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Education for International Understanding: An
Examination of the Japanese Approach in the
Period for Integrated Study
Mohammad Reza Sarkar Arani
School of Psychology and Education, Allameh Tabatabai University, Tehran, Iran
James P. Lassegard
Faculty of Law, Toyo University, Tokyo, Japan
This article examines the Japanese program of Education for International
Understanding (EIU) which has as one of its purposes the understanding of
global issues and different cultures. This program, usually taught during the
period for integrated study instruction at Japanese schools, gives teachers and
students opportunities to learn about international issues through the study
of geography and the natural environment, often with the direct participation
of foreign guests or experts. To gain insight into the theoretical foundations for
the Japanese interdisciplinary approach toward EIU, this study examines the
actual content and classroom activity within two lessons of the period for
integrated study in Ousu elementary school, a typical municipal elementary
school in Nagoya, Japan. A case study method based on participant observation
was the primary methodological approach for data collection. A detailed
description and analysis of the lessons are provided, examining in particular
the responses of students to the lesson plans, and to interactions and discussion
taking place between teachers, students and international guests. Overall
feedback received from participants was positive, suggesting a high level of
effectiveness for this model of EIU. The article includes a discussion of the
international applicability of Japanese EIU as well as potential areas of further
research.
Introduction
The UNESCO charter adopted by the United Nations in 1947 states in its preamble that,
'Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace
must be constructed'. This article refers to the necessity for mutual understanding between
countries, cultures and civilizations in today's world. Moreover, a discussion of peace, which
is seen as vital to the prevention of international conflict, should not be limited to nations
currently at war but it is something in which all countries must be engaged. Education may
have a particularly important role in the prevention of war through the enhancement of
mutual understanding among countries and cultures.
Today, the fates of every nation in the world are increasingly intertwined and nations
influence each other more than any other period in the past. Furthermore, the rapid
development of information and technology these days has an even greater influence on the
mutual fates of nations. As a result of these current trends, the problems in one region are
not limited to that region but can have a very immediate and detrimental affect on the
world. As such, it is imperative that we make efforts toward instilling people with a heightened
1357-4019/00/02 0075-15 $10.00/0 ©2007 M.R. Sarkar Arani & J.P. Lassegard
CITIZENSHIP, SOCIAL AND ECONOMICS EDUCATION Vol. 7, No. 2, 2007
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sense of global responsibility and international awareness, and education which reflects this
view must begin in the schools.
Geographical and environmental education has the potential for contributing to the
improvement of mutual international understanding and eventually may lead to the
prevention of international conflict including wars. Students, in their study of geography,
first come to learn about the earth's environment and its related problems, such as
pollution and global warming. In the process, students begin to think about the
relationship between human beings and environmental issues after doing some of their
own investigating. In this learning process, students ideally would acquire a much deeper
understanding about the world, through the comparison of their own surroundings
with those of people in other regions of the world (Blij & Muller, 1996). Moreover,
students learn about diverse cultures and customs in different geographic environments
and they also get a glimpse into the various structures of world cultures, politics, societies
and economic systems, which all impact on their environment.
To deal with the multitude of problems we face, such as international conflict, war,
terrorism, third world poverty, environmental destruction, and overpopulation, the world
requires international cooperation, abundant knowledge and a constructive attitude. It
is essential that people have both mutual understanding and the motivation to work
together on mutually acceptable solutions to these grave issues. To accomplish this, we
must cultivate in students a deeper awareness of the culture and history of nations and
instill positive attitudes respectful of cultural differences.
Despite the inherent value of international or comparative perspectives to young
students, geography and environmental education in schools has often been limited to
domestic issues and/or has not used a comparative framework for examining differences
in culture. However, if such perspectives are effectively integrated into lesson planning,
geographical and environmental instruction may serve as more effective basis for
presenting themes related to cross-cultural understanding in today's world.
Education for International Understanding (EIU)
The Japanese government emphasis has been on the continued promotion of the
internationalization of education within a number of educational and curricular reform
movements during the past twenty years (Schoppa, 1991; Sarkar Arani, 2004). The first
reports on educational reform in Japan, produced from 1985 to 1987 by the National
Council on Educational Reform Government of Japan (NCER, 1985-1987), promoted
the idea that educational institutions must not only create necessary opportunities for
the development of individual abilities, culture and knowledge of Japanese people but
also that human development and growth should be enhanced in society and in every
field. Moreover, institutions should make efforts to prepare a foundation for creating
such opportunities for all human beings (NCER, 1987).
