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The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future
Abstract
Describes the ecology of forests, their geographical variation, diversity, and the complexity of environmental interactions. This is followed by a discussion of the impacts of modern man, the demand for timber products, the ecological impact of commercial logging, fuelwood gathering, and cattle raising. Attempts an estimate of the extent of deforestation on a regional basis, and illustrates the problem by using satellite photographs. Then looks at the services provided by rainforests, including new food resources, the control of pest outbreaks, as pharmaceutical components, renewable biomass energy resources, and as forest industrial complexes providing fibre, cane, and oils etc. The environmental services provided are detailed, including the regulation of water resources, control of soil erosion, and climatic buffering. Finally looks at what can be done to protect forests and exploit them on a renewable basis. -R.Land
... The roots of trees grow deeper in the soil than arable crops. These roots absorb water at a deeper soil depth which is transpired to the atmosphere, forming clouds that in turn release water in the form of rainfall [24]. Tree crops are often used in shelterbelts, particularly in arid regions to minimize wind speed, and combat desert encroachment. ...
... The litter and humus layers that accumulate in the long run absorb moisture and further modulate the infiltration rate of the underlying soil. The heavy canopy of plantations is effective in maintaining ideal humidity and microclimate in the immediate and adjoining environments, while the dense root volume explores the soil for nutrients and water thereby minimizing leaching and runoff losses; thus, reducing pollution of underground and surface water [24]. The roots of trees are estimated to be 1.5-3 times stronger than the roots of grassy plants of the same diameter, and a tree possesses thousands of leaves and hundreds of kilometers of roots with hundreds of thousands of root tips; all contributing to the binding action on soil particles. ...
... Part of the tree biomass is eaten by various soil animals (including insects and earthworms), and their excreta return nutrients to the soil. In the soil, a huge number of soil microorganisms are involved in the decomposition of organic materials which makes nutrients available to plant roots [24]. ...
The study was carried out in order to assess the perception of Farmers on
Trees outside Forest (Trees on Farmlands) in Gaya Local Government Area of Kano
State. Stratified random sampling was used, the study area was partitioned in to eleven
wards from which three wards were selected at random; selection of villages was done
proportionally from the selected wards. One hundred and twenty (120) questionnaires
were administered to farmers. Data collection was done through direct contact with
farmers. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analyzing the data. Charts,
frequency distribution and percentages were used to preset demographic information
while chi-square test of association was used to check relationship between socioeconomic
characteristics and tree planting on farm lands. The results obtained on
demography showed that, majority of the respondents fall between 48-58 years, about
91% are male and 9% are female, 94% are farmers and 92% are married. Chi-square
result revealed no significant association between demography and Trees outside forest
except with age and household size which showed significant relationship. (Older people
plant more trees on the farmlands compare to the younger ones and also large household
plant more trees than the smaller household).
... The practices were known for economically and energetically efficient on comparing to the other form of agriculture (terrace or valley cultivation) in heavy rainfall areas of the hill tracts (Ramakrishnan et al., 1992) [77] . Jhum is also is well known for contributing towards the loss of forest (deforestation and degradation) (Kleinman et al., 1995;Myers et al., 1992) [78][79] . In jhum cultivation practices in Nagaland it has found out that it uses common salth in upland planted rice for the control of broad leaf weeds as post-emergence spray. ...
... The practices were known for economically and energetically efficient on comparing to the other form of agriculture (terrace or valley cultivation) in heavy rainfall areas of the hill tracts (Ramakrishnan et al., 1992) [77] . Jhum is also is well known for contributing towards the loss of forest (deforestation and degradation) (Kleinman et al., 1995;Myers et al., 1992) [78][79] . In jhum cultivation practices in Nagaland it has found out that it uses common salth in upland planted rice for the control of broad leaf weeds as post-emergence spray. ...
Soil health observation tends to focus more in biological components of the soil. In agro-ecosystem soil organic matter played an important role in enhancing the soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Climatic factors and environmental stress like tillage affects the soil health and soil quality of different land use system, it has also has been found out that the role of chemical fertilizers results major impacts on soil health and soil quality and the soil organic matter are used for resolving the soil condition. However, the role of agroforestry, integrated nutrient management system enhances the soil and maintained its sustainability. Farming practices like organic farming also helps in improving the soil condition improving the activities, diversity, and abundance of the microorganisms comparing to the conventional farming system and also helps in achieving a sustainable agriculture. This review has focus on achieving the good soil health and soil quality of different land use system and to achieve a sustainable agriculture.
... The false Colour composite images were subjected to supervised classification which was based on ground-based information. Maximum likelihood was adopted to define areas of Landsat images that represented thematic classes as determined by maximal spectral heterogeneity according to [16]. Maximum likelihood algorithm considers the average characteristics of the spectral signature of each category and the covariance among all categories, thus allowing for precise discrimination of categories. ...
... Forest land was on the decrease while built ups and grass lands were on the increase. This is in line with other findings of [16] and [23] and [30]. These outrageous changes in the origin all and cover in the study area could be linked to human population, unsustainable human activities in the study area as well as unsustainable environmental management practices and weak environmental policies. ...
... The false Colour composite images were subjected to supervised classification which was based on ground-based information. Maximum likelihood was adopted to define areas of Landsat images that represented thematic classes as determined by maximal spectral heterogeneity according to [16]. Maximum likelihood algorithm considers the average characteristics of the spectral signature of each category and the covariance among all categories, thus allowing for precise discrimination of categories. ...
... Forest land was on the decrease while built ups and grass lands were on the increase. This is in line with other findings of [16] and [23] and [30]. These outrageous changes in the origin all and cover in the study area could be linked to human population, unsustainable human activities in the study area as well as unsustainable environmental management practices and weak environmental policies. ...
