No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Does it Make Sense to Use Scents to Enhance Brand Memory?
Abstract
Can pleasant ambient scents enhance consumer memory for branded products? If so, why? The authors examine the effects of ambient scent on recall and recognition of brands in two studies. In the first (i.e., encoding) phase of each study, subjects are asked to evaluate familiar and unfamiliar brands while viewing digital photographs of products on a computer screen; stimulus viewing times are measured covertly on the computer. Ambient scent is manipulated in the experiment room through a diffuser. In the second (i.e., retrieval) phase, conducted 24-hours later, brand recall and recognition accuracy are assessed. In both studies, ambient scent improves both recall and recognition of familiar and unfamiliar brands. This pattern emerges whether or not the scent is congruent with the product category (Study 1), and the enhancement in brand memory is due to the presence of ambient scent during encoding rather than retrieval (Study 2). Although ambient scent apparently did not alter subjects' self-assessed mood or arousal levels, it increased their attention in terms of longer stimulus viewing times. Mediation analyses suggest that the attention mechanism most likely explains why ambient scent improves brand memory.
... Odor priming is a major element in cognitive science and psychological research related to the sense of smell (De Luca & Botelho, 2020;Li et al., 2007;Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003;Wisman & Shrira, 2015). Priming is a phenomenon in which a stimulus influences higher-order cognition or behavior without conscious awareness (Bargh et al., 2010) In odor priming, an odor stimulus is used. ...
... Among the various types of priming, affective and semantic priming are especially likely to occur in odor priming. For example, Morrin and Ratneshwar (2003) influenced behavior (affective priming 1 ). Although there have been no studies applying odor priming to the arts, it has often been shown in other contexts, such as marketing and social psychology, that positive odors have a positive influence on later evaluations (Ardelet et al., 2022;Feng & Lei, 2022;Fraune et al. al., 2022;Ortegón et al., 2022). ...
... A recent meta-analysis supported the Proust phenomenon, showing that odorinduced memories are stronger than other evoked memories (Hackländer et al., 2019). For example, Morrin and Ratneshwar (2003) are known for their study showing that odor priming promotes memory performance. They conducted a two-day experiment demonstrating that odor priming during encoding, but not retrieval, had a positive effect on memory performance. ...
In cognitive science, research about mental imagery is often limited to visual, often overlooking olfactory imagery. In this study, we examined the relationship between beauty and olfactory imagery evoked by haiku. We used an odor priming commonly used in cognitive science to measure olfaction so that we could examine the effects of environmental aromas on the aesthetic experience. 44 participants were asked to evaluate 30 haikus. Half of them were exposed to a cypress aroma while the other half had no aroma exposure. The results showed that olfactory imagery during haiku appreciation positively influenced the beauty of haiku, and higher olfactory imagery ability led to a deeper immersion in the haiku. Odor priming did not affect evaluations, but it did affect gaze bias as measured by eye tracking. This is the first time to demonstrate the influence of olfactory imagery on aesthetic evaluation in the psychology of aesthetics.
... Extensive research shows that odors influence people's perceptions (Spangenberg et al., 1996), memories (Krishna et al., 2010a;Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2000), emotions (Herz, 2010), motivations (Vinitzky and Mazursky, 2011) and behavior (Herz, 2010;Krishna, 2012). Moreover, ambient scents, which are extraneous to consumers' judgmental process, can have a strong influence on their product evaluations (Bosmans, 2006) and recognition and recall for familiar and unfamiliar brands (Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003). Recently, Ardelet et al. (2022) show that the dispersion of a clean scent (e.g. ...
... All scents used in these two studies are non-chemical essential oils. The selected scents are familiar scents that have been used in prior consumer research (Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003;Vinitzky and Mazursky, 2011;Walsh et al., 2011). ...
... We examined the relationship between odor perception and consumer responses with respect to motivational differences in NFSa departure from the current literature, which examines the general effects of exposure to actual odors (Bone and Ellen, 1999;Krishna et al., 2010a;Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003). Our approach has the advantage of considering odor perception (stimuli factors) and motivational differences in NFS for the acquisition and use of olfactory information related to buying decisions (consumer factors) while also considering contextual factors (ambient scent or product scent contexts). ...
This research examines the conditions under which individuals’ olfaction is actively engaged in purchase decisions. Consequently, it introduces the concept of need for smell (NFS) to measure differential motivation for the extraction and use of odor information in buying contexts. A 10-item NFS scale was developed that consists of hedonic and utilitarian dimensions.
The scale’s dimensionality and construct validity were
examined in five studies. The moderating role of NFS, and the mediating role of emotions, in the relationship between odor perception and consumer responses, were examined. The data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analyses and customized PROCESS models.
The results show that NFS is a two-dimensional construct. The results further support the scale’s internal structure as well as its reliability, convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity. NFS moderates the relationship between odor perception and consumer responses, and emotions mediate this relationship. While hedonic NFS strengthens the impact of odor perception on consumer responses, utilitarian NFS weakens this effect.
This work is one of the first attempts to explain motivational differences in active engagement of olfaction, especially in purchase decisions. As a critical step in exploring olfactory information processing, the study demonstrates the relevance and functionality of NFS construct and NFS scale. The study extends the consumer scent research by introducing NFS and illustrating the interplay of odor perception, and NFS on consumer responses to scent stimuli.
... The literature also shows the semantic aspect of scent, where these scent-triggered memories contain meanings that are significant to the self (Cerulo, 2018;Degel et al., 2001;Holland et al., 2005). Together, they contribute to how a consumer perceives and experiences a brand (Hultén, 2010;Krishna et al., 2009;Lindstrom, 2005b;Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003). Figure 1 illustrates how odor-evoked autographical memories might contribute to a brand. ...
... The personal and emotional nature of the meanings derived from the memories evoked by the scent of KFC has influence on the participants' life narratives, leading to their current attitudes towards their families, and relationships as well as their sense of selfconviction, indulgence, and liberation. Other scholars in the areas of branding and marketing tend to take the conventional research trajectories by looking at the role of scent in improving brand recall, perception, recognition and purchasing behavior (Chatterjee, 2015;Hultén 2010;Krishna et al., 2010;Lindstrom 2005;Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003). Hepola et al. (2017) go further by adding that scent helps improve emotional engagement. ...
... Consumer research on scent has demonstrated positive effects of pleasant scents on attention and memory for brands and products as well as on information processing (Herrmann et al., 2013;Krishna et al., 2010;Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003;Madzharov et al., 2015). Adding pleasant environmental olfactory cues enhances a more enjoyable environment and shopping experience and positively influences customers and visitors and their decision-making process (Grybś-Kabocik, 2018;Mattila and Wirtz, 2001;Spangenberg et al., 1996). ...
... Aroma marketing attracts the attention of researchers as well as experts and could be defined as the utilisation of scents in order to set a particular mood, promote goods, or position a brand in the market (Nibbe and Orth, 2017;Vlahos, 2007). It is a method of influencing the receiver by using consciously prepared fragrance mixtures (Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003) that also involves influencing the consumers at the point of sale or by the product itself (Bartholmé and Melewar, 2011). This type of marketing is as an effective and inventive way to market a product, or attract customers by emitting scents that would trigger positive results. ...
... Consumer research on scent has demonstrated positive effects of pleasant scents on attention and memory for brands and products as well as on information processing (Herrmann et al., 2013;Krishna et al., 2010;Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003;Madzharov et al., 2015). Adding pleasant environmental olfactory cues enhances a more enjoyable environment and shopping experience and positively influences customers and visitors and their decision-making process (Grybś-Kabocik, 2018;Mattila and Wirtz, 2001;Spangenberg et al., 1996). ...
... Aroma marketing attracts the attention of researchers as well as experts and could be defined as the utilisation of scents in order to set a particular mood, promote goods, or position a brand in the market (Nibbe and Orth, 2017;Vlahos, 2007). It is a method of influencing the receiver by using consciously prepared fragrance mixtures (Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003) that also involves influencing the consumers at the point of sale or by the product itself (Bartholmé and Melewar, 2011). This type of marketing is as an effective and inventive way to market a product, or attract customers by emitting scents that would trigger positive results. ...
... Consumer research on scent has demonstrated positive effects of pleasant scents on attention and memory for brands and products as well as on information processing (Herrmann et al., 2013;Krishna et al., 2010;Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003;Madzharov et al., 2015). Adding pleasant environmental olfactory cues enhances a more enjoyable environment and shopping experience and positively influences customers and visitors and their decision-making process (Grybś-Kabocik, 2018;Mattila and Wirtz, 2001;Spangenberg et al., 1996). ...
... Aroma marketing attracts the attention of researchers as well as experts and could be defined as the utilisation of scents in order to set a particular mood, promote goods, or position a brand in the market (Nibbe and Orth, 2017;Vlahos, 2007). It is a method of influencing the receiver by using consciously prepared fragrance mixtures (Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003) that also involves influencing the consumers at the point of sale or by the product itself (Bartholmé and Melewar, 2011). This type of marketing is as an effective and inventive way to market a product, or attract customers by emitting scents that would trigger positive results. ...
... Consumer research on scent has demonstrated positive effects of pleasant scents on attention and memory for brands and products as well as on information processing (Herrmann et al., 2013;Krishna et al., 2010;Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003;Madzharov et al., 2015). Adding pleasant environmental olfactory cues enhances a more enjoyable environment and shopping experience and positively influences customers and visitors and their decision-making process (Grybś-Kabocik, 2018;Mattila and Wirtz, 2001;Spangenberg et al., 1996). ...