In the First Report on Educational Reform (1985), the NCER stated that, to promote
internationalization, it is necessary to make Japanese educational institutions more open
to the international community and to develop Japanese people who are competent and
comfortable living in a culturally diverse society. With this in mind, the NCER examined
a wide range of topics, including the admission of foreign students to Japanese educational
institutions, exchange programs between Japanese and foreign institutions of higher
education, international cooperation in the field of scientific research, EIU, language
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Education for International Understanding in Japan
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teaching, the education of Japanese children living abroad, and the education of Japanese
children who have come back from abroad, also known as kikokushijo (NCER, 1985).
It is often not easy for many Japanese people to understand and appreciate differences
between other ethnicities, customs, life styles, ways of thinking and values, since the
common consensus among the Japanese is that Japan is an ethnically and culturally a
homogenous society. Japanese are, therefore, not very accustomed to interacting with
people of diverse ethnicities and cultures. According to Takakura and Murata:
Japanese tend to rank all cultures, including their own, from superior to
inferior and in some cases expected foreigners to follow Japanese culture.
Unless people are able to understand the good aspects of other cultures, one
is likely to regard his own culture as the best, eventually leading to
ethnocentrism. (1998:115)
The tendency toward ethnocentrism may be reduced if people are able to view their
own culture more objectively. Through an examination of the characteristics of various
other cultures, histories and cultural contexts, people can potentially develop more cultural
self-awareness and a more
relativistic
attitude
toward other cultures
(ibid).
Comparison
of the differences and similarities of foreign culture may allow opportunities to cultivate
a deeper understanding and it is therefore vital that students have exposure to different
cultures in a structured learning environment where they can feel free to ask questions
and be engaged in a process of self-reflection. In short, international and intercultural
education in schools should be theoretically based on education related to the
understanding of various cultures, including one's own.
The NCER (1987) introduced the following five educational points to specify what is
needed for the internationalization of Japanese society and education in the 1985 to
1987 report:
• Education for peace;
• Education for human rights;
• Education for understanding different cultures;
• Education for development; and
• Environmental education.
The NCER introduced the above topics as ones which the educational system should
implement for the enhancement of Japan as an international society and which are based
on concepts embodied in the charter of UNESCO emphasizing peace, global learning,
mutual understanding and respect toward mutual human rights.
Japanese people are generally very cognizant of the impact that rapid economic
growth in the 1960s has had on various aspects of their own culture, society and
environment (NCER, 1987). Moreover, many Japanese people are also aware that
developed nations cannot be indifferent to third world poverty and that actions must be
taken globally to ease social, cultural and economic differences between developed and
developing countries. Reports on themes promoted by NCER have encouraged Japanese
schools to provide students with opportunities to learn about constructive knowledge,
different ways of thinking, human rights, respect toward different cultures and concern
for the environment.
Most elementary schools in Japan exhibit materials for students so that they have
exposure to diverse world cultures and traditions. These materials include national flags,
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world and regional maps, and materials for introducing various cultures such as video
tapes, audio-visual materials, reference books and so on. These are visibly exhibited at
schools in areas accessible to students. These materials may lead to an exploration of
such topics as the ways of life of the original inhabitants of the Amazon jungle, the
relationship between the environment and conservation, disease and poverty in African
countries, or the lives of nomadic tribes in Iran.
National curriculum standards reform
The Curriculum Council is composed of education experts appointed by the Ministry
of Education to make recommendations on issues related to school curriculum and
instruction. The Council received an inquiry from the Ministry of Education in August
1996 concerning reform of the national curriculum. The council comprehensively
discussed the promotion and maintenance of the well-balanced development of youth
and educational methods that have as their focus youth becoming responsible individual
members of the nation and of society in the 21st century. In addition, the Council agreed
that it was necessary to regularly review national curriculum standards to place greater
emphasis on the curriculum for integrated studies. The national curriculum standards
reform was initiated to accomplish the following:
1 to assist students in their cultivation of a sense of humanity, social responsibility
and their identity as Japanese citizens living in the international community;
2 to help students develop the ability to learn and think independently;
3 to facilitate students' acquirement of basic abilities and skills, and to foster
individuality through engagement in educational activities; and
4
to encourage individual schools to show ingenuity in developing unique educational
activities to make schools more distinctive (Monbukagakusho, 2001).
