1. Lokutu. The area described as ‘Lokutu’ refers to the village itself, formerly known as Elisabetha. In this area (N 01°08′43.4″/E 23°36′54.1″) we found several potential amphibian breeding sites. Open water in the village was permanently available in the form of an old swimming pool. The pool was no longer in use but continuously provided a shallow pond. Close to this habitat a leaking water pipe provided a small muddy area (ca. 50 m²). Old concrete water tanks (the old filtration system of the pool) still contained water. Water there was heavily vegetated. Close to the village we investigated a series of five fish ponds (each ca. 5 m diameter), situated in a steep valley of a small river. This site was close to the Congo River. Site 2. Lobolo. The second collecting site (including Lobolo Camp, N 00°55′44.0″/E 23°32′26.6″) was situated in a clearing inside heavily degraded forest. Adjacent fields and a small river, as well as several puddles along the road, were searched for amphibians and reptiles. The area was partially flooded due to heavy rains. Site 3. Lothi. No collections were made at this site (N 00° 55′ 41.7″/E 23° 32′ 27.5″) due to restrictions imposed by local officials and policemen. Site 4. Lukumete. This site stretched from the campsite along a transect (positioned from N 01°17′28.7″/E 23°25′51.7″ to 01°17′35.2″/E 23°23′21.5″) towards the west up to the (medium-sized) Lunua River. There we investigated two rivers and several swamps in proximity to the camp. A third river, crossing the transect approximately 1 km before joining the Lunua River, was also searched. A substantial part of this area was dominated by the tree Gilbertiodendron dewevrei. Collecting methods We searched for reptiles and amphibians primarily using opportunistic visual and acoustic search techniques during day and night, often using line transects (aligned from East to West) on established paths. With this method only semi-quantitative presence / absence data can be gathered. The most appropriate method for a standardized inventory would have been searching along established plots/transects including mark-recapture experiments (Rödel and Ernst 2004). However, due to time limitations it was not possible to apply these methods. The length of our ‘random’ transect ranged from 1.4 – 3.8 km, leaving search hours per person as the only standard parameter. To complete the inventory, especially to detect fossorial and cryptic species, a variable number of funnel traps (height × width × length: 0.4 × 0.2 × 1.0 m) were aligned either along natural barriers or along drift fences made out of plastic garbage bags (height: 1 m, total length: 15 m) and buried 5 cm into the soil (Table 4.1). Table 4.1. Number of funnel traps placed to capture reptiles and amphibians at two sites in the Lokutu region, DRC. In total, sampling took place over 13 days and 14 nights. Transect walks were only possible at one site (site 4, Lukumete) during four days. Transects were walked in total for 19 hours during the night and 20 hours during the day. Trap days totaled 108 (Table 4.1). RAP team members provided further specimens, as encountered, during their own survey work. Voucher specimens were killed in a solution of MS222 (3-Aminobenzoic Acid Ethyl Ester Methanesulfonate; Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Germany). Afterwards, photographs and tissue samples were taken. Tissue samples were stored in 97% ethanol, specimens were fixed in 4% formaldehyde and eventually transferred to 70% ethanol. All specimens are currently stored in the research collection of M.-O. Rödel at the University of Würzburg, Germany, and will be deposited later in various natural history museums. Determination was done after Schiøtz (1999) for treefrogs and Chippaux (2001) for snakes. Taxonomy follows Frost (2004) for amphibians and Uetz et al. (2004) for reptiles. Common names are after Frank and Ramus (1995). RESULTS We recorded a total of 21 species of amphibians belonging to five families (Table 4.2). Within the family Arthroleptidae, we recorded only one species; however, the Long-Toed Frog (Cardioglossa gratiosa) was a new record for the DRC. Previously, C. gratiosa was known only from Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and parts of Congo Brazzaville (IUCN 2004). An unpublished record from Dzanga-Sangah Reserve, Central African Republic (M.-O. Rödel unpubl. data), indicates that the species most likely is widespread in the Central African rainforests. Table 4.2. Amphibian species recorded during the RAP survey of the Lokutu region, DRC. Within the true toads (Bufonidae), two species (Bufo maculatus, B. regularis) represent typical savannah forms which regularly invade anthropogenically disturbed forests (e.g., Rödel 2000). The other three species are forest toads, inhabiting primary and secondary forests. Bufo gracilipes seems to prefer very swampy parts of the forest. Of the seven recorded treefrogs (Hyperoliidae), four records are large range extensions (Afrixalus equatorialis, Cryptothylax gresshoffi, Hyperolius cf. lateralis and Leptopelis ocellatus). However, all four species are likely to occur throughout the Congo Basin. The African Swamp Frog (Dimorphognathus africanus, Petropedetidae) was found within Lokutu village (site 1), although it has previously been reported only from forests. One ranid frog, Amnirana amnicola, also represents a new species for the DRC. We found 16 reptile species during our survey (Table 4.3). Good evidence for the presence of an additional four species was provided by locals (species indicated with an asterisk in Table 4.3). These taxa are easy to identify and hence confusion with other species is unlikely. Only the tortoise, Kinyxis belliana, a tree-dwelling Agama sp., and Mabuya maculilabris are considered non-forest species (e.g., Spawls et al. 2002). Both large vipers (Bitis gabonica gabonica and B. nasicornis) are regularly caught within the plantations and consumed by farm workers. B. g. gabonica reach high densities in plantations at some sites (Lawson 1993). Crocodiles (Crocodylus cataphractus, C. niloticus) were reported to occur, though both species were described as very hard to find. This shyness is likely due to high hunting pressure by the local population. Table 4.3. Reptile species recorded during the RAP survey of the Lokutu region, DRC. DISCUSSION Most of the Lokutu concession consists of oil palm plantations, areas used for agriculture, or heavily degraded and heavily hunted forest. The inventory of amphibians and reptiles mirrors this state very well. Common savannah species were present in the highest abundances and true forest species were rarely encountered. Although it was not possible to investigate the patches of pristine forest of this area (and heavy rainfall was rare during the survey period), we conclude that the herpetofauna of the sites we did survey was impoverished. One major factor is hunting by the local population of all of the larger reptiles (e.g., crocodiles, Nile monitors, tortoises, and larger snakes). The snake fauna, especially around the villages, also suffers due to the fact that every legless snake-like reptile is killed immediately upon sight. Other major direct threats to amphibians and reptiles are the free-roaming chickens and pigs, which feed readily on any amphibian or reptile they encounter. The time available for this survey was much too short to assume that the local herpetofauna was completely assessed. The snake fauna, especially, is surely undersampled, and additional frog species can be expected to be found during periods of heavier rainfall. Nevertheless, range extensions for several species show that even this comparatively poor fauna can add significantly to our knowledge of the herpetofauna of the Congo Basin. In summary, from the herpetological point of view, we cannot recommend investing further money or other resources into the Unilever concession at Lokutu in the territory of Basoko. The status of biodiversity within the forest in the Territory of Yahuma remains unknown. However, this study from Basoko suggests that the forest of the Territorky of Yahuma will also be heavily degraded. Additional problems in the Yahuma Territory include the corruption, disinterest and inflexibility of the local administration, making it very difficult or impossible to work there. The biggest problem in the area seems to be rapid population growth and the related habitat degradation and destruction. Significant actions are required to prevent increasing pressure on the few remaining forests. REFERENCES 1 ChippauxJ-P. 2001Les serpents d'Afrique occidentale et centraleIRD ÉditionsParis, FranceGoogle Scholar 2 FrankN. E.Ramus 1995Complete Guide to the Scientific and Common Names of the Amphibians and Reptiles of the WorldNG Publishing IncPottsville, USAGoogle Scholar 3 FrostD. R. 2004Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Vers. 3.0.22 Aug. 2004. Web site : http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/index.htmlGoogle Scholar 4 IUCN, Conservation International, & NatureServe 15 Oct. 2004Global Amphibian Assessment.Web site: http://www.globalamphibians.orgGoogle Scholar 5 6 RödelM-O. 2000Herpetofauna of West Africa. Vol. I: Amphibians of the West African Savanna. ChimairaFrankfurtGermanyGoogle Scholar 7 8 SchiøtzA. 1999Treefrogs of Africa. ChimairaFrankfurtGermanyGoogle Scholar 9 SchmidtK. P. G. K.Noble 1998Contributions to the Herpetology of the Belgian CongoReprint by the SSARUSAGoogle Scholar 10 SpawlsS. K.Howell R.Drewes J.Ashe 2002A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East AfricaAcademic PressSan Diego, USAGoogle Scholar 11 UetzP. R.Chenna T.Etzold J.Hallermann 2004The EMBL reptile database (01 Nov. 2004).Web site: http://www.reptiliaweb.orgGoogle Scholar