... Aroma marketing attracts the attention of researchers as well as experts and could be defined as the utilisation of scents in order to set a particular mood, promote goods, or position a brand in the market (Nibbe and Orth, 2017;Vlahos, 2007). It is a method of influencing the receiver by using consciously prepared fragrance mixtures (Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003) that also involves influencing the consumers at the point of sale or by the product itself (Bartholmé and Melewar, 2011). This type of marketing is as an effective and inventive way to market a product, or attract customers by emitting scents that would trigger positive results. ...
... In office environments or commercial spaces, delicate fragrances help alleviate stress and enhance the experience of work or shopping. In stores of renowned brands, designers use strategic scent installations to create unique brand fragrances, allowing customers to form brand associations through their interaction with the space, thereby enhancing consumer experience and brand identity [111]. The selection of scent in dining spaces is particularly important. ...
With globalization and the transformation of socio-cultural structures, the focus of spatial design has shifted from functionality to perceptual experience and atmospheric creation. This study draws on the spatial perception theory and the phenomenology of perception to examine how sensory subjects perceive and respond to the physical attributes of space. It explores key elements that shape spatial experiences, including lighting, color, spatial form, sound, material, and scent, all of which contribute to the construction of emotional ambiance and the perceptual character of interior environments. Based on this foundation, this study proposes multi-sensory design strategies for interior spaces, including the following: (1) visual perception: modifying color and lighting to establish emotional ambiance and enhance spatial depth; (2) auditory perception: crafting soundscapes that deepen immersion; (3) tactile perception: designing both direct and indirect tactile experiences; and (4) olfactory and gustatory perception: incorporating scent design to evoke memory and forge emotional connections. To demonstrate the practical potential of these strategies, this study presents a conceptual design case of a coffee roasting factory in Suzhou. The design integrates visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory elements to enhance users’ overall spatial perception through multi-sensory coordination. This study ultimately seeks to provide theoretical insights into practical design strategies, highlighting the importance of perceptual experience in improving spatial quality and guiding future interior design practice.
... Sensory marketing strategies can enhance customer retention by creating positive and memorable brand experiences that encourage repeat engagement. For instance, the use of signature scents or visually appealing packaging can reinforce brand identity and evoke nostalgia, prompting customers to return (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003). Additionally, sensory marketing can complement customer relationship management (CRM) strategies by fostering emotional bonds and personalized interactions . ...
This study surveys the impact of sensory marketing strategies on customer retention among cosmetic startups in Bengaluru, India. In an increasingly competitive cosmetics industry, startups seek innovative approaches to enhance brand recall and consumer loyalty. Sensory marketing, which engages consumers' visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile senses, has been recognized as a key driver of customer experience and retention. However, research on its effectiveness in the context of startups remains limited. The study adopts a quantitative research design, utilizing descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze data collected from 249 representatives of cosmetic startups through a structured questionnaire. SPSS software was used for data processing, with Cronbach’s alpha (0.897) ensuring the reliability of the measurement scale. Regression analysis indicates that tactile marketing strategies (β = 0.595, R² = 0.354) have the strongest influence on customer retention, followed by visual (β = 0.157, R² = 0.025), auditory (β = 0.146, R² = 0.021), and olfactory marketing (β = 0.095, R² = 0.009). Correlation analysis further confirms strong interconnections among sensory marketing elements, with tactile marketing showing the highest positive correlation (r = 0.595, p < 0.01) with customer retention. The findings suggest that cosmetic startups should prioritize tactile marketing strategies, such as interactive packaging and product texture while integrating visual and auditory elements to reinforce brand identity. The study contributes to sensory marketing and customer retention literature, offering practical insights for startups and paving the way for future research across different industries and geographical regions.
... Rivalry over high class hotels market is high. In order to be distinct from other competitors hotel management should find out that scent has an huge role in achievement of a profitable objective (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003). ...
This study explores the impact of scent marketing on consumer behavior in Kyrgyzstan's retail and service sectors. Based on surveys and archival analysis with 281 participants, findings show moderate influence, with variations across individuals. Recommendations include expanding research beyond Bishkek and incorporating experiments for deeper insights. The study underscores the potential of scent marketing to enhance customer engagement and brand loyalty, offering valuable guidance for businesses in developing markets.
... We measured attention via recall of information for the alternative brand target, i.e., coffee product (Ratneshwar et al., 1997). Specifically, participants answered four multiple choice questions, which we then summed the number of correct responses to create our measure of attention (which could range from 0 to 4) consistent with prior research (Baron Shahaf et al., 2022;Menon et al., 2002;Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003). ...
Understanding how consumers maintain their brand relationships has important implications for marketers as committed consumers contribute significant value to firms. In the present research, we propose and test one such way consumers protect their brand relationships, namely through attentional avoidance of attractive alternative partners. Across multiple studies, we find support for our theory that committed consumers avoid attending to alternative brand partners by recalling less about and spending less time focused on attractive alternatives. We further find that this inattention occurs because consumers view the competing brand as a threat to the consumer’s current relationship. In addition, we investigate a boundary condition of this effect, highlighting the importance of internally (as opposed to externally) guided (in)attention for protecting brand relationships. By identifying a novel, behavioral way consumers protect their brand relationships, we contribute to the literature on branding and brand relationships, self-threats, and reactance.
... Service providers diffuse a pleasant ambient scent into the service environment to create a desirable atmosphere and reinforce the experience of customers when the fragrance lingers in their mind (Krishna et al., 2009;Madzharov, 2022;Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003;Roschk & Hosseinpour, 2020;Roschk et al., 2017). Casinos are one of the service sectors that uses scenting (Air-Scent International, 2017), especially the mega casino resorts that emphasize customer experience management. ...
Many casinos diffuse a pleasant ambient scent into their facilities as a customer experience management practice, but the ethics of this scenting process is questionable. Although the effect of a pleasant scent on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses has been well-documented, its effect on attention during gambling has yet to be explored. Grounded in the tenets of the top-down control of attention and cross-modal correspondence between vision and olfaction, we conduct two eye-tracking experiments that involve different electronic casino games including video slots and live Cussec. The findings consistently show that pleasant ambient scent prolongs attention and induces more frequent attention to the win/loss areas on the video screen. The findings add to the implications related to responsible gambling by inspiring the stakeholders to consider the use of ambient scent in the gambling environment. Theoretically, the findings offer insights into scent as the catalyst that directs attention to goal-related information, while scent and goal do not need to be congruent in traits.
... A fragrance, especially a pleasing one, possesses the remarkable capacity to shape moods, trigger memories, and transport individuals, particularly in the context of consumer behavior (Rimkute, Moraes, & Ferreira, 2016). The deliberate introduction of delightful scents into service-oriented establishments transcends mere esthetic considerations; it is a strategic choice rooted in the understanding that inviting aromas not only entices customers to linger but also enhances their overall experience (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003). The physiological impact of scents on an individual's response is pivotal. ...
The rise in dessert consumption in Asia, especially in Malaysia, has captivated scholars seeking to understand the factors influencing consumers' intentions to visit dessert stores. Hence, this research aims to investigate how the physical servicescape affects consumers' emotional experiences, encompassing feelings of pleasure and arousal, thereby impacting their intentions to revisit, all through the lens of the SOR framework. Data from a survey of 207 participants who visited dessert stores in the past were collected. Subsequently, the data were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling. This study finds that aroma and cleanliness exhibit a significant positive influence on pleasure, whereas both music and aroma have a significant positive influence on arousal. Lastly, both pleasure and arousal exert a significant positive influence on revisit intentions. This study provides insights to business owners , policymakers, and other key stakeholders by elucidating the significant determinants of revisit intentions.
... Olfactory Dimension: It is well known that scent is closely associated with memory, and can be emotive. Using scents, we can create a certain environment (like a car showroom that smells of leather), induce certain moods or feelings, and even signal product quality or freshness (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003). For instance, Lush Cosmetics demonstrates the impact of scent. ...
This chapter analyses the pivotal role of sound in shaping the customer journey and elevating brand experiences. We explain the profound influence of auditory elements, in particular sound, music, silence, or noise, on consumer perception and behavior. By demystifying sonic branding and its implications for brand experiences, we highlight the often-overlooked potency of sound in creating memorable customer experiences. Finally, we draw on a real-world case study of Intel to illustrate sound strategies that have been successful for businesses.
... In public building spaces, enhancing users' positive experience of the activity space through environmental odor design may create unexpected spatial experiences (Yin et al., 2016). Spatial olfactory design has been widely implemented in indoor spaces, such as shopping centers (Spangenberg et al., 1996), restaurants (Jiang et al., 2014), and hotels, offering insights into spatial olfactory design in libraries (Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003). ...
Purpose
Spatial olfactory design in the library appears to be a practical approach to enhance the coordination between architectural spaces and user behaviors, shape immersive activity experiences and shape immersive activity experiences. Therefore, this study aims to explore the association between the olfactory elements of library space and users’ olfactory perception, providing a foundation for the practical design of olfactory space in libraries.
Design/methodology/approach
Using the olfactory perception semantic differential experiment method, this study collected feedback on the emotional experience of olfactory stimuli from 56 participants in an academic library. From the perspective of environmental psychology, the dimensions of pleasure, control and arousal of users’ olfactory perception in the academic library environment were semantically and emotionally described. In addition, the impact of fatigue state on users’ olfactory perception was analyzed through statistical methods to explore the impact path of individual physical differences on olfactory perception.
Findings
It was found that users’ olfactory perception in the academic library environment is likely semantically described from the dimensions of pleasure, arousal and control. These dimensions mutually influence users’ satisfaction with olfactory elements. Moreover, there is a close correlation between pleasure and satisfaction. In addition, fatigue states may impact users’ olfactory perception. Furthermore, users in a high-fatigue state may be more sensitive to the arousal of olfactory perception.