There had been three main educational elements in the school curriculum prior to the
introduction of the period for integrated study: academic skills, moral education, and
special activities1. Integrated study, or sogougakushu, was implemented as a significant
reform of the Japanese educational system, as it encourages studies in broad areas such
as information technology, international understanding, and issues related to people and
the environment (Takashina, 2001a). Since school education had been viewed as hindering
students from gaining valuable experience from the society in which they reside, the
period for integrated study was intended to correct this deficiency. Takashina (2001b)
has asserted that most aspects of integrated study can be evaluated by means of the
academic skills shown in Figure 1, which can be acquired through the areas of global
learning and through information and communication technologies.
The Curriculum Council had recommended that schools use several standards for
integrated study, which are basically divided into five criteria to enhance the following
five aptitudes: (1) ability for problem identification, (2) problem-solving capability, (3)
learning and thinking skills, (4) active and creative study attitudes, and (5) reflection on
peoples' lifestyles. While these aspects are integral to the entire framework of school
education, such competencies are seen as particularly important objectives for integrated
study (Monbusho, 1998).
The new national curriculum standards emphasize and clearly specify interdisciplinary
and comprehensive learning consisting of such themes as international understanding and
the environment. The period for integrated study was added to existing subjects in 2002.
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Education for International Understanding in Japan 79
• Global understanding • Health
Conceptual
• Information • Community
skills
• Environment • Traditional performing
arts
etc.
• Welfare
• Traditional performing
arts
etc.
Academic
skills
• Skills to discover challenges
• Skills to pursue challenges
• Skills to present results
• Skills to learn
• Ability to seek challenges
actively and creatively
• Ability to think about
lifestyles
• Skills of how to think
etc.
• Ability to seek problems • Ability to gather
information
Technical
• Ability to speak and listen • Ability to organize
skills
• Ability to investigate information
• Ability to take notes • Ability to express
• Ability to interview • Ability to write a report
etc.
Figure 1 Structure of academic skills in the Period for Integrated
Study (Takashina, 2001b)
Annually, approximately 100 school hours are allocated for this period in elementary
schools at the third grade or higher, while more than 70 school hours are annually
allocated for lower secondary school students. In addition, upper secondary school
students take a total of 105 to 210 credits in integrated study over three years.
Accompanying this trend, the traditional academic content of school education has
been reduced by thirty percent since April 2002.
According to the Japanese Government report (Monbukagakusho, 2003), on average
62.6% of elementary schools (grades 3 to 6) utilized the period for integrated study for
international understanding programs, 59.7% for informational studies, 49.6% for the
environment and 46.5% for welfare and health programs (See Table 1).
According to the results of this research (ibid.), students have generally been very
satisfied with the period for integrated study. This may suggest that active learning has
not played a large role in school education in the past. Such learning is purported to
contribute significantly toward students' study attitudes and motivation toward learning.
However, teachers have reported that their roles have changed considerably since the
introduction of the new national curriculum and many have voiced concerns about the
difficulty of preparing curriculum for integrated study (Yamane, 2002).
Takashina (2001b) notes that, since the new courses of study and the period for
integrated study give students more freedom to make decisions about their own study
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Grade
The
Period for Integrated St udy
Grade
International
Understanding
(%)
Foreign
Language**
(%)
Information
(%)
Environment
(%)
Health &
Welfare
(%)
Other
(%)
3
58.6 48.8 57.4 42.4 39.6 15.5
4 59.3 49.6 58.0 60.2 50.6 11.7
5
63.1 54.5 61.7 55.7 46.8 14.9
6 69.4 54.1 61.6 40.0 48.8 18.7
Average
62.6 51.0 59.7 49.6 46.5 15.2
* TheTable shows percentages of respective items in elementary schools (multiple reponses possible).
** The percentage of elementary schools engaged in foreign language education as part of international
understanding programs.