Dragonflies and Damselflies (Odonata) of Lokutu

Chapter

Jan 2007

Kd Dijkstra

Odonata were surveyed during a Rapid Assessment Program (RAP) survey of the Lokutu area in central Democratic Republic of Congo. Eighty-six mostly Guineo-Congolian running-water species were found, with remarkable range extensions, as well as new species of Platycypha, Elattoneura and Mesocnemis. The results indicate a healthy watershed in the Lokutu surroundings, with limited degrees of pollution and streambed erosion. If forest cover and natural stream morphology are retained, the rich dragonfly fauna will be as well. The obtained species list is especially long considering the paucity of stagnant water species and the absence of certain Congolian endemics. This is explained by the absence of their habitat and possibly by the barrier that the extensive forest surrounding Lokutu (still) poses to the dispersal of open land species. The observed richness is probably typical of the Congo Basin as a whole and other areas are expected to be even richer. Therefore the Lokutu area does not require specific conservation action. Unlike other groups traditionally surveyed in RAPs, Odonata are invertebrates, strongly tied to freshwater, that are not actively exploited by humans. This RAP proved that it is possible to rapidly obtain a clear picture of Odonate diversity, even allowing a partial description of their ecology. The rich and apparently largely natural Odonate fauna found contrasts with the impoverished and imperiled status of the other groups studied. Therefore it is recommended to use Odonata more frequently to supplement biodiversity assessments of traditional groups, especially in the Congo Basin, where sampling Odonata may show whether existing conservation priorities also protect watersheds and freshwater biodiversity. INTRODUCTION Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) are receiving increasing interest from scientists and the public. These graceful, colorful creatures are the quintessence of freshwater health. Due to their attractive appearance, dragonflies and damselflies can function as guardians of the watershed. They can be flagships for conservation not only of water-rich habitats, such as wetlands and rainforests, but also for habitats where water is scarce and, therefore, especially vital to the survival of life. Their sensitivity to structural habitat quality (e.g., forest cover, water clarity) and amphibious habits make Odonata well suited to be used in evaluating environmental change in the long term (biogeography, climatology) and in the short term (conservation biology), both above and below the water surface (Corbet 1999). Odonata larvae are critical indicators of the morphology and water quality of their aquatic habitats (e.g., bottom substrate, vegetation structure) while adult Odonata exhibit strong selection with regards to the structure of their terrestrial habitats (e.g., degree of shading). As a consequence, Odonata show strong responses to habitat changes such as deforestation and erosion. Ubiquitous species prevail in disturbed or temporary waters, while habitats like pristine streams and swamp forests harbor a wealth of more vulnerable and often localized species. Different ecological requirements are linked to different dispersal capacities. Species with narrow niches disperse poorly, while pioneers of temporal habitats (often created by disturbance) are excellent colonizers. For this reason, Odonata have a potential use in the evaluation of habitat connectivity (Clausnitzer 2003, Dijkstra and Lempert 2003). Odonata possess characteristics distinct from those of relatively well-studied groups like plants, butterflies, birds and mammals. Therefore, their study will supplement knowledge obtained from these better-known groups. There are also practical advantages to Odonata as environmental monitors. Aquatic habitats, the focal point of their life histories, are easy to locate, and their diurnal activity and high densities make them easy to study. Extensive experience with monitoring Odonata has been obtained in Europe and elsewhere. The number of dragonfly species occurring in Africa is manageable, their taxonomy is fairly well resolved, and identification is relatively straightforward. Considering the ever-changing nature of the African landscape, be it under human, geological or climatic influence, the study of African Odonata constitutes an exciting challenge, as knowledge of their geography, ecology and phylogeny may help to understand the past and future of a rapidly changing continent. Called an “evolutionary whirlpool” by Kingdon (1989), the Congo Basin is one of the most interesting parts of Africa for Odonata. From west to east it connects the continent's main rainforests with its main highlands, to the north and south it gently grades through a mosaic of forest, woodland and savannah towards the dry lands of the Sahara and Kalahari. With its forests, rivers and swamps, the Basin itself is an endless succession of prime Odonate habitat. Africa's wet heart is the center of diversity of several genera, especially in Libellulidae, including poorly known genera such as Aethiothemis, Lokia, Porpax, and the aptly named Congothemis. Probably the radiation and preservation of Odonate species during Africa's climatic vicissitudes were centered on the Basin. We largely owe our knowledge of the Congolese fauna to the efforts of Belgian collectors who assembled their material in the 1930s to 1960s. Almost no research took place during the last three decades of the 20th century, while earlier efforts were concentrated in a handful of peripheral regions (Fig. 3.1). The knowledge of most of the lower Basin (‘cuvette’) is, therefore, marginal. Figure 3.1. Position of Lokutu relative to sites with reasonable historic data (open circles) and selected sites within areas of highest and high conservation priority (filled circles), none of which have been surveyed for Odonata. Possible additional sites of conservation importance are indicated by question marks. Priorities follow the assessment of the Congo Basin Forest Partnership. Lokutu and other open circle sites do not lie within CBFP areas of conservation priority. METHODS (See Introduction and Map for information on study sites.) Adult and larval Odonata were observed and caught with a hand net during daylight at freshwater habitats (Table 3.1), and details of their ecology and behavior were noted. Identifications were made using Clausnitzer and Dijkstra (in prep.); nomenclature follows Dijkstra and Clausnitzer (in prep.). Relevant name-changes from that unpublished checklist are provided in the footnotes of Table 3.2. Table 3.1. Principal Odonata study sites in the Lokutu area, DRC. Accuracy of coordinates varies with size of site and precision with which a GPS reading could be taken. All sites lie at approximately 400 m a.s.l. Table 3.2. Species of Odonata recorded from the Lokutu area, DRC. See Table 3.1 for site details and names. Preferences are inferred from observations during fieldwork, augmented with previous experience. Clear preferences are indicated with capital letters. Less clear preferences are bracketed, either because data were insufficient, a species is catholic in its choice, or the habitat is of secondary importance to the species.S: status (1: single record, S: several observations, M: many observations)B: biogeography of the species (A: all over tropical Africa including savannahs, B: confined to Congo Basin, C: confined to Central Africa (eastern Nigeria to western Kenya), E: ranging largely in forest of Eastern Africa (eastern DRC to western Kenya), W: West and Central AfricaR: breeds in running water (S: small streams, M: large streams and small rivers, L: large rivers)St: breeds in standing water (pools, swamps)F: favors forested habitats and avoids open areasO: favors open habitats avoiding forest (farmland, bush, savannah). Table 3.2. Continued. Table 3.2. Continued.

Organizational Profiles

Chapter

Jan 2007

Thomas M. Butynski

CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL Conservation International (CI) is an international, non-profit organization based in Arlington, VA. CI believes that the Earth's natural heritage must be maintained if future generations are to thrive spiritually, culturally and economically. Our mission is to conserve the Earth's living heritage, our global biodiversity, and to demonstrate that human societies are able to live harmoniously with nature. Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Arlington, VA 22202, United States, tel. 703-341-2400, web. www.conservation.org, www.biodiversityscience.org CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL – CENTRAL AFRICA PROGRAM CI's Central Africa Program uses a focused, strategic approach to conservation based on the identification of areas of high biodiversity importance. Critical to this approach is using the best available scientific methods and expertise in developing a comprehensive strategic plan. By involving all stakeholders, CI's Central Africa Program aims to develop a comprehensive corridor approach in protecting several key areas of high biodiversity importance. Such an approach relies upon a network of intact core protected areas of biodiversity surrounded by a mixture of land uses compatible with the preservation of biodiversity. Conservation International (see contact details above) CENTER FOR APPLIED BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE (CABS) The Center for Applied Biodiversity Science (CABS), the scientific hub of Conservation International, works to link science and action to guide the conservation of nature worldwide. CABS scientists build on knowledge about the Earth's plant and animal life, identify the best opportunities to preserve it, and deliver new methods and strategies to apply in the field. CABS research identifies priority sites for conservation, provides early warning of impending biodiversity loss, and produces powerful strategies to curtail this loss. The Center for Applied Biodiversity Science (CABS), Conservation International (see CI contact details) INSTITUT CONGOLAIS POUR LA CONSERVATION DE LA NATURE (ICCN) ICCN, created in 1975, is a public institution providing technical and scientific support to the Democratic Republic of Congo. The mandate of ICCN is to: 1) manage and conserve the biodiversity of protected areas, 2) promote scientific research and ecological development, 3) develop ecotourism with respect to the fundamental principles of the Conservation of Nature, and 4) integrate conservation into local development processes in human populations along rivers in protected areas. ICCN believes that the protection of nature and its conservation for future generations is not only an important task for the Congolese, but also an obligation for the international community to preserve the genetic resources of the unique flora and fauna for all of humanity. Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN), 13, Avenue des Cliniques, Commune de la Gombe, B.P. 868 Kinshasa I, République Démocratique du Congo, Tel : (00243 8806065); (00243 98277838); (00243 98130296), E-mail : pdg.iccn@ic.cd

An Introduction to the RAP survey in the Lokutu Area, Democratic Republic of Congo