Originality/value
This article is an empirical exploration of users’ perception of the environmental odors in libraries. The experimental results of this paper may have practical implications for the construction of olfactory space in academic libraries.
... We view our overarching theoretical contribution as providing a broad and cohesive conceptual model for systematically understanding how vision can be utilized to evoke the benefits of scent for consumer behavior. Prior studies have revealed many important processes and consequences of the individual senses of vision (Krishna, 2012;Raghubir, 2010) and scent (e.g., Bone and Jantrania, 1992;Krishna, Lwin, and Morrin, 2010;Mattila and Wirtz, 2001;Morrin, 2010;Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2003;Spangenberg et al., 1996;Spangenberg et al., 2006). Much less is currently known about multisensory interactions in general (e.g., Elder and Krishna, 2010;Streicher and Estes, 2016), and visual-olfactory interactions in particular (Krishna et al., 2014;Lwin, Morrin, and Krishna, 2010). ...
Scents can improve product evaluations, but incorporating scents in advertising and packaging is relatively inefficient and oftentimes hard to implement (e.g., online). We therefore present a theoretical framework that explains how pictures on packages and in advertisements can evoke imagined scents (olfactory imagery), thereby improving evaluations and increasing choice shares, without delivering any actual scent. Seven main studies (and four supplemental studies) demonstrate this visual-olfactory effect on product evaluations and choices, and reveal three conditions that accentuate, eliminate, and reverse this effect. First, the effect of olfactory imagery on product evaluation is greater among consumers with a stronger need for smell. Second, although many products are marketed with scented versions, we show that pictures only improve evaluations of products for which scent is a relevant or typical attribute. Moreover, although deodorizing products frequently utilize pictures of malodorous objects, we show that such pictures actually harm evaluations. By revealing that pictures can evoke imagined scents, which affect product evaluations even without an actual scent, this research demonstrates that scent has far more pervasive and powerful marketing potential than previously thought.
... hypothetical) groups generally spent more time per task (between 2% and 10%). An SPM across all four studies with log-transformed times per task to approach a normal distribution (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003) shows a highly significant result of close to 5% (β = 0.046, z = 3.11, p = 0.002). Web Appendix H provides descriptive evidence that incentive alignment affects the number of tasks worked on by participants. ...
Choice-based conjoint (CBC) analysis features prominently in market research to predict consumer purchases. This study focuses on two principles that seek to enhance CBC: incentive alignment and adaptive choice-based conjoint (ACBC) analysis. While these principles have individually demonstrated their ability to improve the forecasting accuracy of CBC, no research has yet evaluated both simultaneously. The present study fills this gap by drawing on two lab and two online experiments. On the one hand, results reveal that incentive-aligned CBC and hypothetical ACBC predict comparatively well. On the other hand, ACBC offers a more efficient cost-per-information ratio in studies with a high sample size. Moreover, the newly introduced incentive-aligned ACBC achieves the best predictions but has the longest interview time. Based on our studies, we help market researchers decide whether to apply incentive alignment, ACBC, or both. Finally, we provide a tutorial to analyze ACBC datasets using open-source software (R/Stan).
... The product can be rendered irreplaceable by stimulating the formation of memories associated with it or by creating uniqueness and personal products. To relate aesthetics with the customers intentions to purchase, Toufani et al. (p. 1, 2017) has argued that "the product's aesthetics influences their purchase intention through different dimensions of perceived value drawn from perceptions of the product's aesthetics, or whether there is a direct relationship from aesthetics to purchase intention" Other research shows that the aesthetics of the environment, where products or services are rendered and consumed, has a profound influence on consumer behavior and satisfaction (Bitner, 1992;Donovan et al., 1994;Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003). Bhadauria et. ...
Over the last two decades scholars have studied the relationship between product usability and consumer purchase intentions. It has been established that perceived usability is valuable for predicting intentions to purchase water bottles, kitchen appliances, smart devices, etc., but there has been little research on the role of usability in jewelry purchase decisions. Product aesthetics is also an important factor in consumers’ purchasing decisions; aesthetics creates attraction, evokes emotions and satisfaction in shoppers. This article aims to investigate the role of aesthetics and usability in jewelry purchasing decisions in India. A survey of 194 potential jewelry customers was undertaken, with respondents asked for their opinions on six product concepts for handmade glass pendants. Our results show that aesthetics, usability and willingness to purchase handmade glass pendants are strongly and significantly related to each other. When correlation and multiple regression analysis were performed on the survey data, it was found that both usability and aesthetics positively influence purchase intention. This study finds that aesthetics and apparent usability are both valuable predictors for purchase intention of glass pendants. Keywords: Aesthetics, Craft, Design, Apparent usability, Craft cluster
... Various research is also being done on sensory marketing. The impact of each of the senses is being studied: smell (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003;Garg & Chhikara, 2019), hearing (Beverland et al., 2006;Craton & Lantos, 2011), taste (Babin et al., 2003), sight (Henderson et al., 2003;Kahn & Deng, 2010), and touch (Citrin et al., 2003;Peck & Childers, 2006). The multitude of studies being conducted is due to the rapid pace of change in the environment and the widespread use of newer and newer solutions that fi t into this fi eld. ...
Nowadays, we are noticing more and more new technological solutions that fit into the field of sensory marketing, the implementation of which is in a relatively preliminary stage. They are intended to improve customer experience. The main objective of the research is to determine the main topics covered in the literature. This article covers a systematic literature review of research conducted to date on new technologies that are part of the field of sensory marketing related to customer experience. The research search was based on two databases: Scopus and Web of Science Core Collections. Studies conducted between 2007 and May 2022 were included. Four inclusion criteria were used: database, terms, language, and cover period. No methods were used to assess the risk of bias in the included studies. 33 items of literature were qualified for qualitative synthesis. Based on the analysis, a conceptual framework of the most commonly used antecedents and outcomes in research was created, and two main research areas were identified: sense of telepresence and research by technology type. In view of this, further research directions based on the identified research gaps were indicated.
... Due to the uncontrollability of odor release and its less intuitive impact than visual or auditory stimuli, the application of spatial olfactory design in architectural spaces has not received widespread recognition. The application of olfactory design in commercial spaces, such as shopping malls (Jin, 2019), hotels (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003) and restaurants (Jiang, King, & Prinyawiwatkul, 2014), has been extensively explored. Olfactory marketing strategies provide practical guidance for developing spatial olfactory design in libraries. ...
Purpose
This article explores the scientific construction of library olfactory space, based on the case of the olfactory space in the Jiangsu University library. It specifically focuses on understanding the interaction between the physical architectural space of the library and users’ olfactory perception and behavioral activities, with the ultimate goal of creating a deeply integrated olfactory experience in the Jiangsu University Library.
Design/methodology/approach
In this article, an empirical research method was used to gather perceptions from 30 university student users regarding the library olfactory space and to understand their olfactory preferences and requirements for its construction. Through qualitative analysis of the interview texts, the study identified correlations between user perceptions and elements of the library olfactory space.
Findings
The qualitative analysis of user interview texts and results from the library olfactory space design experiment contributed to the design proposal for the Jiangsu University Library olfactory space. The design proposal for the Jiangsu University Library olfactory space is provided and includes library architecture, activity context, functional services, olfactory experience design and technological applications.
Research limitations/implications
This case study takes the environment, development strategy and user needs of the Jiangsu University Library as its unique research background and as such is not universal or generalizable to other libraries.
Originality/value
This article differs from others by advocating for the innovative architectural spatial design of libraries through olfactory experience, breaking the traditional perception of libraries as solely through visual and auditory senses.
... For instance, Starbucks roasts their coffee beans in store and fills the environment with the smell of roasted beans, thus providing a richer sensory experience for their customers (Medina, 2014). Olfactory stimuli have been studied to show that product scents (Krishna et al., 2010) and environmental scents (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003) can be effective in enhancing consumers' memory of brands and products. Furthermore, Levin (2009) showed that when customers smell the aroma of food, they produce a sense of pleasure, enhancing the olfactory experience. ...
Based on sensory marketing, this study developed a scale for sensory experience at farm-to-table events (SEFTE). In Study 1, we extracted 254 statements from in-depth interviews and narrowed down the statements into 38 items. Then, we collected responses from farm-to-table events to verify SEFTE in Studies 2 and 3. In Study 2, we conducted both exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), resulting in a 34-item eight-construct model for SEFTE. The eight constructs include (1) attractiveness of the dining environment, (2) food presentation, (3) ambient sound, (4) server’s warm greetings, (5) touch of the dining environment, (6) smell and taste of the cuisine, (7) food healthiness, and (8) ambient aroma. In Study 3, we replicated our findings using the 34-item version SEFTE and found appropriate fit indices and criterion-related validity with customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, place intimacy, and place passion.
... These affect the customer's senses and influence their experience. The ambient condition such as music, colours, light, displays, fragrances, a soft and cozy ambience can create a mood for people to feel worthy (Jain & Bagdare, 2011) and encourage people to stay longer (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003). Pleasant lighting and soft music send a signal to customers that a facility is of higher quality (Lam et al., 2011). ...