This research is focused on a spatial analysis of a reserved forest deforestation over a period of time using a GIS approach in Ohaji Egbema Local Government Area Imo state, Nigeria. It aimed at assessing and analyze deforestation in Ohaji Egbema forest reserve and examined the possible effects of deforestation on the forest environment. The assessment concentrated on when and where have forestlands changed in the reserved forest programmed within the period of 1984-2040 forecast. The key objectives were to assess the impact of land use and land cover changes on forest cover for the past 36 years, while sub objectives were dedicated to achieve in mapping out different land cover in Ohaji Egbema forest reserve, to assess land cover changes in the forest reserve susceptible to long term degradation from 1984 to 2020 of about 20 years. To evaluate forest loss in the area for the past 36years, and to predict the state of the land cover (forest) for the next 20 years (2040). Primary and secondary data employed using (200 ground truth points) were systematically collected from four different LULC classes in the study area using geographical positioning system (GPS), the secondary data (Satellite Landsat Imageries of 1984, 2002 and 2020) of the study area was acquired. The imageries were processed, enhanced and classified into four LULC classes using supervised classification in Idrisi and ArcGis software Ground truth points were utilized to assess the accuracy of the classifications. The data collected was analyzed in tables and figures and represented with a bar chart and pie chart graphs. Results showed that forest land, built up, grassland and water body were the four LULC classified in the study area. Kappa coefficient values of 91%, 85% and 92% for 1984, 2002 and 2020 respectively shows the accuracy of the classifications. Classifying the land uses into built-up and forest lands revealed that the built-up lands constantly rose while the forest lands kept dropping. The built-up lands increased by 49.30% between 1984 and 2000, 50.00% between 2002 and 2020 and 28.40% between 2020 and 2040 at the expense of the forest portion of the area which fell by 33.88% between 1984 and 2000,46.45% between 2002 and 2020, and 49.22% between 2020 and 2040. Increase in population, per capita income, and land use activities and by extension urban expansion were found to be the major factors causing deforestation in the forest reserve, it is likely that in the nearest future the remaining forest lands would be gradually wiped out and consequently the environmental crisis would be aggravated. Based on the findings of the study, there is need to urgently limit and control the high rate of deforestation going on in Ohaji Egbema forest reserve and embark on tree replanting campaigns without delay. There is need and recommended that a higher quality satellite imagery that offers up to 4m resolution should be used and a forest relic analysis should be conducted.
... The false Colour composite images were subjected to supervised classification which was based on ground-based information. Maximum likelihood was adopted to define areas of Landsat images that represented thematic classes as determined by maximal spectral heterogeneity according to [16]. Maximum likelihood algorithm considers the average characteristics of the spectral signature of each category and the covariance among all categories, thus allowing for precise discrimination of categories. ...
... Forest land was on the decrease while built ups and grass lands were on the increase. This is in line with other findings of [16] and [23] and [30]. These outrageous changes in the origin all and cover in the study area could be linked to human population, unsustainable human activities in the study area as well as unsustainable environmental management practices and weak environmental policies. ...
... These immigrant farmers are sometimes referred to as "shifted cultivators" and are perceived as practicing a less sustainable form of slash-and-burn (Myers 1992). In their practice, fire is typically used as an affordable land-clearing mechanism in the absence of a managed agroecological system, without specific cultural or religious significance, and independent of customary institutions. ...
... Importantly, fire policies are heavily shaped by certain stereotypes and narratives about these diverse local and Indigenous communities (Myers 1992). Slash-and-burn conducted by Indigenous communities is often perceived in the context of rotating cultivation and as an integral part of their culture and spiritual way of life in which they have a long-term interest. ...
Traditional slash-and-burn as a way of clearing land for farming is allowed and exempted from being a criminal offense in Indonesia. However, this exemption should not be interpreted to mean that all traditional slash-and-burn practices are sustainable. Changes in habitat and sociocultural and economic conditions can render this once sustainable practice unsuitable in certain contexts and environments. This discussion on environmental harm from traditional slash-and-burn practices is not intended to call for a total ban of the practice nor does it suggest aggressive criminal law enforcement is required. This discussion is intended to clarify which practices we should protect and which ones should be addressed through various approaches to minimize harm. Such approaches should consider the local Indigenous communities as victims of ecological discrimination rather than perpetrators of environmental harm.
... The "safe opertating zones" for these planetary boundaries are limits that, if crossed, have the potential to have negative or even catastrophic effects on the functioning of global systems (Rockström et al. 2009 . Tropical forests are the most ecologically complex of the earth's terrestrial habitats and maintain over half of the known species (Myers 1984;Wright 2005). Around 68,000km 2 of tropical forests are estimated to be cleared annually with this figure increasing by more than 2,000km 2 /year since 2013 . ...
... Habitat loss and fragmentation are two of the biggest threats to global biodiversity, particularly in tropical forests that are home to half of the world's known species (Myers 1984;Laurance 1999;Wright 2005). Habitat fragmentation is a landscape scale process including both the loss of habitat and the breaking up of large areas of habitat into smaller pieces Fahrig 2003). ...
Habitat loss is the number one threat to terrestrial mammalian species. Paraguay is heavily reliant on industrial agriculture. Its Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest (BAAPA) had one of the world’s highest deforestation rates. This study examined the ecology of hooded capuchins at two sites; comparing dietary and sleeping site preferences and estimated habitat use, developing species distribution models, underpinned by LANDSAT 8 data.
Results show the capuchin is an adaptable, forest obligate, requiring some level of forest cover. Capuchins don’t use degraded forest homogenously, preferring older growth areas, larger trees with more canopy connections for sleeping in degraded areas, and areas with higher soil and canopy moisture – a measure of forest maturity. They used the forest more uniformly at the more pristine site, frequently exploiting pine plantations for food and sleeping. The probability of capuchins occupying any area decreased to <50% when <33% of the forest remained. Between 2000-2019, across its full range, 25% of highly suitable forest was lost. Number of suitability fragments increased, as did the distance between highly suitable fragments. The Extent of Occurrence (EOO), estimated from suitable habitat availability (IUCN Red List Criterion B), matches expectation for ‘Near Threatened’. In Paraguay 58.4% of highly suitable forest was lost over 2000-2019 leaving an EOO of 9,368km2. Capuchins should be considered ‘Vulnerable’ in Paraguay given the high fragmentation of habitat, large distance between fragments, small amount of suitable forest remaining, and extreme, rapid habitat loss.