Chapter

Jan 2007

Jennifer McCullough

Tropical rainforests sustain a large portion of the world's biological diversity and are vanishing more rapidly than any other biome (Laurance 1999, Achard et al. 2002). In Africa, tropical rainforests are mainly confined to an equatorial belt of varying width as vegetation change is more strictly associated with latitude (Terborgh 1992). African vegetation zones roughly form a series of parallel bands across the continent that correspond to rainfall patterns. Evergreen forests occur in a narrow band along the coasts of West Africa and Central Africa, and across the Congo Basin into East Africa. Because of their high biological diversity and uniqueness, African rainforests are a top global conservation priority (Olson and Dinerstein 1998; Kamdem-Toham et al. 2003; Mittermeier et al. 2004). Well over half of all African rainforests have been cleared and fragmented, mainly from slash-and-burn farming. Forest loss has been most severe in West Africa, which currently has <12% of its original rainforest (declining from 1.25 to 0.15 million km²), and in eastern Africa, which has 8% of its original rainforest (declining from 0.36 to 0.03 million km²). In contrast, Central Africa's forests still comprise almost 60% of their original distribution (Naughton-Treves and Weber 2001). Forest destruction has been fueled by the rapid growth of human populations and also by extensive road building for logging, oil, mineral, and infrastructure projects, which have greatly increased access to forests (Wilkie and Laporte 2001). Additionally, the total harvest of wildlife in the Afrotropical region is estimated to be about 5 million tons annually, making it the most intensively hunted tropical region in the world (Fa et al. 2002). Recurring wars, political instability, disease epidemics, and endemic corruption are also serious impediments to forest conservation. In recent years, nearly one-third of the 42 sub-Saharan countries in Africa have been involved in international or civil wars. As one example, as a means of combatting rebels in the eastern half of the country, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (formerly Zaire) has bartered access to timber, gemstones, and minerals to Zimbabwe, Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi in exchange for military support (Vedder et al. 2001). The Congo Basin Forest, also referred to as the Lower Guineo-Congolian Forest, comprises the second largest block of tropical rainforest on Earth. The Congo Basin Forest extends from the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Albertine Rift in the east, and spans the equator by nearly 7 degrees north and south. This forest block is one of two remaining regions on Earth that still boast large interconnected tracts of tropical rainforest. Current biodiversity patterns in the Congo Basin date to the Pleistocene epoch (15,000–250,000 B.P.). The last great ice age, which peaked about 18,000 years ago, had a profound influence on biodiversity in this region. Cool, dry conditions existed at the equator during the peak of the ice age when much of North America and Europe were covered by a thick sheet of ice. The dry conditions in the tropics created isolated forested refugia. With repeated expansions and contractions of these forests during the Pleistocene, the flora and fauna experienced considerable isolation and speciation. These refugia included forested mountains to the west and east of the Congo Basin and vast swamps within the Congo Basin (Colyn et al. 1991; Maley 1996; White 2001). As the climate warmed and the ice cap receded, equatorial forests in the Congo Basin and neighboring highlands greatly expanded to, once again, cover the Congo Basin. The majority of the Congo Basin Forest lies within the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the third largest country in Africa, covering some 2,344,000 km² at the center of the continent. Overall it is the single most biologically rich country in Africa, and, in terms of species richness, is near the top of the list for Africa for virtually every group of organisms. Evergreen forest canopy composition varies, from highly diverse mixed forests to forests dominated by one or a few tree species. Particularly noteworthy are the mono-dominant forests where a single species, Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, represents from 60% to over 80% of the canopy. DRC harbors important communities of megafauna, including gracile chimpanzee or bonobo (Pan paniscus), robust or common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei), forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis), and the okapi (Okapia johnstoni). DRC also has the second largest river system on Earth, the Congo, and one of the most diverse freshwater fish faunas. Conservation International (CI, Mittermeier et al. 2003) has identified the Congo Basin Forest as one of five High Biodiversity Wilderness Areas. As such, conservation of the Congo Basin Forest is a global biodiversity conservation priority. Lokutu Lokutu (formerly named ‘Elizabetha’), within the Territory of Basoko, DRC, lies on the southern boundary of the northern-most extent of the Congo River and still has forested areas, some of them within Unilever's Lokutu Oil Palm Plantation concession (N 01° 08′ 43.2 2″ E 23° 36′ 53.7″)). The climate at Lokutu is probably very similar to that for Kisangani, 250 km up the Congo River to the east. At Kisangani, the mean annual temperature is approximately 25o C. Climate type is equatorial (Stock 2004) with no monthly mean temperature below18°C. Mean monthly rainfall is between 100 mm and 199 mm (Stock 2004). Total annual rainfall varies between 1400 mm and 2200 mm (Goudie 1996). Thus, there is little seasonality in the climate of the region, although rainfall tends to be highest during April and October (Anon. 2005). The soils of the area are pedalfers (ferrasols) (Areola 1996), acidic soils in which iron and aluminum oxides have accumulated. Lokutu Plantation Concession (630 km²) was granted in 1911 and the first oil palms (Elaeis guineensis) were planted in 1922. Today, this is an active plantation of which ca. 100 km² are covered with oil palm (and some cocoa and coffee). The remaining ca. 530 km² are lightly to heavily degraded (i.e., covered with secondary forest, scrub, fallow fields, or garden crops grown by plantation workers and settlers — especially cassava and bananas). At one time, the Lokutu area was completely covered with lowland moist forest (Grainger 1996). The plantation has been cleared except for narrow strips of forest along streams and rivers, and two (ca. 50 km² each) forest blocks in the northwest of the concession. These two blocks, as well as the forests surrounding the Plantation, have been selectively logged. Lokutu Plantation employs ca. 1,900 people. The total population of the Lokutu area is ca. 10,000 people. During this survey, the streams and rivers within the interior of these forests were flowing normally for this time of year. Lokutu is located in the northeastern section of the region south of the Great Bend of the Congo River, sometimes referred to as the Cuvette Centrale. Lokutu is adjacent to the Maringa-Wamba-Lopori landscape, targeted for conservation and development activities under the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP). Despite the high conservation importance of this landscape, there are no protected areas in this region. Lokutu forms a significant demographic and economic center in this otherwise sparsely populated area. A first short survey of the area around the village of Lokutu in September 2002 examined the opportunity of an involvement of CI in the logging and oil palm concession of Unilever. A CI team reported the area to be of little or negligible conservation value. We investigated this statement with a much stronger biological emphasis. On the basis of a two-week survey, we herein present a preliminary inventory of the flora and fauna of the Lokutu region. RAP STUDY SITES We conducted surveys during the dry season over 14 days (25 October – 8 November 2004) in forests within and near Unilever's Lokutu Plantation Concession. Surveys focused mainly on four forest sites (see Map, Table 1.1). Lobolo (Site 2) is located ca. 31 km to the northwest of Lokutu Village, and Lukumete (Site 4) is located about ca. 26 km to the northwest of Lokutu Village. AshortflightovertheareaA short flight over the area confirmed that a large part of the forest around Lokutu Village had been either destroyed or heavily altered for oil palm plantations and other agricultural uses. The original RAP plan was to survey sites far to the south of Lokutu, beyond where significant levels of logging or hunting would have occurred. The data from such sites would have provided a useful baseline and insights into what species of plants and animals might have been present at Lokutu prior to the establishment of the oil palm plantation and the related large influx of people. However, due to permit restrictions and the inflexibility of the local authorities, we had access to only a few selected areas of slightly to highly degraded natural forests within and close to the Lokutu Plantation. This was a severe impediment to our evaluation of the Lokutu area as a site for conservation investment and action. Nevertheless, while we were unable to compare low impact sites with the high impact sites we surveyed, our conclusions regarding the current value of the Lokutu Oil Palm Plantation as a site for conservation are firmly grounded. Table 1.1. Principal survey sites in the Lokutu area, Democratic Republic of Congo. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Africa's tropical rainforests and wildlife have been severely degraded in recent decades by many threats, including industrial logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, over-hunting, disease and increasing infrastructure development. In DRC, vast timber leases have been granted to Zimbabwean, German, Malaysian, and Chinese corporations. Logging has important impacts on tropical ecosystems and wildlife (Malcolm and Ray 2000; Laurance et al. 2006), but often its most pervasive effects are secondary: by creating extensive networks of roads and bulldozer tracks, logging greatly increases physical access to forests for hunters, miners, and farmers that can severely degrade or destroy forests (Wilkie et al. 1992; Laurance 2001). As the human population has increased, traditional forms of forest exploitation, like the gathering of fuelwood and building poles, have grown sharply. Hunting pressure is growing rapidly throughout Central Africa, as road networks expand and the area of forest accessible to hunters increases (Wilkie et al. 1992; Barnes et al. 1997; Fa et al. 2005). Moreover, the efficiency of hunters has increased because shotguns and cable snares have replaced traditional cross-bows, spears, nets, snares made from bush rope (Noss 1998; Lahm 2001). Few remaining areas of forest are inaccessible to hunters (Wilkie et al. 2000). Populations of hunted wildlife, especially larger-bodied species like duikers, buffalo, elephants, monkeys and apes, have declined sharply within 10–15 km of villages and roads (Barnes et al. 1991; Lahm et al. 1998, Fa et al. 2000; Lahm 2001). In addition, commercial hunters use hunting and logging camps to penetrate deep into remaining forest tracts (Wilkie et al. 1992; 2000; Lahm 2001). Wild meat is a key protein source in rural areas and is favored in towns and cities. Improved road networks drive a burgeoning commercial bushmeat trade (Milner-Gulland et al. 2003). Hunting typically contributes between 30 to 80% of protein consumed by forest-dwelling families in the Congo Basin (Koppert et al. 1996), representing almost all animal-based protein consumed. It is estimated that more than 1 million tons of antelope, pigs, rodents and other wildlife are killed and eaten every year in Central Africa (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999). Of 57 mammal, bird, and reptile species hunted in the Congo Basin, 60% are exploited unsustainably (Fa et al. 2002). In DRC, the human population is expected to double (from 50–60 million to 100–120 million) by 2020 (CBFP 2005). Human population pressure is the root cause of many of the threats mentioned above, driving demand for natural resource consumption in DRC. Immigration to DRC from West Africa is also likely to increase, exacerbating demands on the natural resource base. Armed conflicts in countries neighboring DRC (Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Congo, Sudan, Central African Republic, and Angola) have killed millions of people with associated impacts on forests, wildlife, and national-park staff and infrastructure. In eastern DRC, fighting has pushed refugees west and has also displaced rural populations away from major roads and into the forest and protected areas where they are less likely to encounter soldiers and armed bands. Such conflict-triggered displacement has significant ecological and social impacts (CBFP 2005). Moreover, corruption is a serious impediment to conservation. In a recent report commissioned by the European Community, a complete moratorium on logging in five African nations — including DRC — was recommended in response to issues of corruption (Laurance 2000; Sizer and Plouvier 2000). OPPORTUNITIES FOR CONSERVATION Recent developments in the Congo Basin Forest are working to address the situation and propel conservation forward. In March 1999, six heads of state from Central African nations signed the ‘Yaoundé Declaration.’ This Declaration contains commitments to forest conservation and sustainable forest management, including conserving, in protected areas, a minimum of 10% of each nations' forests (Kamdem-Toham et al. 2003). Since 1999, there has been a 36% increase (40,607 km²) in the coverage of protected areas across the region's forests. In Gabon, 13 new national parks covering 30,000 km² (10% of the country) have been gazetted, and similar processes are underway in Cameroon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and DRC. The Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) conservation activities focus on 11 landscapes that were selected by more than 160 regional and international experts at a workshop in Libreville in April 2000. Landscapes were selected because of their outstanding biodiversity (including their concentration of endemic species), because they encompass intact populations of larger mammals (e.g., elephant, buffalo, robust chimpanzee and gorilla in forest wilderness), or because they represent important and distinctive habitats and communities of species. Priority landscapes represent zones within which conservation should play a prominent role, through various activities in protected areas and corridors, and through sustainable forestry management and community-based natural resource management. Within these landscapes, the CBFP is working with a range of government and nongovernmental organizations to conserve biodiversity and promote sustainable land use practices. REFERENCES 1 2 Anonymous 2005ClimateControls. Climographs/Africa. Climate Controls.Climographs / Web site: http://people.cas.sc.edu/carbone/modules/mods4car/ccontrol/questions/africa.htmlGoogle Scholar 3 AreaolaO. 1996Soils.In AdamsW. M. A. S.Goudie A. R.Orme (eds.)The Physical Geography of Africapp134147Oxford University PressOxford, UKGoogle Scholar 4 5 6 [CBFP] Congo Basin Forest Partnership 2005The Forests of the Congo Basin: a Preliminary Assessment.Available online, 15 Oct 2006. http://carpe.umd.edu/products/PDF_Files/FOCB_APrelimAssess.pdfGoogle Scholar 7 8 9 10 11 GoudieA. S. 1996Climate: past and present.In AdamsW. M. A. S.Goudie A. R.Orme (eds.)The Physical Geography of Africapp3459Oxford University PressOxford, UKGoogle Scholar 12 13 KoppertG. J. A. E.Dounias A.Froment P.Pasquet 1996Consommation alimentaire dans trois populations forestières de la region côtière du Cameroun: Yassa, Mvae et Bakola.In HladikC. M. A.Hladik H.Pagezy (eds.)L'alimentationen for êttropicale. Interactions L'alimentation en forêt tropicale. Interactions bioculturelles et perspectives de développementpp477496OrstomParisGoogle Scholar 14 LahmS. A. 2001Hunting and wildlife in northeastern Gabon: why conservation should extend beyond park boundaries.In WeberW. L. J. T.White A.Vedder N.Naughton-Treves (eds.)African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservationpp344354Yale University PressNew Haven, CTGoogle Scholar 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 MittermeierR. A. P. R.Gil M.Hoffmann J.Pilgrim T.Brooks C. G.Mittermeier J.Lamoreux G. A. B.da Fonseca 2004Hotspots RevisitedCemexMexico CityGoogle Scholar 24 25 Naughton-TrevesL. W.Weber 2001Human dimensions of the African rain forest.In WeberW. L. J. T.White A.Vedder N.Naughton-Treves (eds.)African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservationpp2046Yale University PressNew Haven, CTGoogle Scholar 26 27 28 SizerN. D.Plouvier 2000Increased Investment and Trade by Transnational Logging Companies in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific.Joint report of the World Wide Fund for Nature-Belgium, World Resources Institute, and WWF-InternationalGoogle Scholar 29 StockR. 2004Africa South of the Sahara: a Geographical Interpretation2nd EditionThe Guilford PressNew York, USAGoogle Scholar 30 TerborghJ. 1992Diversity and the Tropical Rain ForestW.H. Freeman and CompanyNew YorkGoogle Scholar 31 VedderA. L.Naughton-Treves A.Plumptre L.Mubalama E.Rutagarama W.Weber 2001Conflict and conservation in the African rain forest.In WeberW. L. J. T.White A.Vedder N.Naughton-Treves (eds.)African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservationpp557562Yale University PressNew Haven, CTGoogle Scholar 32 WhiteL. 2001The African rain forest: climate and vegetation.In WeberW. L. J. T.White A.Vedder N.Naughton-Treves (eds.)African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservationpp229Yale University PressNew Haven, CTGoogle Scholar 33 34 WilkieD. S. N.Laporte 2001Forest area and deforestation in central Africa: current knowledge and future directions.In WeberW. L. J. T.White A.Vedder N.Naughton-Treves (eds.)African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservationpp119139Yale University PressNew Haven, CTGoogle Scholar 35 36