Table 1 EIU as part of the Period for Integrated Study in elementary schools*
interests, they will nurture students' self-determination and their ability to identify and
solve problems. Students are reportedly also able to acquire social skills through
interactions with others in the community. For instance, within the 'touch' (fureai) program
students interact with the elderly, city people and with foreigners. Students are generally
curious and interested in people who are different from themselves. Students who begin
to question the discrepancies between day-to-day life and what is ideal, become inspired
to work toward improving society in the future. Under this new curricular framework,
students are encouraged to experiment with the real world (Asanuma, 2003).
Case study: EIU in one school's classroom
An analysis of two model lessons of the period for integrated study was conducted in
a 6th grade class at Ousu elementary school, which is located in the city of Nagoya in
Central Japan. The lessons were taught by a veteran social studies teacher, with 28 years
of teaching experience. One of the authors assumed the roles of cultural informant and
co-facilitator during the lessons. A qualitative case study approach using participant
observation was the principal research method utilized in the collection of classroom data.
All teaching and learning activities for the period for integrated study took place
during two periods (90 minutes total) held on February 28, 2005, and can be found
summarized in Tables 2 and 3. The following is a detailed description of the sequencing
of specific activities that took place during the EIU lessons, and is followed by an analysis
and discussion of the teaching and learning process based on the data from observations
and feedback from participants.
During the first lesson period, the teacher wrote the basic theme on the blackboard:
A comparative study of Iran and Japan emphasizing various characteristics of peoples'
daily lives and the environment. He then introduced the guest from Iran and explained,
I have given a lot of thought about how to facilitate today's two-hour class
and I decided to use the integrated study period for social studies and
geography and in particular to learn about the importance of international
understanding, or 'internationalization'. Today, we will actively think about
the similarities and differences between Iran and Japan in terms of geography,
the environment and the lifestyles of people. Our guest today is going to talk
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Division Time
(mins) Content of the lesson
1 5 The lesson topic is introduced and the teacher explains that making comparisons is
an important method of understanding the dose relationship between geography
and people's surroundings and lifestyles.
2
5 Guest from Iran explains the geographic conditions and some characteristics of the
people and culture of Iran.
3
15
A comparison is done of lifestyles, geography, environment, and culture in Iran with
those of Japan, and the teacher has students observe and investigate in detail about
what they see, using materials such as pictures, maps, videotapes, and reference
books.
4
15
Students discuss similarities and differences between Iran and Japan in terms of
people, environment (ecology/geography), and lifestyles.
5 5 The teacher writes contents of students' discussion of similarities and differences on
the blackboard.
Table 2 Sixth grade classroom EIU activities: First lesson (45 minutes)
Division Time
(mins) Content of the lesson
1 5 The lesson topic is introduced and the teacher asks students to think about
possible reasons for differences in daily life between Iran and Japan.
2
7
Students are given time for seatwork* to think and try to answer this question.
3
13
Students present their responses and discussion takes place.
4
10
Presentation of the responses by the teacher and guests from Iran and mutual
comparisons are made.
5 5 The teacher summarizes the class discussion.
6
5 The teacher has students write a paragraph summarizing the class content and evaluates
these writings.
* Searwork refers to lesson activities done by students who are left alone during part of
the class time to work by themselves.
Table 3 Sixth grade classroom EIU activities: Second lesson (45 minutes)
about his home country using materials he has brought and will answer your
questions. Pay close attention to what he says and examine the materials in
detail. As you do so, please write down some similarities and differences that
you find between Iran and Japan.
Following this introduction, the foreign guest gave an explanation of the characteristics
of the people, environment, customs and geography of Iran. Students were subsequently
divided into five groups and each was shown an object such as a photograph, a map, a
documentary film, hand-woven Persian carpet, traditional, industrial and handmade
arts. Students were asked to compare Iranian and Japanese social characteristics,
geography and peoples 'lifestyles, and to write about differences and similarities in their
notebooks. The students took fifteen minutes to examine these objects and the teacher
walked around the classroom while students were doing seatwork. While examining
the students' work, the teacher made comments to individual students about their efforts
and responded to students' questions, seeking to determine whether the students
understood what had just been discussed.