The capuchin is suitable as a flagship and umbrella species for BAAPA conservation and restoration. Use of the pine plantation highlights opportunity for reforestation programs that can benefit local economies, creating corridors between forest fragments using native trees, mixed with shade-grown yerba mate bordered by pine plantations. Landowners would profit from the pine timber/yerba mate and wildlife would benefit from increased forest connectivity.
... Clearly defining deforestation agents and causal factors is crucial in understanding the key determining factors of deforestation. These deforestation agents include firewood collectors, loggers, ranchers, commercial farmers, slash and burn agriculturists, infrastructure developers, and all others who clear the forest for one purpose or the other [7][8][9]. One major driver of deforestation in SSA today is agricultural expansion. ...
... Conversely, Edo South is rated to have a large field attributed to deforestation due to the exportation of logs, timber, and other agricultural produce from this district to the neighboring countries and other parts of Nigeria. This finding agrees with the study of Anonymous [7]; Myers [8]. Also, our bootstrap analysis on agricultural practices such as burning and slashing revealed significant deforestation in both small and large field sizes. ...
Deforestation creates imbalances in weather patterns, making the weather drier and hotter, consequently leading to increased drought and desertification, coastal flooding, crop failures, and dislodging major vegetation regimes. The study evaluates the socio-economic impacts of deforestation in Edo State. The study utilized ArcGis digitizing tool to determine the tree population and downscale the spatial datasets using defined boundary conditions. Signal 2.0 was used to establish the relationship of linearity between the forest and economic loss over the region using R-square. Results revealed that as the rate of deforestation in Edo state rose from 4100ha in the year 1990 to 14100ha in 2016, there was also a gradual increase in economic loss from 0.7 to 10.9 billion nairas in 2016. It was also observed that the relationship of linearity between deforestation and economic loss in Edo State shows a strong relationship at an R-square of 0.97. Therefore, there is an urgent need to take action towards ameliorating new Climate Change CC problems by exploring and protecting the local values of forests in order to improve livelihood sustainability. Lowering CO2 emissions is a central global focus through the International Climate Change Policy. About a 5th of emissions globally are caused primarily by deforestation. Reducing CO2 emissions is highly dependent on the reduction of forest loss which can also contribute significantly to the low-cost mitigation portfolio.
... La biodiversidad que actualmente observamos en el planeta es el resultado de casi 3500 millones de años de evolución. Los bosques tropicales tienen la mayor biodiversidad entre todos los ecosistemas del mundo, con hasta dos tercios de todas las especies del planeta habitando allí (Whitmore, 1998;Myers, 1984;Myers et al., 2000). La Amazonía es el bosque tropical más grande del planeta, con aproximadamente 5,8 millones de km 2 , y mantiene una de las comunidades con mayor biodiversidad para flora y fauna (Lynch, 1979;Gentry, 1982;Salati y Vose, 1984;Myers, 1984;Whitmore, 1996;Tuomisto et al., 1995;Dirzo y Raven, 2003;Soares-Filho et al., 2006). ...
... Los bosques tropicales tienen la mayor biodiversidad entre todos los ecosistemas del mundo, con hasta dos tercios de todas las especies del planeta habitando allí (Whitmore, 1998;Myers, 1984;Myers et al., 2000). La Amazonía es el bosque tropical más grande del planeta, con aproximadamente 5,8 millones de km 2 , y mantiene una de las comunidades con mayor biodiversidad para flora y fauna (Lynch, 1979;Gentry, 1982;Salati y Vose, 1984;Myers, 1984;Whitmore, 1996;Tuomisto et al., 1995;Dirzo y Raven, 2003;Soares-Filho et al., 2006). La ecorregión de Napo es una de las áreas más biodiversas de la Amazonía (Myers, 1988;Myers et al., 2000;Mittermeier et al., 1998;Olson y Dinerstein, 1998). ...
... 3 2 Ao longo do período 1978-1988, a floresta foi perdida a uma taxa média de 20,4 X 10 km /ano (incluindo inundação por hidrelétricas); a taxa diminuiu (começando em 1987) até um ponto baixo alcançado em 1990-1991; aumentou no período 1992-1994, seguido por um pulo para 3 2 29,1 X 10 km /ano em 1995, depois caiu até 1997, seguido por um novo aumento até 2000 e uma pequena diminuição em 2001 . O desmatamento tem impactos ambientais severos, inclusive perda de biodiversidade (Myers, 1992), exposição do solo à erosão (por exemplo, Barbosa & Fearnside, 2000), perda das funções da floresta na ciclagem d'água e armazenamento do carbono . As queimadas também afetam a formação de nuvens e a química da atmosfera de diversas maneiras, além do efeito estufa. ...
... A manutenção da biodiversidade gera benefícios locais diretos, tais como o fornecimento de produtos florestais não-madeireiros (Fearnside, 1989b;Grimes et al., 1994;Hecht, 1992a;Peters et al., 1989;Pimentel et al., 1997a;Richards, 1993;Vásquez & Gentry, 1989;Whitehead & Godoy, 1991). Benefícios locais também advêm do estoque de material genético de plantas e animais, necessário para dar um grau de adaptabilidade ao manejo florestal e aos sistemas agrícolas que sacrificam a biodiversidade em áreas desprotegidas vizinhas (Myers, 1989(Myers, , 1992Oldfield, 1981). ...
Fearnside, P.M. (ed.) 2009 [2ª Ed.] 2003 [1a Ed.]. A Floresta Amazônica nas Mudanças Globais. Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA, Manaus, AM. 134 pp. (ISBN 85 211 0019-1).
... Habitat loss and fragmentation are two of the biggest threats to global biodiversity, particularly in tropical forests that are home to half of the world's known species (Dirzo & Raven, 2003;Laurance, 1999;Myers, 1984;Wright, 2005). Habitat fragmentation is a landscape scale process, including both the loss of habitat and the breaking up of large areas of habitat into smaller pieces (Fahrig, 2003;Wilcove et al., 1986). ...