Servicescape is known as a physical environment, which is a man-made environment, while facilities management (FM) is responsible to create a pleasant environment that encompasses servicescape elements. In the FM context, a lot of research on the impact of the servicescape are limited and are still lacking. The purpose of this study is to provide a literature review on measuring the impact of elements in servicescape on business performance. The methodology that was used for this paper consisted of a comprehensive literature review from numerous published sources; all the related references were discovered through electronic databases, journals, websites, and books. The literature review is utilised to examine the elements of servicescape and to measure the impact of servicescape elements on business performance. Specially, servicescape consists of four elements, they are ambient condition, spatial layout and functionality, sign, symbol and artifacts, and cleanliness. As such, the impact of elements in servicescape is the way people perceived the functionality of the surroundings. The individual internal responses such as comfort, pleasantness due to the environment, feeling of being safe, and happiness are strongly influenced by the servicescape elements. Accordingly, the result of this study will benefit the managers, facilities managers, investors, and the financial departments in their decision making in order to improve the performance of the organisation. This paper focuses solely on measuring the impact of elements in servicescape that are scarce in current studies. Hence, this paper makes an attempt to provide new information and added value to the investors, stakeholders, and the facilities management on the importance of the impact of the servicescape elements.
... Odors and tastes can be linked to our memories (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2003) which are a precious target of ownership. Using a print ad infused with lavender oil, Ruzeviciute et al. (2020) show that scented (vs. ...
Research on psychological ownership is prevalent in the consumer domain. This article details the theoretical core of psychological ownership, integrating research in consumer psychology and marketing. The underlying motivations behind psychological ownership are also considered as well as the antecedents and consequences of feeling ownership. This article discusses how consumers signal and infer a sense of ownership, acknowledging that the characteristics of the target of ownership vary greatly to include physical targets as well as those that are intangible. Research is discussed on the lifecycle of ownership considering the formation, perception, and eventual dissolution of psychological ownership. The authors note various avenues for future research in psychological ownership with the aim to spur research in consumer psychology and feelings of ownership.
Purpose
This study aims to integrate research on multimodal congruency with the stereotype-content model to offer a novel explanation of why and when consumers respond favorably to vision-sound congruency in online service settings.
Design/methodology/approach
A mixed methods approach included a field study (360° panoramic desktop-virtual tour of a winery) and a laboratory study (fully immersive virtual realtiy (VR) tour of a pub). The explanatory mechanism was tested through conditional process analyses, specifically, a custom-made serial mediation model where effects of cross-modal congruency were channeled through telepresence and warmth/competence with familiarity with the service provider included as a moderator. Category knowledge and involvement were included as controls. Study 2 additionally accounted for sensory olfactory and haptic information present in the consumer’s physical location.
Findings
Congruency between vision and sound positively influences consumer intention to visit the environment in person, to purchase online and to engage in positive word-of-mouth. These effects are channeled through enhanced feelings of telepresence as well as more favorable perceptions of service provider warmth. Congruency effects are robust in the presence of additional sensory input in the offline environment and across levels of involvement and knowledge but may depend on a consumer’s familiarity with the setting.
Research limitations/implications
The study offers a novel process explanation for how cross-modal congruency in online service settings influences consumer intention. Examining two specific sensory modalities and two service settings presents limitations.
Practical implications
The findings help service providers to better understand how perceptions of warmth and competence transmit cross-modal congruency effects, resulting in more favorable responses.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this work is among the first to adopt a stereotype-content and multimodal congruency perspective on consumer response to online service settings.
Service brands employ two primary strategies to promote customer engagement (CE). The first is customer
engagement marketing, which involves deliberate tactics, such as contests or brand selfies, designed to
encourage customers to dedicate resources and interact with the brand. The second strategy relies on traditional
marketing approaches, which, rather than actively promoting CE, create conditions that enable CE to occur
organically through positive product or brand experiences. Research suggests that traditional strategies can
sometimes be more effective than customer engagement marketing in driving CE. Despite the significance of
services in the global economy, little research examines the impact of the service marketing mix (SMM) on the
organic development of CE. This meta-analysis quantifies the unified direct effect of SMM elements on different
dimensions of CE using 1,188 individual effect sizes from 156 research papers, representing a cumulative sample
of 77,843 respondents. Results reveal that the ‘product’ and ‘people’ elements of the SMM exert the strongest
influence across most CE dimensions, while ‘price’ and ‘promotion’ demonstrate lower impact. ‘Physical evi
dence’, ‘place’, and ‘process’ elements of the mix exhibit varying effects across dimensions. For deeper insight,
we analyze how conceptual moderators (industry type, firm size, geographic location, and business context) and
methodological moderators (data collection approach and sample type) influence the direct effects. Our analysis
reveals significant differences based on firm size, industry type, study entity, business context and location. We
conclude with theoretical implications and managerial guidance for optimizing investments in the SMM to
enhance CE.
Sensory marketing has garnered significant attention from researchers due to its ability to effectively influence consumer behavior at a subconscious level. However, existing reviews are constrained by either limited scope or methodology, often focusing on specific senses, or domains, or using solely quantitative or qualitative methods. This offers an opportunity to comprehensively synthesize the existing literature and provide direction for future research. Building on this, the present study examines 535 articles assembled, arranged, and assessed using the SPAR‐4‐SLR protocol for a thorough review of sensory marketing literature spanning four decades (1984–2023). The review employs both quantitative and qualitative methods to summarize the diverse research and provide detailed insights from the existing body of literature. The quantitative approach, utilizing keyword co‐occurrence analysis identifies five thematic clusters—sensory cues as communication strategy, sensory experiences in technologically advanced era, taste perception and food consumption, visual perception, and olfactory perception. Furthermore, the qualitative review technique, utilizing the Theory, Context, Characteristics, and Methodology (TCCM) framework reveals prevalent theories and primary research contexts, along with distinctive characteristics and methodologies. Based on these analyses suggestions for potential areas of future research have been stated.
Virtual reality (VR) provides immersive audio-visual experiences but often overlook olfactory senses, which are crucial for human perception and cognition. Smell enhances object recognition, visual spatial attention, and evaluation methods for spatial attention deficits. The sense of smell relies on the olfactory nerve to create a direct link between external stimuli and the limbic system, a brain network involved in regulating emotions such as sadness, anger, joy, and fear, as well as controlling physiological responses like the startle reflex, vocal intonation, pain perception, and memory processes. Artificial intelligence (AI) is essential for integrating odors into VR, enhancing contextual understanding and synchronizing smells with plot developments. Current multi-modal approaches highlight the need for integrated models combining images, texts, and smells. Olfactory cues can enhance memory retention and recall, benefiting educational and training applications. Incorporating scents into immersive technologies creates more realistic and engaging experiences, crucial for fields like healthcare, military training, and education. In this preliminary review, we will explore Olfactory Virtual Reality (OVR) technologies, AI applications, available devices, and future perspectives in the field. Additionally, we will discuss the challenges facing this technology, including issues of delay, size, and the limited range of available odors. A new wearable interface featuring miniaturized odor generators (OGs) and AI algorithms enables rapid responses and low power consumption, achieving latency-free mixed reality. OVR research shows promising applications in treating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), alleviating anxiety, and enhancing immersion. Recent advancements, such as compact OGs and computer-controlled olfactory stimulation, represent significant progress in multisensory communication technology.
Servicescape refers to the elements that make up the environment in which service is provided. The factors that are used to increase service performance and thus provide customer satisfaction and are called physical elements can be the temperature of the environment, the music playing in the space, furniture, accessories in the environment, symbols, etc. In this study, the concept of servicescape and its theoretical framework were first examined. Then, the extensions of the servicescape and the elements that make up these extensions were explained. Finally, a comprehensive literature review was conducted by referring to the findings obtained from domestic and foreign studies examining the effect of the servicescape on the customer's perception of service quality, customer expectations and customer satisfaction. Keywords: Service Marketing, Service Quality, Service Environment
Purpose
This study aims to investigate how sensory cue order, wine knowledge and visual–olfactory (V–O) congruence affect consumer’s taste perceptions of wine and their subsequent behavior.
Design/methodology/approach
An experiment was performed to identify the effects of sensory cue congruence and sensory cue order on wine consumers’ perceptions of wine, affective evaluations, cognitive evaluations and purchase intentions.
Findings
Wine experts exhibited positive emotional responses to congruent sensory cues in the V–O order. Experts’ enjoyment of wine’s aroma, their emotional responses, their cognitive evaluations and their purchase intentions were lower in the incongruent condition. Consumers’ negative emotions elicited by the V–O sequence were also less intense than those triggered by the olfactory–visual (O–V) sequence. Wine experts demonstrated more positive emotional responses in the V–O sensory congruent condition.
Research limitations/implications
This study highlights how visual and olfactory sensory cue order, wine knowledge and sensory cue congruence interact to clarify wine-related behavioral intention. Findings reveal the roles of these factors in shaping sensory perceptions, cognitive evaluations, affective evaluations and behavior related to wine consumption.
Practical implications
This study holds implications for various stakeholders, including winemakers, wine businesses, restaurants and the broader hospitality industry. Wine businesses can enhance advertising effectiveness by tailoring their marketing efforts to customers’ knowledge levels and emphasizing the inherent attributes that align with individuals’ preferences. Winemakers can improve consumers’ sensory experiences by enhancing the natural color of wines. Restaurants can strive to ignite diners’ positive emotions and experiences by providing congruent information. Furthermore, sensory-driven strategies can be used in the hospitality sector to elevate customers’ positive emotions.
Originality/value
This study fills gaps in wine research by delineating how wine knowledge and related sensory cues can influence consumers’ sensory perceptions, cognitive evaluations, affective evaluations and behavior. These aspects have been largely overlooked in previous work.
Purpose
Compared to typical brand extension research focusing on functional and symbolic attributes, this paper aims to examine brand extensions based on a brand's primary sensory attributes. Specifically, this paper investigates the interplay between brand equity and primary sensory attributes in shaping consumers' evaluations of brand extensions.