A Rapid Survey of the Avifauna of Lokutu

Chapter

Jan 2007

A Rapid Survey of the Primates and Large Mammals of Lokutu

Chapter

Jan 2007

Report at a Glance

Chapter

Jan 2007

Thomas M. Butynski

A RAPID BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF LOKUTU, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO Expedition Dates 26 October – 8 November 2004 Area Description Lokutu, within the Territory of Basoko in the Democratic Republic of Congo, lies on the southern boundary of the northern-most extent of the Congo River. At one time, the Lokutu area was completely covered with lowland moist forest. Today, the Lokutu area still contains forest, some within Unilever's Lokutu Oil Palm Plantation concession. The plantation has been cleared except for narrow strips of forest along streams and rivers, and two (ca. 50 km² each) forest blocks in the northwest of the concession. The Lokutu area is adjacent to the Maringa-Wamba-Lopori landscape, targeted for conservation and development activities under the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP). Despite the high conservation importance of this landscape, there are no formal protected areas in this region. Expedition Objectives The primary objective of this survey was to identify potential areas for long-term investment as part of Conservation International's biodiversity conservation program for the Congo Basin High Biodiversity Wilderness Area. A first short survey of the area around the village of Lokutu in September 2002 examined the opportunity of an involvement of CI into the logging and oil palm concession of Unilever. The purpose of this RAP survey was to investigate the conservation value of the Lokutu area. The RAP team examined selected taxonomic groups to determine the area's biological diversity, its degree of endemism, and the uniqueness of the ecosystem. We chose to survey plants, odonates (dragonflies), amphibians, reptiles, birds, and larger mammals (with an emphasis on primates). Overall Results Due to permit restrictions, the RAP team was unable to access good forest for comparison to the Unilever plantation. Low species richness of all taxonomic groups, except dragonflies, was recorded within the plantation and nearby forest in the Lokutu area. High levels of forest degradation and fragmentation as well as hunting were widely documented. Number of Species Recorded New Species Discovered • Odonata (3) • Mesocnemis sp. • Platycypha sp. • Elattoneura sp. New Records for the Democratic Republic of Congo • Odonata (4) • Ceriagrion ignitum • Pseudagrion simplicilaminatum • Phyllogomphus coloratus • Chlorocypha pyriformosa • Amphibians (3) • Cardioglossa gratiosa • Amnirana amnicola • Dimorphognathus africanus CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS Given the great loss of biodiversity, increasing human population, the apparent lack of interest or will by central and local government to manage the use of the natural resources, and the high costs of working in the area, the RAP team concluded that the Lokutu area is not a priority site for conservation investment or action. The RAP team also does not recommend that Lokutu be considered part of CI's Congo Basin High Biodiversity Wilderness Area. If conservation funds are specifically earmarked for mitigating the negative conservation situation at Lokutu, there are some actions that could be taken. These include: • Establishing active, long-term family planning and conservation education programs, • Putting into place large community-protected and community-managed conservation areas, together with bushmeat hunter cooperatives, that would allow for recovery of wildlife populations and their sustainable exploitation, • Re-establishing the livestock industry with the aim of providing substitutes for a portion of the bushmeat that is presently consumed. An additional conservation recommendation of this report is that all necessary permits be obtained from the central, regional and local government authorities and additional surveys be undertaken in the forests located > 40 km to the south of Lokutu, as well as on both sides of the Congo River near Lokutu.

A Brief Botanical Survey at Lokutu

Chapter

Jan 2007

W. R. Quentin Luke

Paléobiologie et paléoenvironnements au Miocène inférieur : apport des rongeurs aux corrélations inter-régionales en Afrique sub-saharienne

Thesis

Dec 2020

Laura Bento Da Costa

Depuis des années, les rongeurs sont étudiés pour la diversité de leurs adaptations locomotrices. Cette dernière est représentée dans le registre fossile des gisements du Miocène inférieur de Napak (Karamoja, Ouganda) et de Grillental, Elisabethfeld et Langental (Sperrgebiet, Namibie). Plusieurs espèces ont été étudiées : Paranomalurus bishopi, Paranomalurus walkeri, Nonanomalurus soniae, Renefossor songhorensis (Napak), Bathyergoides neotertiarius (Namibie) et Diamantomys luederitzi (représentée dans les deux régions). Après avoir actualisé leur systématique, les analyses morphométriques ont permis la prédiction de leur locomotion via leur crâne, humérus, ulna et fémur. Ces adaptations sont liées à la stabilisation et mobilité des membres, les arboricoles privilégiant une mobilité plus accrue, tandis que les terrestres et fouisseurs favorisent la stabilisation. Ainsi, les espèces du genre Paranomalurus sont prédites comme planeuses, N. soniae arboricole, et B. neotertiarius fouisseuse. D. luederitzi est considérée comme une espèce généraliste. La variabilité de ces comportements souligne une hétérogénéité des environnements Miocène, démontrée par les analyses isotopiques des δ13C et δ18O des carbonates de leur émail dentaire. En effet, l’analyse indique un milieu ouvert à plantes C3 dominantes avec la présence d’îlots boisés (savane arborée), confirmé par les locomotions de ces espèces. Ces rapports isotopiques couplés avec ceux des grands mammifères indiquent un environnement plus humide et/ou à température moins élevée qu’aujourd’hui dans ces localités, la région namibienne étant moins humide et potentiellement plus chaude que l’Afrique de l’Est à cette époque.

THE STATUS AND FEEDING ECOLOGY OF MENELIK'S BUSHBUCK ( MENELIKI, NEUMANN, 1902

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Enrichment of Logging Gaps with High-Value Timber Species: How Far Fertilizer, Biochar and Mammal Predation Affect Performances of Cylicodiscus gabunensis Harms Seedlings

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022

Many commercial species are light-demanding and regenerate with difficulty in natural forest, which compromises the sustainability of logging. Okan, Cylicodiscus gabunensis Harms is one of the most exploited species in Central Africa and its regeneration is deficient in evergreen forest. In forest concessions, the enrichment of logging gaps with commercial species has already been tested but only for a few species. Mixed results have been obtained because the ability of seedlings to emerge from competing vegetation depends on the species, the environment and the silvicultural techniques adopted. This paper aims to determine the performance of C. gabunensis when planted in felling gaps. The impact of fertilization and biochar application on the performance of the seedlings was examined, as well as the role of predation played by large mammals. In 30 gaps, whose light levels were quantified, we planted nine seedlings and applied three treatments (fertilizer and biochar, fertilizer, control). The performance of the seedlings (survival, mammal damage and growth) was followed for 18 months. In another 30 gaps, the preferential consumption of C. gabunensis seedlings was quantified using camera traps. Seedlings had moderate and highly variable growth (1.84 cm to 2.50 cm in height and 0.201 mm to 0.267 mm in basal diameter per month, all treatments combined). Gap size and initial fertilization significantly boosted growth in diameter and survival rate. Elephants preferentially sought out C. gabunensis seedlings and after 18 months they destroyed 35% of the plants. Enrichment of logging gaps with C. gabunensis should therefore be limited to the largest gaps in forests with low elephant densities. Initial fertilization is recommended but not allowed under the sustainable management certification guidelines. We suggest that these standards should be adapted to maximize the chances of success.

Contribution of palaeoproteomics to the documentation of caprines herding diffusion between Eastern and Southern Africa

Thesis

Mar 2021

Louise Le Meillour

In the absence of wild representatives on the continent, domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus), subfamily Caprinae, were imported from the Levant into Africa around the VIIth millennium before common era (BCE). The archaeological record indicates a very slow diffusion on the continent with an attested presence during the IIIrd millennium BCE in Eastern Africa (Djibouti, Somaliland), Kenya and Tanzania, while the oldest caprines remains are dated only from the Ist century CE in Southern Africa. The introduction of domestic animals into populations subsistence economies is gradually emerging and, after several centuries, become the primary food supply. In archaeological context, the morphological similarities between the two species of caprines and with other small African wild bovids blur zooarchaeological identifications and the fragmentary state of the remains often makes it impossible to propose an identification below the sub-family. The history of the spread of sheep and goats across Africa requires a fine-scale analysis of the remains in order to provide an accurate archaeological interpretation. This doctoral thesis presents the application of palaeoproteomics, the study of ancient proteins preserved in archaeological remains, to various archaeological sites across Eastern and Southern Africa. The type I collagen sequences of nineteen antelope and antelope-like species are proposed, and the resulting phylogenetic analyses discussed. An extraction protocol adapted to remains of arid and semi-arid environments, as well as the palaeoproteomics analyses of 117 remains from 19 archaeological sites are presented. This research has allowed to adapt palaeoproteomics studies to remains from African archaeological contexts, to establish a broad collagen referential of species that can potentially be interpreted as domestic caprines and to note the quasi-systematic association of wild and domestic species within archaeological sites during the Holocene. The results obtained in this study highlighted the importance of multiplying different levels of information and the crucial part that palaeoproteomics has to play concerning the study of caprines herding practices diffusion across Africa.

Mammals and dung beetles along elevational and land use gradients on Mount Kilimanjaro: diversity, traits and ecosystem services

Thesis

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Friederike Gebert

Despite belonging to the best described patterns in ecology, the mechanisms driving biodiversity along broad-scale climatic gradients, like the latitudinal gradient in diversity, remain poorly understood. Because of their high biodiversity, restricted spatial ranges, the continuous change in abiotic factors with altitude and their worldwide occurrence, mountains constitute ideal study systems to elucidate the predictors of global biodiversity patterns. However, mountain ecosystems are increasingly threatened by human land use and climate change. Since the consequences of such alterations on mountainous biodiversity and related ecosystem services are hardly known, research along elevational gradients is also of utmost importance from a conservation point of view. In addition to classical biodiversity research focusing on taxonomy, the significance of studying functional traits and their prominence in biodiversity ecosystem functioning (BEF) relationships is increasingly acknowledged. In this dissertation, I explore the patterns and drivers of mammal and dung beetle diversity along elevational and land use gradients on Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Furthermore, I investigate the predictors of dung decomposition by dung beetles under different extinction scenarios. Mammals are not only charismatic, they also fulfil important roles in ecosystems. They provide important ecosystem services such as seed dispersal and nutrient cycling by turning over high amounts of biomass. In chapter II, I show that mammal diversity and community biomass both exhibited a unimodal distribution with elevation on Mt.Kilimanjaro and were mainly impacted by primary productivity, a measure of the total food abundance, and the protection status of study plots. Due to their large size and endothermy, mammals, in contrast to most arthopods, are theoretically predicted to be limited by food availability. My results are in concordance with this prediction. The significantly higher diversity and biomass in the Kilimanjaro National Park and in other conservation areas underscore the important role of habitat protection is vital for the conservation of large mammal biodiversity on tropical mountains. Dung beetles are dependent on mammals since they rely upon mammalian dung as a food and nesting resource. Dung beetles are also important ecosystem service providers: they play an important role in nutrient cycling, bioturbation, secondary seed dispersal and parasite suppression. In chapter III, I show that dung beetle diversity declined with elevation while dung beetle abundance followed a hump-shaped pattern along the elevational gradient. In contrast to mammals, dung beetle diversity was primarily predicted by temperature. Despite my attempt to accurately quantifiy mammalian dung resources by calculating mammalian defecation rates, I did not find an influence of dung resource availability on dung beetle richness. Instead, higher temperature translated into higher dung beetle diversity. Apart from being important ecosystem service providers, dung beetles are also model organisms for BEF studies since they rely on a resource which can be quantified easily. In chapter IV, I explore dung decomposition by dung beetles along the elevational gradient by means of an exclosure experiment in the presence of the whole dung beetle community, in the absence of large dung beetles and without any dung beetles. I show that dung decomposition was the highest when the dung could be decomposed by the whole dung beetle community, while dung decomposition was significantly reduced in the sole presence of small dung beetles and the lowest in the absence of dung beetles. Furthermore, I demonstrate that the drivers of dung decomposition were depend on the intactness of the dung beetle community. While body size was the most important driver in the presence of the whole dung beetle community, species richness gained in importance when large dung beetles were excluded. In the most perturbed state of the system with no dung beetles present, temperature was the sole driver of dung decomposition. In conclusion, abiotic drivers become more important predictors of ecosystem services the more the study system is disturbed. In this dissertation, I exemplify that the drivers of diversity along broad-scale climatic gradients on Mt. Kilimanjaro depend on the thermoregulatory strategy of organisms. While mammal diversity was mainly impacted by food/energy resources, dung beetle diversity was mainly limited by temperature. I also demonstrate the importance of protected areas for the preservation of large mammal biodiversity. Furthermore, I show that large dung beetles were disproportionately important for dung decomposition as dung decomposition significantly decreased when large dung beetles were excluded. As regards land use, I did not detect an overall effect on dung beetle and mammal diversity nor on dung beetle-mediated dung decomposition. However, for the most specialised mammal trophic guilds and dung beetle functional groups, negative land use effects were already visible. Even though the current moderate levels of land use on Mt. Kilimanjaro can sustain high levels of biodiversity, the pressure of the human population on Mt. Kilimanjaro is increasing and further land use intensification poses a great threat to biodiversity. In synergy wih land use, climate change is jeopardizing current patterns and levels of biodiversity with the potential to displace communities, which may have unpredictable consequences for ecosystem service provisioning in the future.