Habitat loss and fragmentation, particularly because of agrarian and urban expansions, are threatening biodiversity worldwide. Paraguay is predicted to lose all its primary moist forests by 2028. The most endangered habitat in Paraguay is the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest (BAAPA), which has been decimated by industrial agriculture in the past 60 years. The hooded capuchin (Sapajus cay) is the best-known Paraguayan primate and the only species mostly restricted to the remaining BAAPA. We used local (defined as people living in Paraguay) knowledge about the known presence of the species in a habitat fragment to assess whether species’ presence was associated with forest cover in fragments by using a binomial general linear model (GLM). Using the results of the GLM, we then assessed how forest cover changed through the hooded capuchin range and its predicted range in Paraguay using Global ForestWatch forest cover prediction for 2000 to 2019. The GLM showed that the presence of hooded capuchins required predominance of forest cover with the monkey being 80% likely to be present for 56% cover and 90% for 70% cover. The capuchin has lost 23% of highly suitable habitat across its whole range and 58% in Paraguay. Suitable habitat for hooded capuchin monkeys is, therefore, decreasing across the full extent of the species. In Paraguay, the remaining habitat is being fragmented and degraded and distance between fragments is increasing. Because the situation in Paraguay is critical, we recommend that the capuchin is classified as Vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List at a national level under criterion B1, b(i), b(ii), and b(iii). Predictions across the species range warrant at least a classification of Near Threatened for the species. These results demonstrate that the conservation situation faced by a primate species can differ greatly depending on local, national, and range wide political and social situations. Therefore, we recommend that national assessments are performed for species that are found in multiple countries in order to gain a true picture of threats a species faces.
... In line with the findings highlighted in the foregoing paragraphs, several authors such as Hecht and Cockburn (1989), Myers (1984), Office of Technology Assessment (1984), Rippetto andGillis (1988), National Research Council (1993) and Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) argued that forest loss and degradation are driven by a combination of economic, political and institutional factors. Observed threats to structural characteristics of the vegetation cover of the forest reserve include farming, grazing, illegal logging, bush meat hunting, bush burning, collection of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) and encroachment of settlements. ...
... Se reconoce que el sector ecot6nico de k>s A~ Y la Amazonia es uno de los sitios de mayor riqueza de es pec~ de lo cuenca a maz6nica (Myers, 1984; Hemóndez-<:amacho et al, 2000). Sin embargo, los m últiples procesos que acompañan la colonización de la selva amazónico alteron los hóbitat y ecosfstemos allí presentes. ...
Se realizó un análisis para evaluar el estado de la calidad de las aguas, basados en datos obtenidos con macroinvertebrados de 75 ríos o arroyos y 16 lagunas de los Departamentos de Caquetá, Putumayo y Cauca en el tramo andino-amazónico colombiano. A través de análisis multivariados se comparan dos métodos tradicionales en el uso de estos organismos como indicadores de calidad ambiental. Los índices biológicos BMWP y el EPT mostraron ser buenos descriptores de la calidad ambiental para ríos y arroyos, no así para lagunas y otros sistemas lénticos.
... Jhum is considered to be one of the major factors of deforestation and forest degradation [56,57]. But deforestation implies long-term (>10 years) or permanent loss of forest cover [58]. ...
The knowledge behind the culture and beliefs of indigenous community needs to be harnessed and should be used to complement the modern technologies and policies for better and sustainable use of biological resources and increase resilience of the sector associated. The main objective of the current research was to study Jhum (Traditional Shifting Cultivation System) and the cycles and culture associated with it. The study was done in northeast Himalayan region of India and phenomenological approach was used. The research reveals that Jhum is the component of traditional agro-ecosystem encompassing diverse set of knowledge and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional life-styles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources for their livelihood. The cycle associated with the system reflects the synergy of practices with the natural phenomenon and indicators. Contrary to common modern belief, Jhum is carbon sink, maintain soil health, preserve biological diversity and sustain local climate. Forest clearing during Jhum is not deforestation but forest modification allowing forest regrowth during sufficiently long fallow. Fundamentally, Jhum as a system is an integrated approach to establish agro-ecosystem in the difficult terrains of tropical hill regions that involve forest, soil, biodiversity and livestock management through their culture, tradition and rituals that coevolved with associated ecosystem. Instead of being threat to climate or environment, the system can provide deeper insight into the many different aspects of sustainable and climate resilient development; and the interrelated role of local peoples and their cultures.
... Land use/land cover analysis is vital for agricultural planning, urbanization and environmental studies 8,9,11,13,21,22 and this detail helps to understand the relevance between cropland, forestland, settlement etc. In modern times, urbanization and demographic development have increased land use and thereby affecting the land cover 17 . The assessment of the global land use and land cover change and environmental monitoring can be derived using remote sensing data and GIS because of its spatial and temporal coverage 2,10,16 . ...
The land use exercises at last influence the land cover briefly as well as spatially. The primary consideration liable for the adjustment in land cover is to satisfy the developing requests of expanding populace through horticultural increase for nourishment and clearing of typical land covers like the forests and sparsely inhabited regions for settlement and business activities. The adjustment in land cover additionally upsets the other characteristic parts like soil ripeness, soil disintegration, environment, biodiversity, air quality and water system of the upset area. Remote sensing and GIS have been deployed to examine the changes in land use and land cover of the zone at spatial and transient scales. In the present study, the NDVI-based grouping explored a significant change in land use- land cover between 2009 and 2016. A significant change has been found in the forest cover area where around (3.34%) of the forest was occupied between 2009 and 2016. A comparison between the land use/land cover and landslide hazard zones was carried out which indicated the excessive anthropogenic activities (of construction and mechanized agriculture) as identified by built-up land and crop-land by NDVI studies need to be monitored and planned to maintain the safety, stability and popularity of this precious and geo-climatically strategic region.
... Careful use of NTFPs can have considerable potential for the communities and for the forest, too. The economic benefits from the genetic resources of the forest have also been left out of the cost-benefit analyses of development projects affecting rainforest areas although the extinction of a single plant species with genes that could be used in an agricultural crop may well represent a loss of billions of dollars (Myers, 1985;Wilson, 1988). In real sense the value of NTFPs often far exceeds the value of timber in montane rainforests. ...