Design/methodology/approach
This study investigates the impact of primary or central sensory attributes on brand extension evaluations for brands with differing brand equities. The authors conducted two experiments preceded by seven pretests to develop and validate the stimulus materials. The authors aim to contribute to understanding how sensory and brand-related factors influence consumers' evaluations of brand extensions.
Findings
In these experiments, the authors find that a parent brand's central/dominant sensory attribute allows the parent brand to successfully extend into functionally unrelated categories. For example, Dove’s central attribute of touch allows it to extend successfully into categories such as towels and shaving razor. However, it does not perform as well as Irish Spring (known for smell) in categories such as cologne and scented fabric softener, where Irish Spring's central attribute of smell is more relevant. Interestingly, Irish Spring, a lower equity brand, outperforms Dove in smell-related extensions, indicating that sensory attributes can counter the impact of lower brand equity if the sensory attribute is relevant to the extension category.
Originality/value
This study investigates brand extensions based on sensory attributes such as smell and touch instead of typical brand extensions based on functional and symbolic attributes. In particular, the authors examine whether the perceived fit between the parent brand’s dominant sensory attribute and the extended category (i.e. sensory fit) is more important than the parent brand's equity in the evaluation of brand extensions.
Purpose-Compared to typical brand extension research focusing on functional and symbolic attributes, this paper aims to examine brand extensions based on a brand's primary sensory attributes. Specifically, this paper investigates the interplay between brand equity and primary sensory attributes in shaping consumers' evaluations of brand extensions. Design/methodology/approach-This study investigates the impact of primary or central sensory attributes on brand extension evaluations for brands with differing brand equities. The authors conducted two experiments preceded by seven pretests to develop and validate the stimulus materials. The authors aim to contribute to understanding how sensory and brand-related factors influence consumers' evaluations of brand extensions. Findings-In these experiments, the authors find that a parent brand's central/dominant sensory attribute allows the parent brand to successfully extend into functionally unrelated categories. For example, Dove's central attribute of touch allows it to extend successfully into categories such as towels and shaving razor. However, it does not perform as well as Irish Spring (known for smell) in categories such as cologne and scented fabric softener, where Irish Spring's central attribute of smell is more relevant. Interestingly, Irish Spring, a lower equity brand, outperforms Dove in smell-related extensions, indicating that sensory attributes can counter the impact of lower brand equity if the sensory attribute is relevant to the extension category. Originality/value-This study investigates brand extensions based on sensory attributes such as smell and touch instead of typical brand extensions based on functional and symbolic attributes. In particular, the authors examine whether the perceived fit between the parent brand's dominant sensory attribute and the extended category (i.e. sensory fit) is more important than the parent brand's equity in the evaluation of brand extensions.
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the cues that exist in a retail environment and expands the current knowledge of sensory marketing and its multifaceted nature. Different types of cues are introduced, including ambient, design, social, haptic, merchandise-related and pricing-related cues. While ambient, design and social cues are primarily related to the general atmosphere of the store, haptic, merchandise-related and pricing-related cues are linked more directly to the moment of choice. The chapter sheds light on these various cues and their effects through analysis of an extensive range of academic research. Taken together, the chapter demonstrates that the store environment can be seen as a bundle of cues that has a capacity to affect our daily choices.
Purpose
The existing literature has examined the determinants of post-purchase behavioral intentions. However, less attention has been devoted to the factors that contribute to perceived usefulness of fast-food restaurants attributes. The current study considers the servicescapes and social servicescapes of restaurants as well as their relationship with customers' perceived usefulness, with the moderating role of customer experience. It also explores how perceived usefulness influences choice process satisfaction and subsequent behavioral responses, including revisit intention and negative word-of-mouth.
Design/methodology/approach
Data from 485 fast-food restaurant consumers in Pakistan were collected using purposive sampling. The data were analyzed using both structural equation modeling (SEM) through AMOS 24.0 and the PROCESS macro in IBM SPSS 27.0.
Findings
The research revealed that perceived usefulness in fast-food restaurant industry is positively influenced by servicescapes and social servicescapes. Similarly, choice process satisfaction is primarily caused by perceived usefulness and affects behavioral responses. It also found that choice process satisfaction is positively associated with revisit intentions and negative word-of-mouth. Customer experience significantly moderates the relationship between ambient condition, facility aesthetic, layout, perceived similarity and perceived usefulness. However, customer experience insignificant moderates the relationships of physical appearance and suitable behavior with perceived usefulness.
Research limitations/implications
The findings provide insightful information for both academic and managerial fields, contributing to the literature on consumer psychology, consumer behavior, servicescapes and the stimulus-organism-response theory. The study also assists restauranteurs in the fast-food restaurant industry in overcoming the challenges posed by a highly competitive environment and developing strategies based on consumer perceptions.
Originality/value
This study, conducted in Pakistan, took a pioneer step in testing and confirming a novel perceived usefulness model that incorporates not only servicescapes but also social servicescapes in consumer behavior. It enhances the knowledge of consumer visit intentions by quantifying the significance of perceived usefulness developed by different servicescapes.
Scent marketing is an area of sensory marketing of interest to meet the highest expectations of health, safety, and comfort, in a sector that must maintain a good reputation both in social networks and online travel agencies, regarding many of the bad reviews are related to sensory aspects such as bad smells. The article delves into the theoretical, applicative, and prospective framework of olfactory marketing, through modeling, qualitative empirical analysis through interviews with experts and analysis of consumer opinions on OTAs, Trivago and Tripadvisor. Thereby it is possible to better understand the influence of the scent on the hotel corporate identity in Spain and on the purchase decision. Finally, a new model of sustainable accommodation (Wellness Hotel) is proposed under the exposed experiential premises of greater attention to the fulfillment of the Sustainable Development Goals.
El odomarketing es un área del marketing sensorial de interés para cubrir expectativas de salubridad, seguridad y confort en un sector que debe lidiar con comentarios en redes y agencias online, muy críticos con aspectos sensoriales como el olor. En esta investigación, se trata su marco teórico, aplicativo y prospectivo, a través del análisis bibliográfico, la modelización y el análisis empírico cualitativo con entrevistas a expertos y la opinión de los consumidores en OTAs de Trivago y Tripadvisor, para conocer su influencia en la identidad corporativa hotelera en España y en la decisión de compra. Por último, se propone un nuevo modelo de alojamiento experiencial bajo estas premisas: el “Wellness Hotel´.
Temel ihtiyaçlar arasında oldukça önemli bir noktada duran gıda temini için yaşanabilecek olası sıkıntıların önüne geçmekte sürdürülebilir gastronomi faaliyetleri önemli bir yer taşır. Sürdürülebilir gastronomi, diğer bir değişle ekogastronomi; insan sağlığını koruma, yemek kültürlerinin bozulmadan gelecek nesillere aktarılması, canlı ve cansız çevrenin korunması, doğa ile iç içe, işbirliği sağlayarak gastronomik faaliyetleri gerçekleştirme felsefesini savunduğu için mevcut ve olası problemlerin önüne geçmede fayda sunabilmektedir. Bilimsel araştırmalar Dünya’da her 1 dakikada 3 çocuğun açlıktan öldüğünü ve yediğimiz her 3 tabaktan birinin çöpe atıldığını ortaya koymaktadır. Ayrıca tabaktan en çok israf edilen gıda maddesinin ekmek olduğu ifade edilmektedir. Bu noktada mal ve hizmetlerin ihtiyaç karşılama araçları olduğunun bilincinde olunması, kaynakları doğru kullanabilen, mal ve hizmetlerden kendine veya ihtiyacına uygun olanları seçebilen bireylerin varlığı son derece önemlidir. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye ve Dünya’daki sürdürülebilir gastronomi trendlerine yer verilmiş, israf ve ekmek israfı konusu geniş bir perspektifle incelenerek anlaşılır bir dille okuyucuya sunulmuştur. Ayrıca evler ve işletmelerde ekmeklerin bayatlamaması için pratik bilgilere yer verilerek, bayatlayan ekmekler için ise çözüm önerisi olarak örnek tarifler sunulmuştur. Tarifler uygulanırken değişik türlerdeki ekmekler kullanılarak tat, doku ve görsel sunum açısından bir bütünlük sağlanarak tadım yapanların kolay kolay içinde ekmek olduğunu anlayamayacağı tarifler oluşturulmuştur. Kitapta yer alan tariflerin tamamında, aynı tarifi ekmek kullanmaksızın yaparken harcanan emeğin dışında bir emek gerektirmeden ekmekli tarifler yapılabiliyor olmasına özen gösterilmiştir. Bu araştırmada yer alan bilgiler ve tarifler; işletme sahipleri, sektör çalışanları, yiyecek içecek üzerine eğitim veren kurumlardaki öğretmenler/öğrenciler, mutfakta vakit geçirmekten hoşlanan herkese hitap etmesi ve sürdürülebilir gıda konusunda farkındalık oluşturması bakımından yüksek öneme sahiptir.
Every person lives in his or her own world of perception. Normally, when shopping in a department store, consumers do not consciously perceive all the thousands of items available there, but concentrate on a selection and put together their own shopping basket, which differ from those of other customers, quite individually. This is a consequence of their perception. Perception is a subjective, selective and constructive process. In the context of this paper, we will first explain the concept of perception and point out that perception is usually a complex interaction of different sensory organs, whereby the individual ultimately attempts to form a cognitive representation of the environment (e.g., a shopping place). Visual perception is particularly relevant here. In addition to conscious perception unconscious perception at the point-of-sale (POS) plays a crucial role. Background music at the POS, for example, is often only experienced subconsciously, but it can influence our behavior. Perception is always contextual, the context can influence how we perceive the environment. For example, many consumers will probably perceive and subsequently buy freshly baked bread if a corresponding scent can be smelled at the POS. The context, in turn, can be designed accordingly. This article discusses the relevance of perception research for explaining consumer behavior at the POS as well as practical conclusions for (retail) marketing.