Trypanosomiasis in Rodents from Selected Plague Endemic Foci of Tanzania

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Adrian Materu

Trypanosomiasis is among the zoonotic diseases that cause threat to public health, rodents are known to be reservoir of various Trypanosomes which are zoonotic. The cross-sectional studies were conducted in selected areas of plague endemic foci in Tanzania, aiming at establishing the prevalence of Trypanosoma sp. infection in rodent species. A total of 105 rodents comprising nine species were captured in different habitats during the study period conducted between March and May 2022. Thin and thick smears were used to detect the Trypanosoma sp. infection in rodent species. The prevalence recorded was 4.8%(5/105), with individual prevalence of Mastomys natalensis 1.9%(2/105), Rattus rattus1.9%(2/105) and Lophuromys kilonzoi 1.0%(1/105). Prevalence of Trypanosoma sp. infection was not differed significantly between host species (P>0.05), host sex (P>0.05), habitat type (P>0.05) and wards (P>0.05). The present study has confirmed the presence of Trypanosoma sp. infection in rodents in plague endemic foci of Tanzania, hence raising the public health concern due to their zoonotic potential.

Locomotor adaptations in the Early Miocene species Diamantomys luederitzi (Rodentia, Mammalia) from Uganda (Napak)

Article

Jan 2023

The study of morphological adaptations to different ecological parameters among fossil vertebrates has been an important challenge in recent decades. In this paper, we focus on the link between morphological traits and locomotor behavior such as terrestriality, fossoriality and arboreality (including gliding). One of the most diverse groups in which various locomotor habits are represented is rodents, occupying a wide range of ecological niches. This work highlights morphological variations in skulls and humerus in extant rodents with varying locomotion, in order to predict this parameter in the extinct species Diamantomys luederitzi (Early Miocene, Napak, Uganda). Linear Discriminant Analysis and Phylogenetic Flexible Discriminant Analysis are used to analyze datasets obtained via traditional morphometry (measurements) and geometric morphometrics (landmarks). The results show good discrimination between locomotor groups for both structures in extant species: the skull has a wider and longer rostrum in terrestrial and fossorial taxa compared to arboreal rodents, is also higher and posteriorly wider in fossorial taxa; the distal humerus shows elongation of the trochlea and capitulum and a higher trochlea in fossorial and terrestrial species, allowing an increase of stability instead of mobility, which is more important in arboreal taxa for movement in trees. In Diamantomys luederitzi, all skull analyses except one predicted it as a terrestrial species, the other prediction as a glider was possibly linked to the diet. For the distal humerus, this species has been predicted as a terrestrial, fossorial and arboreal taxon in differing analyses, reflected by morphological traits represented in these different locomotor categories. These varying predictions could highlight the intra-specific variation in this fossil species as well as its locomotor repertoire, raising a discussion about the use of different methods in such analyses. In addition to these predictions, several issues are discussed, such as the presence of locomotor signal in the skull and its validity in locomotor studies, as well as the relevance of the use of fragmentary material in such analyses. The results obtained in this work highlight the importance of the locomotor signal in these structures, as well as the possibility of taking into account poorly preserved material, in particular the distal humerus. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Peculiarities of the Structure of the Skin and Its Derivatives in Some Members of the Subfamily Cricetinae (Cricetidae, Rodentia): Why It Is Important to Know

Article

Jan 2023

A Rapid Survey of Primates from the Atewa Range Forest Reserve, Ghana

Chapter

Dec 2007

État des Lieux de la Faune Sauvage Mammalienne dans le Département de Sipilou, Ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022

Le département de Sipilou situé à l’ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire, s’étend de la zone forestière à la zone savanicole, offrant ainsi une variété d’habitats à de nombreuses espèces de la faune sauvage. Cependant, les données sur la faune mammalienne de ladite zone restent encore parcellaires. Cette étude visait à déterminer la diversité et l’abondance de la faune mammalienne du département de Sipilou. La méthode des marches de reconnaissances ou Recce et celle des enquêtes ethnozoologiques ont permis d’inventorier les espèces de mammifères. Les prospections pédestres menées dans quatre types d’habitats (forêts secondaires, savanes arborées, jachères et espaces cultivés) ont permis de confirmer la présence de 21 espèces de mammifères sur les 37 espèces signalées lors des enquêtes ethnozoologiques. Les espèces abondantes ont été le grand aulacode (Thryonomys swinderianus), le guib harnaché (Tragelaphus scriptus) et l’athérure d’Afrique (Atherurus africanus) représentant respectivement 18%, 10,57% et 10% du total des observations. Les indices kilométriques d’abondance (IKA) déterminés varient de 0,22 (Cercopithecus campbelli) à 4,85 ind/km (Thryonomys swinderianus). Les indices de présence des mammifères diffèrent significativement entre les types d’habitats (ANOVA à un facteur : F = 4,901 ; dl = 3 ; p = 0,003). Les indices de Shannon diffèrent significativement presque entre tous les habitats; excepté entre la forêt secondaire et les espaces cultivés tandis que les indices de Simpson (D) diffèrent significativement entre la forêt secondaire et la savane arborée, la forêt secondaire et la jachère, les espaces cultivés et la jachère. L’indice d’équitabilité de Piélou (J’) est très élevé (≥ 0,91) dans tous les habitats. La zone d’étude abrite une communauté importante de mammifères dont des espèces d’intérêt mondial pour la conservation. Ces espèces et leurs habitats méritent une attention particulière de la part des populations locales et des gestionnaires nationaux de la conservation de la faune afin de les sauvegarder. The department of Sipilou, located in western Côte d'Ivoire, extends from the forest zone to the savannah zone, offering thereby a variety of habitats to many wildlife species. However, data on the mammalian fauna of the area are still fragmentary. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the diversity and abundance of the mammalian fauna of the department of Sipilou. The method of reconnaissance survey or Recce and that of ethnozoological surveys were carried out to inventory the mammal species. This study was conducted in four types of habitats, secondary forests, tree savannahs, fallows and cultivated areas. The pedestrian surveys confirmed the presence of 21 species of mammals out of the 37 species reported by the interviews. The dominant species were the grasscutter Thryonomys swinderianus (18%), the bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus (10.57%) and the African brush-tailed porcupine Atherurus africanus (10%). The measured kilometric indices of abundance vary from 0.22 (Cercopithecus campbelli) to 4.85 ind/km (Thryonomys swinderianus). The mammal presence signs differed significantly between habitat types (One-way ANOVA: F = 4.901; df = 3; p = 0.003). Shannon indices differed significantly almost among all habitats; except between secondary forest and crop, while Simpson's indices (D) differed significantly between secondary forest and tree savannah, secondary forest and fallow, crop and fallow. Piélou’s evenness index (J') was very high (≥ 0.91) in all habitats. The study area harbors an important community of mammals including species of conservation concern. These species and their habitats deserve special attention from local populations and national wildlife conservation managers in order to save them.

Note about the New Distribution Area of Atlantoxerus getulus LINNAEUS, 1758 ( Mammalia, Rodentia ) in Algeria

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022

A rodent of the family of the Sciuridae, the Barbary ground squirrel Atlantoxerus getulus is one of the 111 species of mammals living in Algeria, it is listed in the IUCN Red List as "Least Concern". It is the only species of squirrel to inhabit Africa north of the Sahara in arid rocky ground at the South Western of Algeria and Morocco. It is a small colonial species growing to a length of between 160 and 220 millimetres with a bushy tail of a similar length. It weighs up to 350 grams and has short wiry hair and its belly is paler grey and the tail is longitudinally barred in black and grey. It feeds on plants and a major part of its diet is the fruit and seeds of the argan tree (Argania spinosa). Initially since 1991 several authors stipulated that the species is only present in the western part of Saharan Atlas from the Moroccan border to the vicinities of Bechar (Labiod Sidi cheikh, Bechar, Ain Sefra). Recently the species was observed in the Targent locality near Tindouf distant of 807 km from Bechar, 1191 km from Labiod Sidi Cheikh, and 1057 km from Ain Sefra. This is the first time this species has been reported in this region, this led us to suggest that its range has extended to the South West and further studies of its ecology in this new area is recommanded.

The invasiveness of Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus) is characterized by habitat and differing herbivore assemblages in its native and invaded range

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022

A significant challenge of global change is the human-mediated movement of pasture grasses and their subsequent impact on ecosystem processes when they become invasive. We must understand invasive grass ecology and their natural enemies in native and introduced ranges to mitigate these impacts. Guinea grass ( Megathyrsus maximus ) is a pantropically introduced pasture grass that escapes intended areas and invades native ecosystems – threatening biodiversity and ecosystem function. The success of invasive plants has often been attributed to ecological release from stressors, including natural enemies and resource availability. Our objective was to assess Guinea grass functional traits across three different habitat types in native and invaded ranges by documenting ungulate and arthropod abundance, diversity, and feeding guilds. Guinea grass functional traits were assessed in three habitat types: grassland, riparian, and woody thickets around nitrogen-fixing Prosopis glandulosa in its introduced range in Texas, USA, and Senegalia mellifera in its native range in Kenya. We characterized Guinea grass functional traits by measuring plant height, cover, biomass, root-to-shoot ratios, and reproductive traits. We then examined the phytophagous arthropod and ungulate abundance and feeding guild diversity across the three habitat types. We hypothesized that functional trait expression related to invasiveness would be associated with Guinea grass in its introduced range. Also, we hypothesized that the abundance and diversity of phytophagous arthropods and ungulates would be lower in the invaded range. Finally, we hypothesized that Guinea grass functional traits would differ between the three habitat types, given the habitat types’ innate differences in resource availability. We found that Guinea grass was 2.5 times taller and 3.3 times more productive and covered 2.5 times more area in its invaded versus native ranges. Introduced Guinea grass had higher reproduction rates with 2.5 times more reproductive tillers, while habitat type drove vegetative reproduction with 15 times more stoloniferous establishment in wooded and riparian sites than grasslands. Texan ungulate communities were less species-rich, less functionally diverse, and less abundant than the Kenyan ungulate community. The phytophagous arthropod diversity on plants was twice as high on Kenyan Guinea grass than on Texan Guinea grass. Total arthropod family richness was nearly double, with 15 families represented in Kenya and 8 in Texas. These results suggest that Guinea grass has escaped a rich assemblage of arthropods and ungulates and likely explains some of its spread in introduced ranges. This study demonstrates how the invasive success of Guinea grass can be understood in terms of its competitive ability and interaction with natural enemies in the introduced and native ranges and may inform future biological control.