... Bender 2001). This is the case in the Amazon, where smallholders are held responsible by environmentalists for deforestation (e.g., Myers 1984) and caboclo populations are depicted as opportunistic, economically motivated, and somehow detached or displaced from the environment (e.g., Browder 1992;Redford and Sanderson 2000). 15 The ribeirinhos of the Iriri, however, have a deep sense of place that has developed in spite of the economic and political fluctuations they have experienced over decades. ...
... Some previous investigations elsewhere in the tropics have found that PAs offered limited protection. For example, 61% of their protected evergreen forests in Africa did not have intrinsic protection (Pfeifer et al., 2012); and some PAs were excluded "on paper" because of their ineffectiveness (Myers, 1992;Uphoff and Langholz, 1998). Struhsaker et al. (2005) found despite numerous problems in African PAs, all tended to preserve biodiversity better than other land uses. ...
As forest loss is accelerating in tropical mountains globally, protected areas (PAs) are seen as bastions to protect sensitive ecosystems, preserve biodiversity, and safeguard headwater catchments from degradation. However, the effectiveness of PAs in preventing forest conversion has rarely been determined. Complicating the issue is that many PAs are inhabited to some extent by long-standing residents, causing illegal logging that is commonly reported. To assess the effectiveness of PAs in preserving forests, as well as investigate the drivers of forest loss in/near PAs, we compare forest loss rates inside and outside PAs before and after their establishment in a tropical mountain region (northern Thailand, the epicenter of mainland Southeast Asia, including 84 PAs). Over the 17-year period from 2000 to 2016, we found that the percentage of forest loss was lower within the PAs than outside (1.69% versus 4.94%). Mean annual forest loss in the PAs was 20% of that in unprotected area. Total forest loss inside PAs included 888.12 km² (1.93%) in national parks, 325.18 km² (1.34%) in wildlife sanctuaries/conservation areas and 16.37 km² (0.65%) in no hunting areas. Forest loss also tended to be highest along boundaries within a 300-m buffer both inside and outside the PAs. Using gradient boosting decision trees, we determined that accessibility variables (elevation, and distance to road) and population were key drivers associated with forest loss in PAs. Further, we found a two-year lagged correlation between forest loss in PAs and international maize price (R² = 0.73, p < 0.001), indicating the sensitivity of forest loss in some locations to commodity agriculture trends. Finally, we acknowledge the difficulty of managing forest loss in PAs because of the large populations of people living within the boundaries who rely on forest products to support their livelihoods, as well as difficulties in enforcing illegal logging laws.
... Elle peut conduire à une fragmentation des habitats forestiers en donnant des lambeaux de forêt (Harris, 1984 ;Saunders et al., 1991). Ce phénomène s'observe partout dans le monde, surtout dans les forêts tropicales (Myers, 1984 ;Vallan, 1999). ...
Thirty bird species of the PN Ranomafana region, restricted to forest habitats, are undergoing a severe decline as a result of a deforestation associated with slash-and-bum agriculture. This unrelenting destruction of forest habitat further aggravates an already precarious situation for many endemic forest bird species.
Point counts and direct observations were used to study the effects of forest fragmentation. The specific composition of birds in each of six forest fragments (8.9-0.45 ha), their relative abundance, and their level of endemism are analysed and compared with those of the control site (13,740 ha).
The results show that the number of bird species decline in direct relation to the size of each forest block. Terrestrial and understory bird species, as well as higher taxonomic levels, are the most sensitive to habitat fragmentation.
... Kunkel (1984), listed 12,500 species with food potential. Myers (1984) states that the man would have used 7,000 species. Wilson (1988) indicates 75,000 edible plants, many of which are superior to current crops. ...
... Both processes are associated with the massive loss of biological diversity (Fuller 2006). Anthropic activities such as deforestation, firewood extraction, agricultural activities, among others, are serious threats to forest areas, due to the modification or elimination of physical, chemical, and biological processes (Norman 1984;Poyatos et al. 2003). ...
The use of remote sensing in natural resource management is an easily accessible input for obtaining detailed information on the ground and landscape. There is a wide range of procedures to analyze the forest canopy through satellite images. The purpose of this work is to obtain a map of forest opening with remote sensing by relating several vegetation indices, Kauth-Thomas transformation and texture filters, to a Landsat 8OLI image. A factor analysis was made to evaluate the contribution of these variable to identify the opening of the forest cover, yielding a σ2 = 76%. The results show that the Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (MSAVI), Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI), and brightness factor have the best correlation (0.225–0.216 component coefficient). The resulting model was reclassified into five categories of forest opening and associated with land use data from the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI-México). Thus, 95% of human settlements have a canopy opening between medium and very high, the crops areas 72%, and the low deciduous forest with secondary shrub vegetation 100% of the opening. Coniferous and mixed forests have a low to very low canopy opening 46% and 55%, respectively of their surface. The forests with secondary vegetation, both shrub and arboreal, present greater openness than the same forests in the primary state. Verification of the spatial representation data of canopy opening was made by comparing 94 hemispheric photographs with 94 sites located in open areas obtaining an r = 0.57. This work offers a simple and straightforward methodology, easily replicable in different types of vegetation using free satellite imagery. Hence, it is a helpful tool for decision-makers when considering the general status of conservation of forest systems and their spatial distribution.
... Kunkel (1984), listed 12,500 species with food potential. Myers (1984) states that the man would have used 7,000 species. Wilson (1988) indicates 75,000 edible plants, many of which are superior to current crops. ...
... Kunkel (1984), listed 12,500 species with food potential. Myers (1984) states that the man would have used 7,000 species. Wilson (1988) indicates 75,000 edible plants, many of which are superior to current crops. ...
... In addition, the greenhouse effect increases with deforestation (Angelsen & Kaimowitz, 1999). Myers says that half of all tropical forests on earth still exist (Myers, 1992). However, this situation is alarming. ...
... In addition, the greenhouse effect increases with deforestation (Angelsen & Kaimowitz, 1999). Myers says that half of all tropical forests on earth still exist (Myers, 1992). However, this situation is alarming. ...