Despite the popularity of using indulgent food scents to boost sales of indulgent food in retail settings, research has only recently shown that the duration of the indulgent scent influences consumer motivation in food consumption. We conceptually replicate and extend Biswas and Szocs (2019). Specifically, we show that the effects of indulgent food scents on preference for indulgent food items, which Biswas and Szocs (2019) identify in joint decision tasks, hold when foods are evaluated separately. More importantly, we posit a novel mechanism for this effect. Based on counteractive-control theory, we propose that extended exposure to an indulgent olfactory cue influences motivation by activating one’s diet goal, resulting in reduced intended indulgent food consumption. A set of 5 studies offer systematic support to this proposition, and managerial and consumer implications are discussed.
If starting to run is an easy decision, committing to a long-term running routine proves to be a more challenging endeavor for many people. In this pictorial, we unravel the design process of Asynja, an artefact that triggers exercise imagery by using natural scents related to running. Relying on peripheral interaction, this research probe subtly nudges users to go running, thereby supporting them to trans- form their positive intentions into actions. Exploring sensoriality as a design opportunity for behavior change interventions, we invite the community to expand the design space of exercise-related motivational products and systems.KeywordsSensorial designExercising motivationExercise imagerySmellRunning
Résumé : La réalité virtuelle (RV) réunit les plus grandes marques et les consommateurs dans le métavers pour vivre des expériences de consommations ludiques sur le « web 4.0 », révolutionnant l’expérimentation et la découverte d’offres. En interagissant physiquement, le consommateur devient l’acteur principal, au plus près de l’expérience réelle. L’objectif de la thèse est de comprendre dans quelle mesure les composantes expérientielles influencent ce sentiment d’incarnation et quels sont les effets de ce dernier sur l’attitude et le comportement du consommateur. La démarche de recherche hypothético-déductive nous amène à construire un cadre théorique en marketing expérientiel puis d’explorer le phénomène par des études qualitatives à visées exploratoires afin d’élaborer un modèle conceptuel. Le modèle intègre la position du corps (assis vs. debout) et les défis (absence vs. modérés vs. avancés) tels les déterminants de l’incarnation ainsi que l’immersion et le plaisir tels les facteurs explicatifs de l’incarnation et des intentions comportementales. L’étude quantitative (n=328) est analysée par un modèle d’équations structurelles PLS. Six unités expérimentales composent le contexte expérientiel relatif la visite d’une destination touristique virtualisée. Les résultats confirment le rôle des effets prédictifs ainsi que ceux joués par des médiateurs et modérateurs entre certaines relations du modèle conceptuel. La recherche présente les apports méthodologiques et théoriques et formule des préconisations à destination des professionnels et de chercheurs dans le cadre de futures recherches.
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The popular press has recently reported that managers of retail and service outlets are diffusing scents into their stores to create more positive environments and develop a competitive advantage. These efforts are occurring despite there being no scholarly research supporting the use of scent in store environments. The authors present a review of theoretically relevant work from environmental psychology and olfaction research and a study examining the effects of ambient scent in a simulated retail environment. In the reported study, the authors find a difference between evaluations of and behaviors in a scented store environment and those in an unscented store environment. Their findings provide guidelines for managers of retail and service outlets concerning the benefits of scenting store environments.
Despite the limited empirical evidence about the effectiveness of olfactory cues in advertising, firms are increasingly using such cues in their advertisements. The authors examine the effects of olfactory cues that are used as a novelty, as opposed to a product sample, on consumer attitudes. The results show that the addition of a more congruent scratch-and-sniff panel to an advertisement improves neither attitude toward the ad nor attitude toward the brand. Further, the addition of a poorer-fitting scent actually lowers attitudes among individuals who are more motivated to process. Those results appear to be a function of the mood evoked by the scented advertisement and of the scent's perceived pleasantness in the advertising context.
Recalling brand names is an important aspect of consumer choice in many situations. The authors develop a general Markov model that relates probabilistic aspects of recall to consumer and marketing mix variables. Then they illustrate how parameters can be estimated from recall data for three special cases of the model: The first is a ''baseline'' version of the model that can be used to assess the extent to which categories of brands can be automatically included in or excluded from memory search; the second is a zero-order model that can be used to estimate the effects of brand variables and individual usage rates on recall latency; and the third is a first-order model that uses aggregate recall data to assess market structure. Finally, the authors demonstrate how the model can be used in numerical analyses to evaluate awareness-building strategies.
This study tests the Mehrabian-Russell environmental psychology model in retail settings. The results suggest that store atmosphere engendered by the usual myriad of in-store variables, is represented psychologically by consumers in terms of two major emotional states - pleasure and arousal - and that these two emotional states are significant mediators of intended shopping behaviors within the store. The practical value of this approach is that retailers may be better able to explain and predict the effects of in-store changes on shopping behavior.
Analyzed the social perception process to determine whether selectivity of available stimuli is based on the informativeness of person attributes, the properties of which are the evaluative extremity (distance from the scale midpoint) and the evaluative valence (positive or negative). In a preliminary scaling study and a main weighting study, 126 undergraduates independently rated the likability of the 16 stimuli persons portrayed on slides. Negativity and extremity were manipulated on the slides across 2 behavioral dimensions: sociability and civic activism. Ss saw 2 prescaled behavior photographs for each stimulus person and controlled a slide changer switch, providing a measure of attention as looking time. Likability ratings provided a measure of relative weight derived from N. H. Anderson's (1968) information integration model. Results show that Ss preferentially weighted behaviors that were extreme or negative, and the behavioral measure of attention (looking time) replicated the predicted pattern. (58 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 10 experiments to evaluate the notion of "depth of processing" in human memory. Undergraduate Ss were asked questions concerning the physical, phonemic, or semantic characteristics of a long series of words; this initial question phase was followed by an unexpected retention test for the words. It was hypothesized that "deeper" (semantic) questions would take longer to answer and be associated with higher retention of the target words. These ideas were confirmed by the 1st 4 experiments. Exps V-X showed (a) it is the qualitative nature of a word's encoding which determines retention, not processing time as such; and (b) retention of words given positive and negative decisions was equalized when the encoding questions were equally salient or congruous for both types of decision. While "depth" (the qualitative nature of the encoding) serves a useful descriptive purpose, results are better described in terms of the degree of elaboration of the encoded trace. Finally, results have implications for an analysis of learning in terms of its constituent encoding operations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested alternative models for explaining priming effects on categorization and contrasted their predictions concerning the relative advantage of frequent vs recent priming as a function of interstimulus delay. 63 undergraduates were asked to categorize an ambiguous stimulus description that could be characterized in either a positive or a negative manner. Prior to its presentation, Ss were unobtrusively exposed to both positive and negative primes related to the description. For half of the Ss, the positive primes appeared more frequently, but the negative prime appeared most recently; for the remaining Ss, the negative primes appeared more frequently, but the positive prime appeared most recently. Between the final prime and stimulus presentation, there was a delay of either 15 or 120 sec. Ss tended to categorize the stimulus description in terms of the recently primed construct after the brief interstimulus delay, but they tended to categorize the description in terms of the frequently primed construct after the long interstimulus delay. Results are consistent with a proposed synapse model of priming effects. Other possible models that make different assumptions about the level of activation, the decay function, and their ability to account for the findings are discussed. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization.
Despite frequent mention, we know relatively little about the effect of ambient environmental factors on consumer behavior. This paper discusses one important aspect of the environment, ambient scent. Based on research from several disciplines, a model describing the effect of ambient scent on consumers is propossed. Ambient scent is portrayed as an environmental cue that is compared with scent preferences to influence affective responses and ultimately approach-avoidance reactions. Moderators of these presumed relationships are also described. Suggestions for empirical research are provided and implications for marketing management are presented.
Research has shown that shopping environments can evoke emotional responses in consumers and that such emotions, in turn, influence shopping behaviors and outcomes. This article broadens our understanding of emotions within the shopping context in two ways. First, it provides a descriptive account of emotions consumers feel across a variety of shopping environments. Second, it empirically compares the three emotion measures most frequently used in marketing to determine which best captures the various emotions shoppers experience. The results indicate that the broad range of emotions felt in the shopping context vary considerably across different retail environments. They also show that the Izard (Izard, C. E.: Human Emotions, Plenum, New York. 1977) and Plutchik (Plutchik, R.: Emotion: A Psychoevolutionary Synthesis, Harper and Row, New York. 1980) measures outperform the Mehrabian and Russell (Mehrabian, A., and Russell, J. A.: An Approach to Environmental Psychology, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 1974) measure by offering a richer assessment of emotional responses to the shopping experience.
While consumer researchers have evinced considerable interest in cognitive processes in decision making, work has centered on the conscious mental manipulation of product information. This paper addresses memory and attentional processes that may occur below the level of consciousness. Methods developed within the field of cognitive psychology are presented to supplement the standard process tracing methods commonly used by consumer researchers.
Although consumption-related emotions have been studied with increasing frequency in consumer behavior, issues concerning the appropriate way to measure these emotions remain unresolved This article reviews the emotion measures currently used in consumer research and the theories on which they are based; it concludes that the existing measures are unsuited for the purpose of measuring consumption-related emotions. The article describes six empirical studies that assess the domain of consumption-related emotions, that identify an appropriate set of consumption emotion descriptors (the CES), and that compare the usefulness of this descriptor set with the usefulness of other measures in assessing consumption-related emotions. Copyright 1997 by the University of Chicago.