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After the teacher had confirmed that students compared, and were able to note,
several similarities and differences between Japan and Iran, he asked students to share
what they found with the rest of the class (See Table 4). Many students actively asked
questions for about fifteen minutes, and approximately two-thirds of the class participated
in the discussion while the teacher wrote their comments on the blackboard. Due to
time constraints and the similarities of some students' responses, the teacher asked the
class to come up with responses that had not yet been given. After the question and
answer session with students, the teacher directed the students to sum up their thoughts
about what they had learned from the lesson.
Similarities Flowers of spring, a high-rise building, a big restaurant, a pretty hotel, a university, a
bank, a library, Coca-Cola, various drinks, a ski, soccer, wide and long roads, cars,
amusement parks, a mountain range, a railroad, an air port, the high mountains, etc.
Differences The national currency, clothes (for women in particular), religious events, working
hours, housing, table manners, food, room size, area of the school, house size,
kinds of fruit, gender distinctions in schools, a wide open plain, drifting sand, not
protecting priority in traffic, imports and exports, mosques, daily prayers of
Muslims, etc.
Table 4 Students' responses in comparing Japanese and Iranian cultures
At the beginning of the second lesson period, the teacher reviewed what was covered
in the first lesson, and explained the topic of the second lesson by saying, 'Let's think
about what the basic reasons are for the differences you found between daily life in Iran
and in Japan'. The teacher decided to first have the students discuss this complex issue
with other class members. The students were given time for seatwork, and were instructed
to think about this question either alone or in a group. The teacher and the guest alternated
answering students' questions and providing clarification to determine if students
understood what had just been discussed.
The teacher then asked students to share their responses with the class. Students
came up with a number of responses to the question 'what do you think are the main
reasons for the differences in daily life between Iran and the Japan? The teacher wrote
these down on the white board:
1 Peoples' ways of thinking in Iran and Japan are different.
2 The lifestyles of Iranians and Japanese are different.
3 Living spaces (geographical and environmental) are different.
4 The two countries have unique histories.
5 The political systems are different.
6 The economic activities of Iran and Japan are different; Iran has oil and natural
resources and Japan has few natural resources.
7 Imports and exports of the two countries are different; Iran exports oil, gas, and
other natural resources, and Japan exports more scientific and technological
materials such as machines and industrial products.
8 There are differences in religion between Japan and Iran.
9 Social structures are different; Japanese society is aging while Iranian society it
relatively young.
After compiling students' opinions, the teacher stated,
It seems to me that people's ways of life are closely related to geographical
location as well as to the environment. The living environment of human
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beings affects their way of life, food culture, and customs. In fact, when I
visited Iran, I noticed that there are differences in ways of life in Iran based on
where people live, such as the desert, Caspian Sea coast or mountainous
zone. Geographical and environmental differences appear to produce culture
that is unique to the local community, and these factors also affect social
relationships between people.
In Japan, people's natural surroundings also have a big influence on their
ways of life and even behaviour. Let's compare Okinawa, in Southern Japan,
with Hokkaido in the north. You know from your studies that housing
structure, climate, occupations and human relations are quite different
between these regions. I went to Okinawa for the first time this year and I
could understand the extent of these differences. In comparing the very hot
and rainy Okinawa with the very cold and snowy Hokkaido, I found that
many differences in local peoples' lives seemed to depend on the local
environment and climate.
The teacher concluded by touching upon the idea of Japanese society becoming more
internationalized. He summarized the main points of the two integrated study lessons
and emphasized both the relationship between people and the environment, and ways
of thinking about and understanding cultural diversity.
It is necessary to know more about each other, so that people who were
brought up under different conditions and who have different cultures are
able to have mutual understanding. Therefore, we need to be more curious
about cultural differences, including differences in ways of life. At the same
time, having more awareness of our own cultural identity will help us in
learning about others. Such knowledge becomes the basis for broadening
international mutual understanding, friendship, and cooperation.
Finally, as a regular component of their usual lesson, the teacher instructed students
to write what they learned from this session in their notebooks and to reflect on the
discussion points.