Distribution and Habitat Preference of Cape Clawless Otters (Aonyx capensis) and Water Mongooses (Atilax paludinosus) in the Soutpansberg, South Africa

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

Over 84% of the river ecosystems in South Africa are threatened and, accordingly freshwater dependent species such as the Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) and the water mongoose (Atilax paludinosus) are also declining in numbers. These species share a similar diet and habitat preference and in certain places in South Africa it is known that they occur in sympatry. Our study focused on a pristine river system in the far western Soutpansberg where little is known about the local distribution and habitat preferences of these species. To determine the distribution and fine scale habitat preferences of otters and water mongooses, tracks and signs (TS) and camera traps were used, and spraint content analysed to establish differences in diet. Based on the TS that were found, the Cape clawless otter and water mongoose are both widely distributed along the river system and mostly occur separate from each other. The observed amount of TS of Cape clawless otters was higher in areas with pools, rocky riverbanks and areas with a stream width of 2->5 m in diameter. The number of water mongoose TS recorded was higher in wetland areas with leafy riverbanks and areas with a stream width of up to 2 m. We suggest that Cape clawless otters and water mongooses may avoid direct competition by habitat partitioning in the western Soutpansberg.

Demography and reproductive seasonality of small terrestrial mammals in two forest ecosystems in Ghana

Article

Mar 2023

We examined the effects of habitat types (farmlands, open forests and closed forests) and seasons on the population demography and reproduction of small terrestrial mammals in two tropical evergreen forests [Atewa Range Forest Reserve (ARFR) and Bimpong Forest Reserve (BFR)] environments in 2018 and 2019. Small mammals were trapped with Sherman's collapsible traps on transects across land use types and seasons to measure change in the relative density, sex ratio, age structure, juvenile recruitment and breeding probability. Twenty‐two (22) species of 506 small mammals (16 rodents and six shrews) were recorded in this study. Relative density of small mammals (captures/100 trap nights) was highest (p < 0.05) in the farmland [ARFR (3.48); BFR (2.36)] than the open forest [ARFR (1.96); BFR (0.65)] and closed forest [ARFR (1.13); BFR (0.98)] habitats in both forest ecosystems. Overall sex ratio was male‐skewed (1.03:1) in the study. ARFR recorded higher female ratios in all habitat types [farmland (1:1.2); open forest (1:1.04); closed forest (1:1.3)] and seasons than males. Male sex ratio was high in all habitat types and seasons in the BFR. Majority of individuals captured in the habitat types [farmland (1.5:1); open forest (1.1:1); closed forest (1.5:1)] and seasons were adults. Over 90% of all captured adults in the study areas were actively breeding. The closed forest habitat type had the highest proportion (0.93) of actively breeding small mammals in the study forests. Seasonally, there were more species actively breeding in the wet season in ARFR and dry season in BFR. Majority of the small mammal captured (n = 268 recorded for ARFR and n = 168 for BFR) were adults. Juvenile recruitment (proportion of juveniles/total capture) was low for all the study forests (with mean proportions of 0.11, 0.04 and 0.03 for closed forest, farmland and open forest, respectively, in ARFR and 0.05, 0.03 and 0.07 for closed forest, farmland and open forest, respectively, in BFR) and seasons. Anthropogenic activities degrade ecosystems, change population demography and favour habitat generalists and pest species. Nous avons examiné les effets des types d'habitats (terres agricoles, forêts ouvertes et forêts fermées) et des saisons sur la démographie et la reproduction des petits mammifères terrestres dans deux environnements de forêts tropicales à feuilles persistantes [Réserve forestière d’Atewa Range (ARFR) et Réserve forestière de Bimpong (BFR)] en 2018 et 2019. Les petits mammifères ont été piégés avec des pièges pliables de Sherman sur des transects à travers les types d'utilisation des terres et les saisons afin de mesurer les changements dans la densité relative, le sex‐ratio, la structure d'âge, le recrutement des jeunes et la probabilité de reproduction. Vingt‐deux (22) espèces de 506 petits mammifères (16 rongeurs et six musaraignes) ont été enregistrées dans cette étude. La densité relative des petits mammifères (captures/100 pièges de nuit) était plus élevée (p < 0,05) dans les terres agricoles [ARFR (3,48) ; BFR (2,36)] que dans les habitats de forêt ouverte [ARFR (1,96) ; BFR (0,65)] et de forêt fermée [ARFR (1,13) ; BFR (0,98)] dans les deux écosystèmes forestiers. Dans l'ensemble, le sex‐ratio avait une tendance masculine (1,03:1) dans l'étude. L'ARFR a enregistré des ratios de femelles plus élevés que les mâles dans tous les types d'habitats [terres agricoles (1:1,2) ; forêt ouverte (1:1,04) ; forêt fermée (1:1,3)] et toutes les saisons. Le sex‐ratio des mâles était élevé dans tous les types d'habitats et en toute saison du BFR. La majorité des individus capturés dans les types d'habitats [terres agricoles (1,5:1) ; forêt ouverte (1,1:1) ; forêt fermée (1,5:1)] et les saisons étaient des adultes. Plus de 90 % de tous les adultes capturés dans les zones d'étude étaient en période de reproduction active. Le type d'habitat forêt fermée présentait la plus grande proportion (0,93) de petits mammifères se reproduisant activement dans les forêts étudiées. De manière saisonnière, il y avait plus d'espèces se reproduisant activement pendant la saison humide dans l'ARFR et pendant la saison sèche dans le BFR. La majorité des petits mammifères capturés (n = 268 enregistrés pour l'ARFR et n = 168 pour le BFR) étaient des adultes. Le recrutement de jeunes (proportion de jeunes/capture totale) était faible pour toutes les forêts étudiées (avec des proportions moyennes de 0,11, 0,04 et 0,03 pour les forêts fermées, les terres agricoles et les forêts ouvertes, respectivement, dans l'ARFR et 0,05, 0,03 et 0,07 pour les forêts fermées, les terres agricoles et les forêts ouvertes, respectivement, dans le BFR) et pour toutes les saisons. Les activités anthropiques dégradent les écosystèmes, modifient la démographie des populations et favorisent les généralistes de l'habitat et les espèces nuisibles.

Distribution and eco-ethology of red river hog (Potamochoerus porcus (Linn.)) and common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus (Gmelin.)) in the different ecosystems of southern Benin

Thesis

Feb 2022

Florian Gbodja Codjia

The common warthog and the red river hog are the two suids types found in Benin. They are more often discreet in front of increasing threats in most of the preferred ecosystems they are found and one is less well known even though they are good game and serve as a source of income. The global objective of this study is to analyse conservation strategies of red river hog and common warthog through the capitalisation of data on their ecology, ethology and the different sympatric relationships in certain specific ecosystems in Benin. The investigations carried out in this study made it possible to identify and analyse the occurrences habitats, the eco-ethological requirements conditioning their presence, perceptions of their diet and the major human relationships with regard to these suids. In the run-up to this work, a review was made to better situate the relevance of the study, followed by the use of transects (direct/indirect) to collect the presence indices that led to the species distribution establishment and the installation of phytosociological surveys. Structured interviews with the local population allowed, among other things, knowledge of past distribution, assessment of diet perceptions and ecological niche analysis. Photographic trapping methods, climatic and then additional data were used to collect ethological data and identify suitable habitats for the both species, respectively. The results of this work enabled us to evaluate the red river hog and the common warthog place in Benin among the suids and analyse the ecological and geographical distribution, which revealed no current sympatric areas. Their distribution areas keep on facing to preferential habitat loss. We were also able to detect similarities in diet and phytoecological characterisation of their habitats showing the spontaneous/marginal populations lack of resilience. Low values of Shannon diversity indices (0-0.4 bits), Equitabilité of Pielou (0-0.1) and Simpson (0-0.01) were got in most groups where the red river hog live. Its activity budget was analysed and the ecological niche with regard to these suids was modeled. On nocturnal customs, the red river hog are active between 6p.m and 6a.m in the morning and in large dry season they carry out more the digging the ground with its snout (p<0.01). About their diet, in contrast to the red river hog, the common warthog had a much greater preference for wild species and also prefers shrubby/tree savannas, fields/ fallow, open forests and wooded savannas. Both the suid, the AUC and the TSS of the Random Forest algorithm gave the highest values. With a quasi-regression of these favourable areas in the north and centre, the common warthog remains more subject to the effects of climatic variability in Benin than the red river hog. Horizons are opening up for the different reintroduction areas and the feasibility of game ranching programmes to be favoured in the long term, including the south and centre of Benin for the common warthog and the south for the red river hog. In short, it is important to use this work results to set up intensive and extensive breeding programmes for these both suids rather than claiming any reintroduction without taking into account the genetic potential. It is also important to think about the creation of some artificial ponds and analyse the individuals zootechnical potential resulting from the crossbreeding between these two suids and the local pig for a revitalisation/re-dynamisation of the Beninese economy. Insist on reviewing the land use policy, control the different migration corridors and restore the most degraded habitats. Finally, it’s important to better orientate awareness-raising approaches, to carry out educational training on the mitigation of the climate change effects while ensuring the provision of income-generating/benefit activities that respect the environment. The setting up of a database on the degree of threat to these suids and the data updating on the status of their preferred areas in Benin is necessary.

Is social media the new wet market? Social media platforms facilitate the online sale of bushmeat in West Africa

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

A B S T R A C T Social media provides a platform for wildlife crime syndicates to access a global consumer-driven market. Whilst studies have uncovered the online trade in wildlife, the availability of wild meat (bushmeat) has not been assessed. To investigate the sale of wild meat online, we analysed 563 posts published between 2018 and 2022 from six West African Facebook pages selected using predetermined search criteria. Across 1511 images and 18 videos, we visually identified 25 bushmeat species-level taxa including mammals (six Rodentia, five Artiodactyla, three Carnivora, two Pholidota, one Primate, two Lagomorpha, one Hyracoidea), birds (three Galliformes) and reptiles (two Squamata), predominately advertised as smoked (63%) or fresh (30%) whole carcasses or portions. Among the species identified, 16% feature a status of concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (Near Threatened to Endangered), 16% are listed on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES; Appendix I and II) and 24% are either fully or partially protected by local legislation. Images were commonly used as propaganda rather than to display inventory, where additional taxa protected from game hunting in West Africa, such as hornbill, were exclusively listed in captions. The advertisement of these protected and vulnerable species on the surface web indicates weak local and international legislative enforcement. Comparatively, when the same search criteria were applied to the deep web browser Tor no results were generated, reinforcing the idea that bushmeat vendors have no need to hide their activities online. Despite local and international trade restrictions, the taxa advertised feature similarities with bushmeat seizures reported in Europe, alluding to the interconnectedness of the trade facilitated by social media. We conclude that enhanced policy enforcement is essential to combat the online sale of bushmeat and mitigate the potential biodiversity and public health impacts.