Pleasant ambient odors are found to affect consumer decision making depending on whether the scents are congruent or incongruent with the target product class. Two different choice contexts are examined. In experiment 1, in a static-choice context, subjects in conditions in which the odor is congruent with the product class are found to spend more time processing the data, are more holistic in their processing, are more likely to go beyond the information given, are more likely to spread their choices evenly over the whole choice set than are subjects in the incongruent-odor conditions. In experiment 2, in a dynamic-choice context, subjects in the congruent conditions are more likely to exhibit behavior that is consistent with variety seeking than are subjects in the incongruent conditions. Copyright 1995 by the University of Chicago.
This research investigates the learning that occurs throughout several information acquisition and choice experiences. The effects of three factors that may naturally vary in consumer experiences are studied: a consumer's goals, how much the consumer knows about the product's features prior to information acquisition and choice, and the content of feedback received after choice. Results show that the information consumers learn is organized in memory around the goal(s) that drives the experiences. Further, higher levels of prior feature knowledge result in more accurate knowledge after experience, but, contrary to predictions, subjects with no prior feature knowledge are quite adept at focusing on their goal in the choice process and learning goal-appropriate information. The presence of feedback and its consistency with a consumer's goal are also shown to affect the goal orientation and organization of brand and feature knowledge gained during choice experiences. Copyright 1993 by the University of Chicago.
There is discrepancy between practitioners' views of comparative advertising and null findings by academics. However, in most studies, subjects' attention to and memory of the comparative claims were inflated, which may have precluded effects on these variables and on purchase intentions. This study manipulated market share and type of comparative claim, used nonforced exposure, measured attention via a computerized magazine, and assessed memory and purchase intentions after a 24-hour delay. Some findings are that direct comparative claims attract attention and thereby enhance purchase intentions for low-share brands but detract from purchase intentions for established brands by increasing awareness of competitors and sponsor misidentifications. Copyright 1990 by the University of Chicago.
Recalling brand names is an important aspect of consumer choice in many situations. The authors develop a general Markov model that relates probabilistic aspects of recall to consumer and marketing mix variables. Then they illustrate how parameters can be estimated from recall data for three special cases of the model: The first is a “baseline” version of the model that can be used to assess the extent to which categories of brands can be automatically included in or excluded from memory search; the second is a zero-order model that can be used to estimate the effects of brand variables and individual usage rates on recall latency; and the third is a first-order model that uses aggregate recall data to assess market structure. Finally, the authors demonstrate how the model can be used in numerical analyses to evaluate awareness-building strategies.
In this research, the author examines the impact of brand extensions on consumer memory for parent brand information. The author proposes that such exposure will strengthen parent brand memory structures and facilitate retrieval processes. The author hypothesizes that the impact of extensions will be moderated by parent brand dominance, extension fit, extension number, and product category crowdedness. Two experiments are conducted. The first demonstrates that (1) exposure to brand extensions facilitates the speed with which subjects can categorize parent brands correctly, (2) this result is moderated by parent brand dominance such that nondominant brands benefit more from such exposure, and (3) extension fit moderates this effect for nondominant but not for dominant parent brands. The second study demonstrates that (1) longitudinal exposure to brand extension advertising facilitates parent brand recall but that (2) both recall and recognition are facilitated to a lesser degree than that resulting from exposure to parent brand advertising.
The popular press has recently reported that managers of retail and service outlets are diffusing scents into their stores to create more positive environments and develop a competitive advantage. These efforts are occurring despite there being no scholarly research supporting the use of scent in store environments. The authors present a review of theoretically relevant work from environmental psychology and olfaction research and a study examining the effects of ambient scent in a simulated retail environment. In the reported study, the authors find a difference between evaluations of and behaviors in a scented store environment and those in an unscented store environment. Their findings provide guidelines for managers of retail and service outlets concerning the benefits of scenting store environments.
The author presents a conceptual model of brand equity from the perspective of the individual consumer. Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A brand is said to have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when consumers react more (less) favorably to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to the same marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of the product or service. Brand knowledge is conceptualized according to an associative network memory model in terms of two components, brand awareness and brand image (i.e., a set of brand associations). Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory. Issues in building, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity are discussed, as well as areas for future research.
How does advertising work? The dominant belief of most advertisers and academics over the past several decades has been that advertising primarily works by changing consumer attitudes toward a brand. An analysis of an 11-year tracking-study in an established service category challenges this assumption. The key finding is that advertising primarily influences market share by increasing brand salience. Advertising had limited impact on brand image.
The author presents a conceptual model of brand equity from the perspective of the individual consumer. Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A brand is said to have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when consumers react more (less) favorably to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to the same marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of the product or service. Brand knowledge is conceptualized according to an associative network memory model in terms of two components, brand awareness and brand image (i. e., a set of brand associations). Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory. Issues in building, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity are discussed, as well as areas for future research.
In this research, the author examines the impact of brand extensions on consumer memory for parent brand information. The author proposes that such exposure will strengthen parent brand memory structures and facilitate retrieval processes. The author hypothesizes that the impact of extensions will be moderated by parent brand dominance, extension fit, extension number, and product category crowdedness. Two experiments are conducted. The first demonstrates that (1) exposure to brand extensions facilitates the speed with which subjects can categorize parent brands correctly, (2) this result is moderated by parent brand dominance such that nondominant brands benefit more from such exposure, and (3) extension fit moderates this effect for nondominant but not for dominant parent brands. The second study demonstrates that (1) longitudinal exposure to brand extension advertising facilitates parent brand recall but that (2) both recall and recognition are facilitated to a lesser degree than that resulting from exposure to parent brand advertising.
An odor of ambiguous quality was shown to shift in rated odor character after presentation of more prototypical odors, always in a direction contrasting with the previous context. The terpene aroma compound, dihydromyrcenol, is perceived as partially woody (pine-like) and partially citrus (lime-like) in odor character. Citrus ratings of this odor increased following exposure to woody odors. Conversely, woody ratings of dihydromyrcenol increased following exposure to citrus odors. Possible explanations for this sequential contrast effect include shifts in cognitive category boundaries, response frequency biases, and simple sensory adaptation.
The effects of the odors of lavender and cloves on three cognitive skills—memory, affective reaction to the experiment and mood—of college students are studied in two sessions, separated by 1 week. Essential oils of lavender or cloves were diffused throughout the laboratory, or no odor was presented. In the second session, approximately the same number of subjects from each odor condition of the first session influenced arithmetic reasoning in the first session (3 × 3 factorial design). Lavender adversely influenced arithmetic reasoning in the first session. At the same time, subjects' affective reactions to the experiment were more favorable with lavender present, though cloves decreased willingness-to-return. In the second session, effects on cognitive functioning were not evident, and effects on affect were complex: relative to no-odor controls, groups that had odor in at least one session expressed negative affect and unwillingness-to-return. Discussion concerned implications for the claim that lavender is physiologically relaxing, the surprising absence of an effect of an effect of odor change on memory, and possible interactions of odor and personality factors.
An experiment was conducted to investigate the potential effects of pleasant fragrances on task performance. Participants performed a word formation (anagrams) task under moderate or low stress and in the presence or absence of two different fragrances previously rated as pleasant by a large group of judges. In addition, some participants received a small gift at the start of the experimental session. Results indicated that both exposure to pleasant fragrances and receipt of a small gift significantly increased performance on the anagrams task; moreover, this was true under conditions of moderate as well as low stress. In addition, both exposure to pleasant fragrances and receipt of a small gift increased participants' willingness to help the experimenter by serving as uncompensated volunteers. These results are consistent with an interpretation suggesting that pleasant fragrances can enhance task performance by serving as a source of environmentally generated positive affect.
The findings of prior research suggest that a brand's extendibility is constrained by the degree of perceived fit between the brand and extension product categories. However, there are many examples of brands that have been extended successfully into "perceptually distant" domains. Drawing on theories of consumer information processing and product adoption, the authors identify three background traits of prior work that may help explain the discrepancy between prior research and marketplace observation: (1) limited extension information, (2) failure to account for consumers' new product adoption tendencies (i.e., earlier versus later), and (3) single exposure to proposed extensions. In this study, the authors find that the effects of fit disappear when attribute information is added to extension stimuli and are applicable only for later product adopters. The authors also find that perceived fit increases with greater exposure to an extension. Beyond implications for brand extension research, this study underscores the need to recognize that certain research design factors related to external validity, which are often assumed irrelevant, can alter what is held to be true.