... Los bosques tropicales son los más antiguos, diversos y ecológicamente complejos (Whitmore, 1997). Sostienen probablemente más de la mitad de todas las formas de vida del planeta (Myers, 1984) y brindan servicios ambientales como la captación de agua, el mantenimiento del suelo, la fijación de CO2; además de contener innumerables especies con valor real o potencial. Según la clasificación de Hernandez (1992), el área objeto del presente estudio pertenece a la provincia de la Orinoquia, distrito biogeográfico "Piedemonte Meta". ...
... Globalisation has increased its speed and has widened its scope in the case of Covid-19. Man has been called as "incipient planet managers" by Norman Myers, in his book titled Gaia: An Atlas of Planet Management (Myers 1992). Bill Mckibben (1989) observed that Human beings are on the verge of destroying a natural domain untouched or unmanipulated by human activity for the first time. ...
SUMMARY
When scientists are working to prolong life and achieving immortality; Human beings are facing an existential threat due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Scholars are
trying to understand whether this crisis has been created to fulfil a mandate of
establishing a global surveillance system to monitor each soul on earth, and
thus reshape the world order. Establishment of such a global surveillance system to actualise the dream of a one-world government will pose an existential crisis to the prevalent political and economic world order. Thus, this crisis demands a holistic analysis of epidemics or pandemics caused by microbes. The author of this paper has examined the plagues from a historical, descriptive and comparative method to get an in-depth knowledge of outbreaks and their implications for the world political order.
KEYWORDS: Covid-19 Plague, New World Order, Political Decay, Global Surveillance
System, Liberal Political Order
... Today less than 1 % of known species are used for living. According to Myers (1984), people have utilized about 7,000 plants species for food. There are, however, at least another 75,000 species that can be used; several being superior to the common crop species, and many others are potential medicinal species. ...
... It is a subclass of tropical forest distributed around the world, particularly near the equator . Myers (1992) defined tropical rain forest as "evergreen or partly evergreen forest, that is, some trees may be deciduous, grown in areas receiving not less than 100 mm of precipitations, in any month for two out of three years, with mean annual temperatures of more than 24 C." These forests usually occur at altitudes below 1,300 m and generally in Southeast Asia up to only 750 m and there are several more or less distinctive forest strata (Bashar 2013). ...
... Esta idea ha sido particularmente respaldada por el estudio de los Yanomamo, quienes no obstante estar poco deculturados, una vez adquieren nuevas tecnologías como el machete, las usan para derribar árboles cuyos frutos anteriormente eran bajados sin ocasionar daño a la planta (Colchester 1981). También se atribuye a las nuevas tecnologías el fuerte incremento de la población durante los últimos 125 años (Chagnon 1992:81), hecho que aumenta las posibilidades de deterioro ambiental de acuerdo con la tecnología agrícola tumba y quema empleada por estas comunidades (Geertz 1963, Myers 1992. ...
Durante la última década, las políticas gubernamentales para preservar la selva tropical amazónica han sido fuertemente influenciadas por los sistemas filosóficos de los nativos americanos. Anticuadas y condenadas al olvido, estas visiones del mundo son la base para emitir una imagen de los indios como hábiles conservadores. Los responsables políticos no han considerado el impacto de las economías de mercado en las culturas amazónicas nativas. Desarrolladas bajo falsas suposiciones, estas políticas se han convertido en dispositivos de ahorro de tiempo que obvian la necesidad de estudios empíricos de las economías nativas y las estrategias de subsistencia. A largo plazo son perjudiciales para los indios, así como para la preservación de la selva.
... Tropical deforestation has been an item on the agenda of First World environmentalists for a long time (e.g., Myers, 1984). Rooted initially almost wholly in concern about wildlife and biological diversity, the movement to save the world's tropical forests broadened as the understanding of the phenomenon became more sophisticated in terms of the social context of forest use and the political economy of deforestation. ...
... These regressive changes are attributed to deforestation for the benefit of oil facilities and infrastructures in place. These regressions phenomenon is also observed in project area of Amazon where rate of deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon region evaluated to be 4%, which corresponds to 3000 km/year of forest lost [22]. Moreover, agricultural areas are recording increase of 3.11% in annual average rate of spatial expansion following the development of new farming fields due to its economic added value to farmers with demographic expansion around oil companies. ...
Abstract
The objective of this study is to compare various changes of ecological parameters within time period prior petroleum activities and after facilities establishment in Bongor basin. Analysis of landsat 7 images from March 24 to April 5, 2000 and that of landsat 8 from February 13, 2015, before and after oil operations respectively, made it possible to extract four biophysical indices, namely: brightness index of soil, moisture index, greenness index and vegetation index. Maps of land use, hydrology and pedology were established from the analysis of multispectral parameters variations. Significant variations between two study periods were then evaluated to be either increasing, declining or stable over the entire Bongor basin and in the areas of the basin under operations. It appears that, shrub savanna has declined by 15.75% over the entire Bongor basin and by 18.90% in the areas of oil operations in Bongor basin. Floodplain and the water body have also declined by 1.59% and 0.0007% respectively over the whole Bongor basin and loss of paddy field. Agricultural area has increased by 15.15% in Bongor basin and by 14.40% in the operations area of Bongor basin, with industrial area occupying 4.49% and the expansion of urbanized area of 0.01%. Silting up of flood zone over the entire Bongor basin has increased by 0.35%. Areas under oil operations, illustrate impacts of activities on soil, trees and groundwater.
Keywords:
Oil Facilities, Impacts, Basin, Bongor, Chad
... Conservationists have declared for decades that deforestation is a high priority threat for global wildlife (Myers, 1984). Deforestation is an increasingly significant threat to ecosystems as human population expands, and is particularly acute in East Africa, where current human population growth is 2.72% (World Population Prospects, 2015). ...