Seasonal variation of non-volant small mammals in Gibe Sheleko national park, Southwestern Ethiopia

Article

Dec 2021

The species composition and abundance of small mammals can vary within space and time. The main objective of this study was to assess seasonal variation of non-volant small mammals from randomly selected Acacia woodland, bushland, farmland, grassland, riverine forest and wooded grassland habitats in Gibe Sheleko National Park, southwestern Ethiopia. Data were collected using 49 Sharman live traps in 70 x 70 m sized square girds from December, 2018 to August, 2020. Capture mark recapture technique was applied to estimate population size of the existing small mammals and the data were analyzed using a chi-square test. A total of 1160 individual small mammals belonging to 10 species and 2 families were recorded. Three non-captured species: Hystrix cristata, Xerus rutilus and Tachyoryctes splendens were also identified. There was a significant (χ2= 31.12, df = 1, P < 0.05) difference in the total abundance of small mammals between seasons. Of the total individuals captured, 675(58.19%) were trapped during the wet season while 485(41.81%) individuals were during the dry season. Significant seasonal variation was also observed in the total abundance of both sexes, i e. males (χ2= 11.99, df = 1, P < 0.05) and females (χ2= 20.24, df = 1, P < 0.05). Among age groups, significant statistical seasonal variation was shown in adults (χ2=15.14, df = 1, P < 0.05) and young (χ2=44.61, df = 1, P < 0.05) but not significant in sub-adults (χ2=0.75, df = 1, P >0.05). The identified small mammals exhibited seasonal changes in their abundance associated with changes in climatic and environmental conditions. However, a long-term and annual based study is required to see the overall dynamics of existing small mammals.

Determinants of bushmeat supply sources in rural areas of Côte d’Ivoire

Article

Apr 2023
J NAT CONSERV

The bushmeat trade provides an income to hunters, transporters, and vendors living in the vicinity of protected areas but remains a challenge to wildlife conservation objectives. The key factors driving the source, choice and use of bushmeat vary among actors in the commercial bushmeat value chain, and insights into these determinants are required to facilitate the development of conservation strategies. Therefore, we aimed to identify the socioeconomic factors that explain the source of supply and quantities of bushmeat available in households and local restaurants. We carried out a survey with 144 rural household heads and 24 restaurant owners in 20 villages in the Western part of Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire. We found that bushmeat quantity and species diversity were low in households, originating mainly from subsistence hunting. However, both the amount of bushmeat and the variety of species were high in restaurants and primarily supplied by commercial hunters. Furthermore, the quantity of bushmeat was lower in households with other protein sources and in restaurants in villages that had been the target of more conservation awareness campaigns. We highlight the importance of understanding the determinants of bushmeat supply to regulate the bushmeat trade by applying relevant conservation interventions.

A survey of Carnivora Diversity in Bisha district, Southwestern Saudi Arabia

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022

Abdulaziz Rabea M. Alqahtani

ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE UROGENITAL SYSTEM OF THE WEST AFRICAN GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS PERALTA)

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Is Social Media the New Wet Market? Social Media Platforms Facilitate the Online Sale of Bushmeat in West Africa

Article

Jan 2022

Some thoughts on the religious role of Ibex in Ancient Near East

Article

Jun 2021

Omar F. Mohammed

Biogeography and conservation of desert warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus and common warthog Phacochoerus africanus (Artiodactyla: Suidae) in the Horn of Africa

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Two species of warthog are currently widely recognised, the poorly known desert warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus and the widely distributed common warthog Phacochoerus africanus. Spatial data for both species were collected during field surveys and from the literature, museums, colleagues, naturalists, local experts, and online resources to assess their biogeography in the Horn of Africa (HoA). Their distributions were overlaid with ArcGIS datasets for altitude, rainfall, temperature, and ecoregions. Phacochoerus aethiopicus appears to be restricted to Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia, with no records west of the Eastern Rift Valley (ERV). The estimated current geographic distribution of P. aethiopicus is 1,109,000 km2. Phacochoerus africanus occurs in all five countries of the HoA and has an estimated current geographic distribution in the HoA of 1,213,000 km2. Phacochoerus africanus appears to be the more adaptable species although P. aethiopicus is able to live where mean annual rainfall is more variable. Although both species are allopatric over vast regions, they are sympatric in central east Ethiopia, north Somalia, central Kenya, north coast of Kenya, and southeast Kenya. Both suids remain locally common, their populations are, however, in decline due to the negative impacts on the environment by the rapidly growing human populations in all five countries.

Individual‐based assessment of post‐translocation fitness of ungulates: Lessons from the critically endangered Derby eland conservation programme

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Translocations have become an essential tool in animal conservation for establishing and maintaining viable populations. Yet, the viability of a population is implicitly based on the individual fitness, that is on the survival and reproduction of individuals. Individual‐based assessments of post‐translocation fitness are challenging in the wild while conservation breeding programs may provide vital insights. Long‐term breeding records of semi‐captive (fenced) small population of the Western Derby eland (Taurotragus derbianus derbianus) running in two fenced reserves in Senegal present a case study. This study shows that transport distance and the individual's age at translocation influence animal post‐translocation survival rates and individual reproductive performance. The most critical period for the antelope's post‐translocation survival was the first 2 years following the event, with higher mortalities reported after long‐distance transport in an ecologically novel environment. The first successful calving of translocated females was postponed by 1 year, but the life‐long reproductive performance was not affected. However, higher calf survival in a habitat similar to that in the wild suggests a non‐negligible effect of the habitat on individual fitness, thus crucial to conservation decisions on translocating threatened species. Conservation translocations are vital, but challenging events for threatened species' individuals that promote population viability. We provide an individual‐based assessment of post‐translocation fitness, that is survival rates and reproductive performance of the critically endangered Western Derby eland in the conservation breeding program in Senegal. We highlight that conservationists may increase the individual post‐translocation fitness by decisions acknowledging ecology, reproductive behaviour and adequate timing of the event, thus to facilitate beneficial outcomes for species conservation.

Piliocolobus badius, Western Red Colobus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Technical Report

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Jan 2020

Sciurocheirus alleni, Allen's Galago. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Technical Report

Full-text available

Jan 2020

Colobus polykomos, King Colobus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Technical Report

Full-text available

Jan 2020

New range record for the African brush-tailed porcupine, Atherurus africanus, in southeastern Senegal and northern Guinea

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

en The African brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus) is a rodent common from West to East Africa. The last IUCN assessment stated that its presence is uncertain in Senegal. Here, we report the presence of the African brush-tailed porcupine in the Dindefelo Community Nature Reserve (Dindefelo), in southeastern Senegal, and across the border in northern Guinea. From 2017 to 2022, we obtained 58 camera trap videos from seven different locations in Dindefelo and 86 camera trap videos from Sahoro cave, in Guinea, showing Atherurus africanus. It is likely that this species has always been present in both areas, but it may have gone undetected because it is nocturnal and may be less abundant. Résumé fr Le porc-épic africain à queue en brosse (Atherurus africanus) est un rongeur commun de l'Afrique de l'Ouest à l'Afrique de l'Est. La dernière évaluation de l'UICN indique que sa présence est incertaine au Sénégal. Ici, nous signalons la présence du porc-épic africain à queue en brosse dans la Réserve Naturelle Communautaire de Dindefelo (Dindefelo), dans le sud-est du Sénégal, et de l'autre côté de la frontière, dans le nord de la Guinée. De 2017 à 2022, nous avons obtenu 58 vidéos de pièges à caméra dans sept endroits différents à Dindefelo et 86 vidéos de pièges à caméra dans la grotte de Sahoro, en Guinée, montrant l’Atherurus africanus. Il est probable que cette espèce ait toujours été présente dans les deux zones, mais elle est peut-être passée inaperçue parce qu'elle est nocturne et qu'elle est peut-être moins abondante.

Diversity, abundance, occurrence, and conservation status of mammals on the islands of Azagny National southern Côte d’Ivoire

Article

Sep 2022

Human impacts on mammal communities in Rio Campo Nature Reserve, Equatorial Guinea

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Equatorial Guinea in central Africa hosts rich biodiversity and a network of protected areas (PAs). However, infrastructure development has facilitated access to previously remote forests. This has likely increased poaching in PAs, thereby complicating efforts of agencies tasked with protecting threatened mammals. Reserva Natural de Río Campo (RNRC) in Equatorial Guinea was previously identified as a priority area for large mammals due to the presence of elephants and great apes and includes habitat for a diverse mammal community of commonly hunted species. To assess mammalian diversity in RNRC, we conducted a camera trap survey in 2017 and 2019. We used a two-step modelling approach to quantify environmental and anthropogenic factors influencing mammal groups. We detected 32 terrestrial mammal species, including endangered forest elephant, western gorilla, chimpanzee, giant pangolin and white-bellied pangolin. We found bushbuck and sitatunga closer to human-dominated areas, while other common species were, in general, further from development. Monkey and pangolin abundance increased inward from the RNRC boundary. Endangered species appear restricted to northeast RNRC which connects to Campo Ma'an National Park in Cameroon. We recommend using our inventory and distributions of threatened mammals as starting points to determine effectiveness of future anti-poaching and management strategies on mammal populations.

International Research in Environment, Geography and Earth Science Vol. 9

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Mustafa Türkmen

This book covers key areas of environment, geography and earth science. The contributions by the authors include iron fertilization, phytoplankton, productivity, grazing control analysis, minimal sulfur compounds, iron fertilization, diatoms, ABAQUS numerical code, above ground grass biomass, density distribution, carbon emissions, biodiversity conservation, ecological limitations, population density, stability, symptote, carrying capacity, oscillations, bacteriological parameters, climate change, public health problems, water treatment methods, chemical decantation, microbiological contamination, microbiological pollution, water treatment, antibiotic sensitivity, bacterial contamination, pessimistic hypothesis, hydrological models, water assessment tools, anaerobic digestion, biodegradability potential, mesophilic bio digestion. This book contains various materials suitable for students, researchers and academicians in the field of environment, geography and earth science

Orbivirus RNA in a Banana Serotine (Afronycteris nanus) Bat in the Republic of the Congo

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Orbiviruses are arthropod borne viruses of vertebrates, with some of them being important pathogens of veterinary, conservation and economic importance, while others are occasionally associated with human disease. Some apparently bat specific orbiviruses have been detected, but little is known about their distribution and diversity. We thus sampled and screened 52 bats living in the Congo Basin, and detected RNA indicative of a novel orbivirus in a single banana serotine (Afronycteris nanus) by PCR. The detected RNA clusters with epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus, bluetongue virus, and others. The findings highlight the need for more studies into arbovirus presence and diversity in bat species.