Pedagogical and epistemological analysis
As with any classroom activity, pedagogical considerations for EIU must guide the
learning process. This includes having clear objectives for the lesson. While every learning
module has at its core the development of students' thinking process, EIU endeavours to
instil in particular the ability of students to think reflectively and creatively about the
world. In addition, this model lesson contained four main objectives:
1 To learn about an unfamiliar foreign culture;
2 To compare foreign culture with the home culture;
3 To understand cultural features in relation to history, geography and the
environment; and
4 To cultivate more awareness and a deeper understanding of cultural differences.
These objectives were made relatively clear to the students and it was possible for
facilitators to evaluate students on their acquisition through the quantity and quality of
responses they gave to specific questions asked by teachers.
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In addition to these stated objectives, still another more implicit goal of EIU is to instil
the awareness that foreign culture has its own unique value and position that is no
greater or no less than the students' home culture. Therefore, for this variety of EIU to be
truly effective, students' attitudes toward foreign culture must be challenged to some
extent. This model of contrasting culture provides a subtle means and framework for
comparing cultures in their original context, with the discussion becoming a spark for
students to begin to question the reality of their own culture. In short, as the model
lessons demonstrated, learning about different cultures should ideally evolve into a
discussion of one's own culture, and could provide the opportunity for increasing cultural
self-awareness. Such a discussion hopefully encourages students to learn the inherent
value of other cultures and would contribute toward more ethno-relativistic attitudes
toward cultures different from their own.
While these implicit objectives are not easily instilled, they are certainly more difficult
to measure and evaluate. This particular model lesson of EIU had several advantages in
this respect. Both the teacher and the international guest were experienced educators
with significant cross-cultural knowledge and experience, which are of great importance
in the endeavour to assist students on the journey toward developing more culturally
relativistic attitudes. Hence, their intercultural and teaching skills enabled these facilitators
to respond effectively to students' questions.
While the EIU lesson analyzed here was evaluated quite highly by participants, this
particular model it not likely to be considered very typical of most EIU conducted in
Japanese schools. Indeed, EIU taught using an interdisciplinary format within geographical
and environmental studies can be considered somewhat experimental, and as such has
not yet been universally adopted. Ultimately, the most important issue remains one of
facilitation and teaching skills. In many cases, elementary teachers may not have either
significant international or culture learning experience. Without adequate intercultural
facilitation skills, teachers may be able to engage students in a discussion of similarities
and differences between cultures, but they may not be equipped to adequately model or
explain culturally relativistic attitudes and behaviours to students. Without proper
facilitation, comparing cultures could potentially lead to the inadvertent production of
more stereotypes rather than to a deeper understanding of culture.
Both authors have been invited to Japanese schools on numerous occasions to talk
about their home countries and to spend time with students. More often than not, these
school visits did not consist of detailed discussion of cultural differences, nor were students
encouraged by teachers to engage in actively comparing foreign and Japanese culture.
In some cases the EIU lesson takes the form of a 'parade of nations', during which a
number of foreign cultures are briefly and superficially introduced. Moreover, if students
are given too much leeway in their choice of target country or culture, they may tend to
choose countries of the developed world with which they have some familiarity, such as
the United States. Here, the teacher can play a key role to encourage students' interest in
less familiar countries and countries in various stages of development. Indeed, their
unfamiliarity may work to trigger student's curiosity and motivation to learn.
Ultimately, the implementation of EIU at schools internationally must always take
into account societal and other contextual characteristics of the country, which include
how multiculturalism is framed within the society. For example, the tendency to
emphasize cultural differences over similarities may be greater in countries such as
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Japan, which tends to consider itself ethnically homogeneous (Lie, 2001). Also, in more
rigidly conformist societies, differences are often intrinsically seen as negative and
something to be avoided. Hence, in Japanese EUI, therefore, cultural similarities may be
given more consideration than in EUI conducted in more ethnically pluralistic countries.
Indeed, teaching cultural similarities along side of differences allows students to feel a
level of comfort and familiarity toward the foreign culture that would help detract from
the notion of it as being something strange and unknowable.
In addition to various pedagogical choices depending on multicultural contextual
differences, another issue to be considered is the conceptual gap in teaching about the
developed and the developing world. Students in developed countries, due largely to the
influence of mass media and popular culture, will likely have more knowledge and often
more interest in these countries than they would in developing countries. Moreover,
modernization and globalization have produced superficially similar environments and
infrastructures in developed countries which may mask the many genuine differences in
attitudes, thinking and ways of life which lie underneath. Therefore, when teaching about
developed countries, teachers should devote more attention to explaining underlying cultural
differences between societies, rather than their obvious similarities.