We investigated the hypothesis that ostracode populations are sensitive to variations in sediment discharge related to watershed differences at Lake Tanganyika. Many ostracode species are documented to be sensitive to high turbidity which increases during runoff from strong rainfall events and changes in ostracode populations can impact organisms higher in the food web. We compared surficial death assemblages of ostracodes around two sites with extensive shell beds, the highly deforested Luiche Platform area, heavily populated since the 20th Century, and the less deforested Mahale Platform area, with recent population increases, to understand the impacts of increasing sedimentation within and between sites. The study found that whereas the Mahale Platform area is less disturbed, the faunal differences between sites is not large. The data showed high species richness and abundance of ostracodes at 10–20 m depth at both sites, within shell bed zones, with no statistical difference in raw species richness between the sites. The Mahale Mountain area ostracode populations were however statistically more diverse (Shannon H) than at Luiche. We conducted a multi-response permutation procedure and found that the sites are statistically different, but with very small differences in species richness and ostracode abundance. Non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination of species assemblages shows that most samples overlap on both major axes. This study synthesized with ongoing research about shell bed communities in less disturbed regions of the lake will give insights into how conservation projects can be optimized to preserve the lake’s benthic ecosystem from the effects of deforestation.
... The global loss and degradation of forests and associated biodiversity have accelerated at an alarming pace in recent years, in spite of the fact that they have enormous environmental and economic value [1][2][3][4]. Tropical forests are the most ancient, diverse and ecologically complex of terrestrial communities [3,5,6]. Tropical forests support about two thirds of all known species and contain 65 percent of the world's 10,000 endangered species [7]. ...
Tropical forests harbor complex communities that are linked together by biotic relationships. Asian forests in particular have lost many apex predators due to habitat loss. We studied a small forest patch in northeastern Bangladesh, Satchari National Park, to determine density and diversity of nocturnal mammals and evaluate their relationships. Transects were walked from February 2015 to July 2016 and density was estimated using distance sampling. Nine species of mammals (5 arboreal and 4 ground-dwelling) were encountered. Densities of the common palm civets, Paradoxurus hermaphrodites, Bengal slow loris, Nycticebus bengalensis, were the highest (19.48 and 15.03 individuals/km2). Density of small Indian civets, large Indian civets and Indian mongoose were lower (2.31-5.55 individuals/km2). Unexpectedly, a wide range of nocturnal mammals co-existed in this forest patch, in spite of fragmentation and severe disturbance. We did not find any significant association between any of the species studied, although this could be an artifact of low sample size. Conservation in Bangladesh remains a challenge due to high human population density. Thus, strict conservation measures are needed to permit the long-term survival of these species.
... En épocas pasadas, este hecho se debió a causas naturales, pero actualmente las actividades humanas influyen en un alto porcentaje a la tasa de extinción (Louzada y De Souza, 1999). Los bosques tropicales son los más amenazados (Myers, 1984;Peacock, 1995). Esta situación obliga a realizar esfuerzos tendientes a buscar soluciones técnicas y prácticas (Fundación Natura, 1985). ...
Los resultados de crecimiento de 40 especies arbóreas tropicales de la UTEQ, ubicada en la Finca “La Represa”, Quevedo, Ecuador. Se establecieron en cuatro fases diferentes con 10 especies cada una. Cada especie fue considerada como un tratamiento y se empleó un diseño de bloques al azar con dos repeticiones. Cada parcela tiene una superficie de 225 m2 (15 x 15 m). Se midió el diámetro y la altura de los árboles en cada tratamiento. Se encontró diferencias significativas entre las especies para el diámetro, altura y volumen de los árboles. Además, se presenta el periodo de floración y fructificación de algunas especies.
... It is a subclass of tropical forest distributed around the world, particularly near the equator . Myers (1992) defined tropical rain forest as "evergreen or partly evergreen forest, that is, some trees may be deciduous, grown in areas receiving not less than 100 mm of precipitations, in any month for two out of three years, with mean annual temperatures of more than 24 C." These forests usually occur at altitudes below 1,300 m and generally in Southeast Asia up to only 750 m and there are several more or less distinctive forest strata (Bashar 2013). ...
"This report comprises two parts. Part I, the bulk of the report, assesses the relationships between nature conservation and agriculture in our globalised world, drawing from data, publications, and expertise from IUCN and beyond. Chapter 1 provides definitions and framing of ‘agriculture’, ‘nature’, and associated terms. Chapter 2 uses both synthesis of the evidence and empirical analysis to explore how agriculture affects nature. Chapter 3, conversely, explores the impacts that nature, mediated by ecosystem services and disservices, has on agriculture. Drawing from these, Chapter 4 harnesses integrated assessment modelling to examine the prospects for simultaneous achievement of global goals for both agriculture and conservation. Chapter 5 then examines a range of realistic policy scenarios currently under discussion in the agriculture and conservation sectors and beyond. Chapter 6 concludes with key messages emerging from the report. Finally, Part II documents four key indicators of nature and conservation, drawing in part from data based on IUCN standards for countries across the world."
This paper explores the indigenous hunting practices of the people of Wa in the Upper West Region of Ghana, examining their cultural significance, environmental impact, and socioeconomic implications. The study delves into the theoretical and empirical foundations of hunting in Wa, highlighting its role in maintaining moral values and social cohesion. Drawing on a comprehensive literature review, the paper analyzes the complex causes of deforestation, emphasizing the direct and indirect roles of hunting. Indigenous hunting, once central to the identity and sustenance of the Wa people, has evolved into a practice that poses significant challenges to biodiversity and environmental sustainability. The shift from subsistence hunting to commercial bushmeat trade has accelerated the depletion of wildlife, affecting both local livelihoods and ecological balance. The study also addresses the historical context of hunting among the Lobi ethnic group, whose migration and settlement in the Wa area were closely tied to hunting activities. The paper concludes by discussing the need for sustainable management of wildlife resources and the preservation of cultural heritage to ensure the long-term well-being of the Wa people and their environment.