Species composition, abundance and habitat association of non‐volant small mammals in Gibe Sheleko National Park, southwestern Ethiopia

Article

Jan 2023

The objective of this study was to assess the species composition, abundance and habitat association of non‐volant small mammals from grassland, Acacia woodland, farmland, riverine forest, bushland and wooded grassland habitats in Gibe Sheleko National Park, southwestern Ethiopia. Data were collected using 49 Sherman live traps in 70 × 70 m sized girds and visual observations from December 2018 to August 2020. A total of 937 small mammals belonging to 10 species were captured and directly identified. The identified small mammal species and their relative abundance include Arvicanthis niloticus (7.04%), Crocidura olivieri (1.92%), Grammomys dolichurus (3.84%), Lemniscomys striatus (10.25%), Mastomys awashensis (24.55%), Mastomys natalensis (33.83%), Mus tenellus (0.85%), Myomys fumatus (6.30%), Rattus rattus (4.70%) and Stenocephalemys albipes (6.72%). Hystrix cristata, Xerus rutilus and Tachyoryctes splendens were documented through observation. The highest number of species (6) was registered at farmland and wooded grassland followed by bushland and riverine forest (5) and Acacia woodland and grassland (4). Lemniscomys striatus, M. awashensis and M. natalensis were common in all habitats. More, 216 (23.05%) individuals were recorded in farmland, while the least, 111 (11.85%) were recorded in Acacia woodland. The study area has various topographical land settings additional study is needed using different traps. Cette étude avait pour objectif d'évaluer la composition des espèces, l'abondance et l'association des habitats des petits mammifères non‐volants des prairies, des forêts d'acacias, des terres agricoles, des forêts riveraines, des broussailles et des prairies boisées du parc national de Gibe Sheleko, dans le sud‐ouest de l'Ethiopie. Les données ont été collectées à l'aide de 49 pièges vivants Sherman dans des gaines de 70 × 70 m et d'observations visuelles de décembre 2018 à août 2020. Un total de 937 petits mammifères appartenant à 10 espèces ont été capturés et ont été directement identifiés. Les espèces de petits mammifères identifiées et leur abondance relative sont les suivantes : Arvicanthisniloticus (7.04%), Crociduraolivieri (1.92%), Grammomysdolichurus (3.84%), Lemniscomysstriatus (10.25%), Mastomysawashensis (24.55%), Mastomysnatalensis (33.83%), Mus tenellus (0.85%), Myomysfumatus (6.30%), Rattusrattus (4.70%) et Stenocephalemysalbipes (6.72%). Hystrixcristata, Xerusrutilus et Tachyoryctessplendens ont été documentés par observation. Le nombre le plus élevé d'espèces (6) a été enregistré dans les terres agricoles et les prairies boisées, suivi par les zones de brousse et les forêts riveraines (5) et les zones boisées et les prairies d'acacia (4). Lemniscomysstriatus, M. awashensis et M. natalensis étaient des espèces communes dans tous les habitats. Plus de 216 (23.05%) individus ont été enregistrés dans les terres agricoles, tandis que le nombre le plus faible, 111 (11.85%) ont été enregistrés dans les forêts d'acacias. La zone d'étude présente différents contextes topographiques ; une étude supplémentaire est nécessaire en utilisant différents pièges.

Mechanisms of individual variation in large herbivore diets: Roles of spatial heterogeneity and state‐dependent foraging

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2022

Many populations of consumers consist of relatively specialized individuals that eat only a subset of the foods consumed by the population at large. Although the ecological significance of individual-level diet variation is recognized, such variation is difficult to document and its underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Optimal foraging theory provides a useful framework for predicting how individuals might select different diets, positing that animals balance the 'opportunity cost' of stopping to eat an available food item against the cost of searching for something more nutritious; diet composition should be contingent on the distribution of food, and individual foragers should be more selective when they have greater energy reserves to invest in searching for high-quality foods. We tested these predicted mechanisms of individual niche differentiation by quantifying environmental (resource heterogeneity) and organismal (nutritional condition) determinants of diet in a widespread browsing antelope (bushbuck, Tragelaphus sylvaticus) in an African floodplain-savanna ecosystem. We quantified individuals' realized dietary niches (taxonomic richness and composition) using DNA metabarcoding of fecal samples collected repeatedly from 15 GPS-collared animals (range 6-14 samples per individual, median 12). Bushbuck diets were structured by spatial heterogeneity and constrained by individual condition. We observed significant individual-level partitioning of food plants by bushbuck both within and between two adjacent habitat types (floodplain and woodland). Individuals with home ranges that were closer together and/or had similar vegetation structure (measured using LiDAR) ate more similar diets, supporting the prediction that heterogenous resource distribution promotes individual differentiation. Individuals in good nutritional condition had significantly narrower diets (fewer plant taxa), searched their home ranges more intensively (intensity-of-use index), and had higher-quality diets (percent digestible protein) than those in poor condition, supporting the prediction that animals with greater endogenous reserves have narrower realized niches because they can invest more time in searching for nutritious foods. Our results support predictions from optimal foraging theory about the energetic basis of individual-level dietary variation and provide a potentially generalizable framework for understanding how individuals' realized niche width is governed by animal behavior and physiology in heterogenous landscapes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Features of the use of ungulates by oxpeckers (Buphagus) in central Kenya

Article

Oct 2022

A detailed multi-year observational study of Red-Billed (RB) oxpecker (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) and yellow-billed (YB) oxpecker (B. Africanus) occurrence on a range of ungulate species was performed in two Kenyan national parks. Surprisingly observation of over 2100 individual Kongoni, in group sizes of 1 to > 50, revealed a total absence of oxpeckers, of either species, on Kongoni (Alcephalus buselaphus: subfamily Alcephalinae) in Nairobi National Park (NNP), although it was one of the most common bovid species present. There is no population of A. buselaphus at the second study site in central Kenya, Lake Nakuru National Park (LNNP). By contrast, the Impala (Aepyceros melampus), a smaller species, whose taxonomic status is phylogenetically ambiguous, but is widely considered to have evolved relatively recently in Africa, was a frequent oxpecker host in both NNP (29% of animals observed) and LNNP (12.9% of individual animals observed. Two species of gazelle Thompson’s gazelle (Gazella rufifrons)) and Grant’s gazelle (G. granti), subfamily Gazellinae, which were present in both parks but in relatively low abundance, were also not observed to host oxpeckers. The reason for these bovid subfamilies, apparently not being utilized as oxpecker hosts in central Kenya, is unclear and requires further research.

References

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022

The Colobines are a group of Afroeurasian monkeys that exhibit extraordinary behavioural and ecological diversity. With long tails and diverse colourations, they are medium-sized primates, mostly arboreal, that are found in many different habitats, from rain forests and mountain forests to mangroves and savannah. Over the last two decades, our understanding of this group of primates has increased dramatically. This volume presents a comprehensive overview of the current research on colobine populations, including the range of biological, ecological, behavioural and societal traits they exhibit. It highlights areas where our knowledge is still lacking, and outlines the current conservation status of colobine populations, exploring the threats to their survival. Bringing together international experts, this volume will aid future conservation efforts and encourage further empirical studies. It will be of interest to researchers and graduate students in primatology, biological anthropology and conservation science. Additional online resources can be found at www.cambridge.org/colobines.

Bibliography

Article

Apr 2022

Peter Heywood

Quaggas were beautiful pony-sized zebras in southern Africa that had fewer stripes on their bodies and legs, and a browner body coloration than other zebras. Indigenous people hunted quaggas, portrayed them in rock art, and told stories about them. Settlers used quaggas to pull wagons and to protect livestock against predators. Taken to Europe, they were admired, exhibited, harnessed to carriages, illustrated by famous artists and written about by scientists. Excessive hunting led to quaggas' extinction in the 1880s but DNA from museum specimens showed rebreeding was feasible and now zebras resembling quaggas live in their former habitats. This rebreeding is compared with other de-extinction and rewilding ventures and its appropriateness discussed against the backdrop of conservation challenges—including those facing other zebras. In an Anthropocene of species extinction, climate change and habitat loss which organisms and habitats should be saved, and should attempts be made to restore extinct species?

Volume References

Book

May 2022

Humans evolved in the dynamic landscapes of Africa under conditions of pronounced climatic, geological and environmental change during the past 7 million years. This book brings together detailed records of the paleontological and archaeological sites in Africa that provide the basic evidence for understanding the environments in which we evolved. Chapters cover specific sites, with comprehensive accounts of their geology, paleontology, paleobotany, and their ecological significance for our evolution. Other chapters provide important regional syntheses of past ecological conditions. This book is unique in merging a broad geographic scope (all of Africa) and deep time framework (the past 7 million years) in discussing the geological context and paleontological records of our evolution and that of organisms that evolved alongside our ancestors. It will offer important insights to anyone interested in human evolution, including researchers and graduate students in paleontology, archaeology, anthropology and geology.

État des Lieux de la Faune Sauvage Mammalienne dans le Département de Sipilou, Ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire

Article

Nov 2022

Le département de Sipilou situé dans l’ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire, s’étend de la zone forestière à la zone savanicole, offrant ainsi une variété d’habitats à de nombreuses espèces de la faune sauvage. Cependant, les données sur la faune mammalienne de la zone restent encore parcellaires. Cette étude visait à déterminer la diversité et l’abondance de la faune mammalienne du département de Sipilou. La méthode des marches de reconnaissances ou Recce et celle des enquêtes ethnozoologiques ont été réalisées pour inventorier les espèces de mammifères. Cette étude a été menée dans quatre types d’habitats: les forêts secondaires, les savanes arborées, les jachères et les espaces cultivés. Les prospections pédestres ont permis de confirmer la présence de 21 espèces de mammifères sur les 37 espèces signalées par les interviews. Les espèces dominantes ont été le grand aulacode Thryonomys swinderianus (18%), le guib harnaché Tragelaphus scriptus (10,57%) et l’athérure d’Afrique Atherurus africanus (10%). Les indices kilométriques d’abondance (IKA) mesurés varient de 0,22 (Cercopithecus campbelli) à 4,85 ind/km (Thryonomys swinderianus). Les indices de présence des mammifères diffèrent significativement entre les types d’habitats (One-way ANOVA : F = 4,901 ; dl = 3 ; p = 0,0035). Les indices de Shannon diffèrent significativement presque entre tous les habitats; excepté entre la forêt secondaire et la culture tandis que les indices de Simpson (D) diffèrent significativement entre la forêt secondaire et la savane arborée, la forêt secondaire et la jachère, la culture et la jachère. L’indice d’équitabilité de Piélou (J’) est très élevé (≥ 91) dans tous les habitats. La zone d’étude abrite une communauté importante de mammifères dont des espèces d’intérêt mondial pour la conservation. Ces espèces et leurs habitats méritent une attention particulière de la part des populations locales et des gestionnaires nationaux de la conservation de la faune afin de les sauvegarder.

New altitudinal records and distribution of two endemic rodents of Ethiopia

Article

Oct 2022

The Kingdon Field Guide to African

Abstract

No full-text available

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