Discussion: Interdisciplinary approaches in EIU
The period of integrated study provides an opportunity for schools to construct their
own educational activities in accordance with the actual needs of the school, students,
and community. As we have observed from the model lessons, an interdisciplinary
approach is often used in the design of learning materials for integrated study and for
EIU. For example, a cultural approach may be used in the teaching of environmental
education and students are engaged in global learning and international understanding
within geography education.
In geography and anthropology, students learn about social relationships and the
ideas that cultures produce. Diverse environments and geographic locations create
systems that differ politically, socially, and culturally. Moreover, they also influence various
aspects and beliefs, and to some extent the actions of both groups and individuals (Gregg
& Leinhardt, 1994). One of the purposes of learning geography is to gain an in-depth
understanding of the environment and human influences on the environment that give
order to society and culture (Sarkar Arani, 2004). Moreover, one of geography's most
important foundations is to encourage students to have accurate and in-depth knowledge
about different cultures. These foundations can also be seen to promote international
relations by their role in generating awareness of different cultures, ethnicities and
languages.
Geographical education in schools helps to encourage and stimulate students' interests
in geography, the environment, culture and society, and helps them gain knowledge
about various aspects of the world. When students learn about the relationship between
people and the environment, and environmental influences on social, cultural, and
economic behaviour, they deepen their understandings of other areas of history,
economics, politics and religion (Clark & Smyth, 1990; Egan, 1983). An understanding
of the lives and behaviours of people in the world and the social conditions by which
people are governed, contributes to cross-cultural understanding and increases mutual
respect for human rights and cultural beliefs (Baker, 1989).
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Similarly, environmental education also provides a foundation for mutual cross-cultural
understanding. Japan took a special interest in environmental education in 1974, based
on the model first implemented in the UK School Council's Project Environment (Schools'
Council, 1974). Not unlike the objectives for EIU, the aims for environmental education
go beyond the acquisition of skills and knowledge, and require the development of
involvement to the extent that values are formed which produce positive behaviours.
Hence, the development of attitudes and understanding consequently results in a personal
environmental ethic for which students' actions and contributions through collective
action
will
be
for the benefit
of
the
natural
environment
(ibid).
In short, both the
Japanese
model for integrated study and the National Curriculum for Schools in England seek to
promote similar dimensions of the learning process consisting of knowledge and
understanding, skills, and attitudes.
It would appear, therefore, as though the Japanese new courses of study and integrated
studies may have been originally derived, in part, from the National Curriculum for
Schools in England. Abiko (2003) has noted that two separate groups of Japanese
researchers in curriculum studies advocate that practitioners of integrated study work
in tandem with community members and school administrators in the implementation
of integrated curriculum and the New Course of Study. One group places strong emphasis
on the development of students' curiosity and interests, while the other focuses on
development of themes or topics, such as the environment and world peace. The Japanese
promotion of integrated study thus closely follows the examples of theme learning in
America and topic learning in England and it also makes recommendations for further
curricular improvements to be developed specifically for each school.
As demonstrated in Takashina's (2001b) structure of academic skills in the period for
integrated study shown in Figure 1, various dimensions of the teaching and learning
process are employed in the creation of learning materials and opportunities for EIU.
Hence, we may conclude that Japanese educators have applied an interdisciplinary
approach to the period for integrated study for purposes of effectively carrying out EIU.
Furthermore, they have been engaged in a process of reforming the national curriculum
since 2002 based in part on what they have learned from other nations.
Conclusion
Young people in the 21st century live in a world in which they increasingly come into
contact with diverse cultures. Although this can be something of great positive value,
these contacts may also result in conflict and ethnocentric attitudes. As educators, we
have an obligation to teach students about the world and their immediate surroundings.
We must offer relevant learning methods and materials to students so they will understand
that, in the outside world, conflict occurs due to international economic differences,
social problems and differences in culture. Teaching students about different cultures
through study of the environment and geography provides them with the opportunity
to reflect upon such problems and their potential solutions.