Atividades antrópicas podem contribuir para a variação na produção de serapilheira, pois alteram a estrutura e composição florística local, afetando a quantidade e a qualidade da serapilheira produzida, tornando-se um grave problema ambiental. A partir do exposto o objetivo desse estudo foi realizar o levantamento de informações sobre o desflorestamento e avaliar a interferência deste e das atividades agropecuárias na produção da serapilheira no contexto socioambiental da Amazônia. Para o estudo foi realizado um levantamento de dados junto as seguintes bases de dados: Pubmed, Scielo, Lilacs, Science Direct, Google Scholar, tendo como temas: “impacto do desflorestamento” “atividades agropecuárias”, “produção de serapilheira”, “Amazônia”, “desflorestamento na Amazônia” “contexto socioambiental na Amazônia”. A Floresta Amazônica é caracterizada por uma enorme diversidade de ambientes, no entanto, o desflorestamento tende a reduzir a cobertura do solo, deixando os mesmos vulneráveis aos processos erosivos, demonstrando que a cobertura vegetal ou a serapilheira é fundamental para a redução desse processo além da manutenção dos recursos naturais. Conclui-se que as causas das motivações que impulsionaram o desflorestamento na Amazônia são múltiplas, com destaque para a agropecuária que exerce maior influência, sendo uma das principais responsáveis pela alteração na dinâmica da serapilheira, modificando desta forma o equilíbrio desse ecossistema.
Traditional slash-and-burn agriculture has been practiced for centuries in Southeast Asia. Our past study has identified distinctly different soil profile characteristics over a very short distance within a sloping field. In order to accurately estimate the potential of the traditional slash and burn cropping system for soil C sequestration as well as the maintenance of soil fertility, the spatial variation of soil C stock, soil nutrient status, and soil reactions were studied in Sabah, Malaysia. A triangular grid was used to conduct intensive soil sampling with an interval of about 5.8 m and a total of 71 locations. Total C (TC) stock was high with a mean of 34.9 Mg ha⁻¹ and the spatial variation was extreme with a CV of 57.3% within a field. The spatial range was also short at 14.3 m. All soil nutrients had high CVs especially for available phosphate at 90.2% and the lowest for exchangeable potassium at 44.0%. Available phosphate was the most limited major nutrient when referencing the Japanese fertilizer guidelines, and its spatial distribution was affected by soil acidity status, especially exchangeable Al. Potential improvements of the production systems can be made by the application of lime materials in locations where TC content was low. However, the introduction of any external inputs requires careful assessment of not just crop productivity but also its consequences for long-term sustainability of the system. Future studies are anticipated in order to understand the response of crop productivity by pH improvement as well as the use of fertilizers.
My chapter explains the different ways in which biodiversity contributes to the adaptation of agriculture (broad sense) production systems and landscapes to climate change impacts and group the different research and tecnologies presented in this book relate to these ways ways of adaptation mediated by biodiversity, from the genetic to the landscape level.
Factors tied to the environmental ills of the planet are explored primarily in connection with human attitudes and behavior. It would appear that some very basic aspects of our nature, at least partially founded in survival instincts, are at the root of the complications that loom darker with each passing day. The simple drive to reproduce and then to acquire sufficient resources for the next generation to do precisely the same has led to a monstrous human population and exorbitant exploitation of natural resources. Combined with our extraordinary capacity as ecosystem engineers, there seem to be no limits to our incessant occupation of more space and conversion of the landscape for our own benefit with little regard for other organisms or our own future needs. The outcome is a downward spiral of worsening conditions for ourselves as well as cataclysmic consequences for millions of other species. Although these problems have been recognized for some time, the majority of humans remain rather complacent about our highly predictable, and lamentable, pathway. Perceptions of proportional individual sacrifice versus community benefit will require serious modification if we are to successfully navigate the building storm on the horizon.KeywordsEnvironmentRisksHistorical perspectiveEthical considerationsHuman behavior
Forests are the nature's most bountiful and versatile renewable resource which is capable of providing simultaneously, a variety of benefits including environmental, economic, social, and cultural benefits and services. Among these benefits include building and protection of soil, filtering of water and securing the maximum absorption of rainfall, preserving watershed and regulating stream flow thus helping to prevent flooding and siltation of rivers and streams as well as carry out photosynthesis, the basis of all food chains and the main source of life-giving oxygen. Wood, one of the major products from the forest plays a part in more activities of the modern economy than does any other commodity. It is virtually the only renewable resource that is economically suitable for structural and architectural purposes. Wood in form of fuel forms the major source of energy in the developing countries. Forests also make diversified and valuable contributions to food security that ranges from the direct production of food items to the provision of jobs, income generation, and support to the sustainability of farming systems. Their role in human health is also very significant with plant-based medicines providing primary health care to some 75% of the world's population. Unfortunately, because we are surrounded by the synthetic materials of the modern age, we tend to forget easily our dependence on forests. This is the reason why this crucial life-support system is today under serious threat occasioned by human-induced factors and this is threatening the basis of our existence. Its conservation should therefore be a matter of priority for all.
Assessing the Impacts of Bioenergy Extraction and Human Land Use of the Biodiversity of Kakamega Tropical Rainforest, Kenya
This survey investigates the increasing importance of global public goods (GPGs) in today’s interdependent world, driven by ever-growing, cross-border externalities and public good spillovers. Novel technologies, enhanced globalization, and population increases are among the main drivers of the rise of GPGs. Key GPGs include curbing climate change, instituting universal regulatory practices, eradicating infectious diseases, preserving world peace, discovering scientific breakthroughs, and limiting financial crises. The survey presents a compact theoretical foundation for GPGs, grounded in the provision of public goods. Because countries may be contributors or noncontributors to a particular GPG, coalition formation and behavior play a role, as do strategic interactions between a contributor coalition and other countries. In the survey, recurrent themes include strategic considerations, alternative institutional arrangements, GPGs’ defining properties, new actors’ roles, and collective action concerns. The four properties of GPGs—benefit non-rivalry, benefit non-excludability, aggregator technology, and spillover range—influence the GPGs’ supply prognoses and the need for and form of provision intervention, which may affect the requisite institutional changes. Three representative case studies illustrate how theoretical insights inform policy and empirical tests. Regional public goods are shown to involve a question of subsidiarity and different actors compared to GPGs. (JEL C71, C72, D62, D70, H41, Q54)
Cambridge Core - Hydrology, Hydrogeology and Water Resources - Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics - edited by M. Bonell
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