Identifies and measures relevant variables (e.g., color, heat, light, and sound) involved in environmental psychology and fits them into a systematic framework. It is proposed that environmental stimuli are linked to behavioral responses by the primary emotional responses of arousal, pleasure, and dominance. (31 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Replies from eminent people show that odors have strong memory-stimulating power in a very great number of persons. Have educators and advertisers neglected them unduly? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two experiments examined the relationship between time domain patterns of EEG activity and self-reports for individuals exposed to different odorants. In Exp 1, 3 odorants produced different patterns of EEG theta activity and self reports from 9 adults, suggesting that odor administration is a reliable variable in manipulating neurophysiological response systems and may influence performance and mood. In Exp 2, EEG activity was recorded while 10 adults smelled 5 similar commercial odorous chemicals and an unscented base. Ss also completed questionnaires on odor character and mood. Results indicate that few perceptual or mood differences were produced by the odors. EEG alpha and theta activity in the left and right hemispheres, however, differed depending upon the odor presented and was dissociated from self-reports. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three experiments, using ambient odors and incidental learning procedures, examined the effectiveness of odors as memory retrieval cues. Experiment 1 showed that a single ambient odor present on both learning and testing improved recall of a list of words over a no-odor control and a group that received the odor at encoding or retrieval only. Experiment 2 replicated this result and showed that whereas reinstating the odor context improved overall recall, recall of odor-related information was not significantly enhanced by the odor cue. Finally, Experiment 3, employing implicit and explicit retrieval tasks, demonstrated that the same odor must be present on both learning and remembering for the memory benefit to occur. The memory enhancement observed with odors was not due to the effects of semantic mediation. The results are discussed within the framework of encoding specificity of memory (e.g., E. Tulving and D. M. Thomson, 1973), and implications for odor imagery and cuing effects on odor-related material are addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Measures of emotional state, physical well-being, performance, and room odor were obtained from subjects given the suggestion of a pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral ambient odor (n= 30 per condition). The hedonic quality of the feigned odor altered self-reports of pleasure, but not dominance or arousal. Subjects given the pleasant suggestion reported a more positive mood. The number of reported physical health symptoms differed as a function of the hedonic quality of the feigned odor. The category corresponding to the fewest number of physical symptoms was predominated by subjects in the pleasant condition, while subjects in the unpleasant condition predominated the category with the greatest number of symptoms. Subjects predicted higher task performance in the unpleasant condition, but no differences were found among conditions in actual performance. Room odor ratings differed in directions consistent with the hedonic quality of the feigned odor. The effects of olfactory suggestion may be relevant to the psychosomatic component of sick building syndrome and to the perception and marketing of fragrance.
High levels of central norepinephrine may be one of the possible bases for the relation between physiological and behavioral characteristics in introverts and extraverts. Olfactory sensitivity may provide an indirect measure of central norepinephrine levels due to the strong direct innervation of the olfactory bulb by projections from the locus coeruleus. In study 1, extremely shy, male adults had lower olfactory thresholds, more lightly colored eyes, and slightly more ectomorphic physiques than extremely sociable male adults. In study 2, extremely shy, blue-eyed males had somewhat lower olfactory thresholds and were significantly more ectomorphic than sociable brown-eyed males. A meta-analysis of the two studies indicated that both olfactory threshold and physique were significantly different for blue-eyed, shy males and brown-eyed, sociable males. These findings lend modest support to the hypothesis that the two groups differ in threshold of limbic responsivity to novelty as a result of differences in central norepinephrine levels.
This research investigated how a consumer's cognitive structure for a brand in a given product category affects the possible transfer of associations to other product categories. One key factor in evaluating such possible brand extensions is dominance, which can be defined as the strength of the directional association between the parent category and the branded product. Likewise, another important factor is the relatedness of the brand's parent category and the target category of the proposed extension. The 1st experiment measured dominance and relatedness via response latencies to recognize brand extensions. The 2nd experiment demonstrated that consumers’ affect for strongly category-dominant brands (a) transfers better to an extension when the proposed extension is closely rather than distantly related to the parent category and (b) transfers better than a weakly category-dominant brand's affect. Together, the research demonstrated that consumers’ response times to disconfirm the existence of product-brand pairs is related to their transfer of affect from the brand to the proposed product category. This disconfirmation method could be used as an unobtrusive measure for determining brand boundaries. The attractiveness of potential brand extensions may thus be determined without consumers making any judgments about a proposed extension other than answering whether or not it exists.
The popular and business press is enamored with the idea that the sense of smell can have strong effects on consumer responses to retail environments. The claims that odors have strong persuasive powers tantalize retailers looking for the competitive edge. Herein, we review the current paradigm of retailing-relevant olfaction research and find that "con-ventional wisdom" does not allow researchers or retailers to reliably predict olfaction effects. We suggest accessibility and availability theories as a way of explaining the current empirical research and as a method by which we can increase the reliability of capturing olfactory effects. We conclude by identifying fruitful areas of research in this interesting stimuli–that which we smell.
This paper explores the effect of olfaction on product performance judgments. An experiment is conducted to determine (1) the robustness of the olfaction effects observed in early research and (2) the underlying reason why olfaction affects judgments. It appears that cognitions, rather than hedonics, drive the observed olfaction effects.
Subjects were exposed to familiar and unfamiliar brand names in either a pleasantly scented or unscented environment. A computer recorded how much time they took to evaluate each brand. After a distracter task, their memory for the brand names was tested with recall and recognition measures. The results indicate that the presence of a pleasant ambient scent improved brand evaluations, especially for unfamiliar brands. Neither mood nor arousal appeared to mediate this process. The pleasant ambient scent also improved recall for unfamiliar, but not familiar, brand names. Analysis indicated that this process was mediated by attention, that is, the amount of time spent evaluating brand names. Recognition was not affected significantly by scent. Implications, limitations, and areas for future research are discussed.
The better recognition memory for rare as compared to frequently used words was shown to be unrelated to difference in association value, imagery, concreteness, or any change in phenomenal frequency due to exposure on the test list. But a manipulation substantially modified recognition scores. Words that were exposed just prior to the learning task for ostensibly unrelated purposes were much less well recognized than ones not so exposed. The frequency-recognition effect was thus simulated in the laboratory by manipulating situational frequency.
Although attention is a key construct in models of marketing communication and consumer choice, its selective nature has rarely been examined in common time-pressured conditions. We focus on the role of benefit salience, that is, the readiness with which particular benefits are brought to mind by consumers in relation to a given product category. Study 1 demonstrated that when product feature information was presented rapidly, individuals for whom the benefit of personalised customer service had high habitual salience displayed selective attention as evidenced by elevated recall and recognition of a target feature (a bank's “friendly employees”). Also, as expected, individual differences in habitual benefit salience affected judgements of the target product. Study 2 showed that when subjects were additionally informed about a specific product usage situation, selective attention was primarily influenced by the relevance of the target feature to benefits made salient by the usage situation; individual differences played a less important role. Discussion emphasises theoretical aspects of the findings as well as managerial implications with respect to person-situation approaches to benefit segmentation.
The ACT theory of factual memory is presented. According to this theory, information is encoded in an all-or-none manner into cognitive units and the strength of these units increases with practice and decays with delay. The essential process to memory performance is the retrieval operation. It is proposed that the cognitive units form an interconnected network and that retrieval is performed by spreading activation throughout the network. Level of activation in the network determines rate and probability of recall. With these assumptions in place, the ACT theory is shown to predict interference results in memory, judgements of associative relatedness, impact of extensive practice on memory, the differences between recognition and recall, effects of elaborative processing, and effects of reconstructive recall.
In a free recall experiment, divers learnt lists of words in two natural environments: on dry land and underwater, and recalled the words in either the environment of original learning, or in the alternative environment. Lists learnt underwater were best recalled underwater, and vice versa. A subsequent experiment shows that the disruption of moving from one environment to the other was unlikely to be responsible for context-dependent memory.
In two sessions held 1 week apart, subjects completed a performance task involving creativity, four personality tests, and
questionnaires concerning their mood, perceived health, and perceptions of the testing environment. In one session the testing
room was scented with lemon, lavender or dimethyl sulfide (DMS); in the other session it was unscented. There were 15 women
and 15 men in each odor conditon. Fewer health symptoms were reported in the lemon conditon on scented compared to unscented
days. Subjects in the DMS group were in a less pleasant mood than those in the lavender group on both scented and unscented
days; the order in which subjects were exposed to DMS played a role in the mood findings. There were no significant differences
in feelings of arousal or control. The room was rated as smelling less pleasant on scented compared to unscented days by subjects
in the DMS condition. Differences in creativity performance were not significant, but relationships emerged between personality
traits and the effect of odor on task performance. These findings are discussed in terms of how associations and expectations
concerning odors may play a role in odor's effect on humans.
We investigate the conditions under which messages that prompt low and high levels of fear are likely to be effective. Our premise is that when a low level of fear is ineffective, it is because there is insufficient elaboration of the harmful consequences of engaging in the destructive behavior. By contrast, when appeals arousing high levels of fear are ineffective, it is because too much elaboration on the harmful consequences interferes with processing of the recommended change in behavior. We find support for these expectations in the context of a communication advocating that people stop smoking. The elaboration-enhancing interventions used, self-reference and imagery processing, increased the persuasiveness of a low-fear appeal by prompting elaboration on the harmful consequences of smoking, whereas the use of two elaboration-suppressing interventions, reference to others and objective processing, increased the persuasiveness of a high-fear appeal by decreasing the extent to which consumers deny harmful consequences. Copyright 1996 by the University of Chicago.
Perceived control is proposed to be a crucial variable in mediating the consumer's emotional and behavioral responses to the physical environment and the contact personnel that constitute the service encounter. Results of an experimental test of this proposition confirm the importance of perceived control in mediating the effects of two situational features of the encounter--consumer density (the number of consumers that are present in a service setting) and consumer choice (whether it is a person's own decision to enter into, and stay in, a service situation)--on the pleasantness of the service experience and the consumer's approach-avoidance responses to the service encounter. Copyright 1991 by the University of Chicago.
This article focuses on memory-based choice situations where changes in a brand's accessibility may affect the probability that it is retrieved and considered for choice. In such instances, factors other than evaluation may affect which brands are brought to mind at purchase. Two experiments are described that manipulate the determinants of brand accessibility and measure consequent effects on retrieval, consideration, choice, and evaluation. Results provide evidence for the influence of memory during the brand-choice process. For a brand to be selected in memory-based choice, the consumer must recall that brand and fail to recall other brands that might otherwise be preferred. Copyright 1990 by the University of Chicago.