The Japanese approach to EIU suggests that an atmosphere of 'internationalization'
can be acquired if schools conduct EIU while placing emphasis on global learning, the
commonality of mankind, or humanistic attitudes and the development of curriculum
that will foster more student diversity and flexibility (Wray, 1999). In short, Japan appears
to have high hopes for EIU's potential for producing more internationally-minded
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Education for International Understanding in Japan
87
Japanese citizens, and it views the period for integrated study as a means through which
this can be accomplished.
The authors have compiled six points as essential elements for international
understanding, which should be used to guide the development of EIU curriculum and
instruction:
• The understanding and recognition of people's common humanity (universalism);
• The willingness of people to learn about, to understand and to respect other
cultures (curiosity about other cultures);
• Opportunities to learn about and have dialogue with other cultures and civilizations
(cooperation and learning between countries);
• Understanding of global problems (development of empathy and the notion that
the problems of people in other countries are relevant to our daily lives);
• Opportunities for contact with other people, and interacting with diverse cultures
while showing patience and acceptance of their customs and ways of life
(acceptance of diversity and adopting a flexible attitude toward other people and
cultures);
• Broad perspectives and flexible attitudes about international problems affecting
people in all parts of the world (reflective and critical thinking).
As mentioned earlier, the teaching of foreign culture to young students is not without
controversy, partly due to the danger for it to contribute to the reinforcement of cultural
stereotypes rather than act as a catalyst for deepening cross-cultural awareness. There
are also the arguments that students may first need a firm grounding in their own
culture prior to learning about others and that students may become overly influenced
by foreign culture. Nevertheless, using methods of comparing cultures in the classroom
enables students to gain deeper insight into their home country's culture (s) while in the
process of learning about foreign countries.
Integrating learning about culture into the disciplinary areas discussed here may
provide both educators and curriculum developers with opportunities to creatively and
subtly broach the topic of cultural differences with students. Still, as referred to earlier,
appropriate facilitation based on experience and training, adequate preparation time, as
well as proper coordination with international visitors to the classroom are vital to the
success of these learning endeavours.
Recently, in Japan, the pendulum has once again swung in the opposite direction.
Widespread media attention over the so-called decline of academic standards among
Japanese youth has sparked a heated debate over the use of class time for integrated
studies. Teachers at the secondary school level, in particular, are under enormous renewed
pressure to adequately prepare students for the ever-present university entrance
examinations (Bjork & Tsuneyoshi, 2005). As a result of these pressures, and in light of
teachers' own insecurities regarding their ability to prepare and deliver integrated study
lessons, a Monbukagakusho survey has reported that a majority of junior high school
teachers now believe that integrated studies should be eliminated from the curriculum
(Kariya, 2005).
These trends will almost certainly see a reduction in class hours for integrated studies,
and EIU in the near future. Nevertheless, it is hoped that Japanese schools that maintain
EIU in its various forms will make efforts toward delivering meaningful lesson plans and
find appropriate methods to evaluate learning outcomes. Such methods may include
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88
Citizenship, Social and Economics Education
collecting feedback and comments from EIU participants, including students and
international visitors to the classroom. International visitors, who in general have been
relatively underutilized in EIU, are rarely asked for feedback or comments on their
participation in EIU lessons. Further research should include evaluations from all
participants as a way of measuring the impacts and outcomes of EIU.
In the beginning of the 21st century, our challenge as educators and global citizens is
to make efforts toward enhancing our international perspectives while engaging in the
process of updating our knowledge and skills for living in a rapidly changing world. An
examination of the Japanese approach for EIU in the period for integrated study has
potential implications for school teachers, policy-makers and curriculum developers of
the world to learn from their Japanese counterparts. These research findings suggest
that integrating EIU within an interdisciplinary curriculum, if done appropriately and
effectively, could have potential applications leading to students' development of
knowledge, attitudes and behaviour that reflect a more international and ethnorelativistic
perspective.
Correspondence
Any correspondence should be directed to Mohammad Reza Sarkar Arani (E-mail:
allameh2001@yahoo.com), School of Psychology and Education, Allameh Tabatabai
University, P.O. Box: 15815/3487, Olympic Village, Tehran, Iran
Note
1. Special activities (tokubetsu katsudo), which include homeroom activities, school events
etc., are part of the Japanese school curriculum and are not considered extracurricular,
as they would be in schools in many other countries.
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