No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The Darker Side of Social Anxiety: When Aggressive Impulsivity Prevails Over Shy Inhibition
Abstract
The majority of definitions, research studies, and treatment programs that focus on social anxiety characterize the prototypical person with the disorder as shy, submissive, inhibited, and risk averse. This stereotype, however, has been challenged recently. Specifically, a subset of people with social anxiety who are aggressive, impulsive novelty seekers deviate from that prototype. People with this atypical profile show greater functional impairment and are less likely to complete or fare well in treatment compared with inhibited socially anxious people. The difference between these two groups of people with social anxiety cannot be explained by the severity, type, or number of social fears, nor by co-occurring anxiety and mood disorders. Conclusions about the nature, course, and treatment of social anxiety may be compromised by not attending to diverse behaviors and self-regulatory styles. These concerns may be compounded in neurobiological and clinical studies of people with social anxiety problems that rely on smaller samples to make claims about brain patterns and the efficacy of particular treatments.
... However, there is also evidence for a more atypical subgroup of SAD, still affected by social anxiety, but simultaneously characterized by impulsive, exploratory and risky behaviour, reflecting increased NS [7,36,[40][41][42][43]. Individuals in the high NS subtype are more often affected by comorbid impulse control, bipolar [41] and substance use disorders [7,44], suffer more often from severe substance use [42] and greater functional impairment, are less educated and of younger age [41]. ...
... Individuals in the high NS subtype are more often affected by comorbid impulse control, bipolar [41] and substance use disorders [7,44], suffer more often from severe substance use [42] and greater functional impairment, are less educated and of younger age [41]. Furthermore, there is some evidence that they are less likely to seek for, complete, or fare well in treatment [43]. Taking a closer look at lifetime impulsive control problems, Binelli et al. [7] reported (descriptive) differences between the two subtypes with more frequent suicide attempts and selfharm in the impulsive high NS subgroup. ...
... A profound characterization of SAD subtypes based on distinct personality profiles can contribute to a valid identification and diagnosis of SAD patients and promotes the conceptualization of tailored treatments [43]. With this in mind, the present study utilised a cluster analytic approach to identify and validate qualitatively different subgroups of SAD based on HA and NS in a large (n = 575) sample of SAD patients. ...
Background
Up to now several subtypes of social anxiety disorder (SAD) have been proposed.
Methods
In the present study, we used a cluster analytic approach to identify qualitatively different subgroups of SAD based on temperament characteristics, that is, harm avoidance (HA) and novelty seeking (NS) dimensions of Cloninger’s Temperament and Character Inventory.
Results
Based on a large, diverse clinical sample ( n = 575), we found evidence for two distinct subgroups of SAD: a larger (59%) prototypic, inhibited cluster characterized by high HA and low NS, and a smaller atypic, and comparatively more impulsive cluster characterized by medium to high HA and increased NS. The subgroups differed regarding a variety of sociodemographic and clinical variables. While the prototypic SAD subtype suffered from more severe SAD and depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and reduced social functioning, the atypic NS subtype showcased higher reproductive behaviour, self-directedness and -transcendence, comparatively. Additional hierarchical logistic regression highlights the contribution of age and education.
Conclusions
Our results valuably extend previous evidence for the existence of at least two distinct subtypes of SAD. A better knowledge of the characteristic differences in prototypic behaviour, personality, coping strategies and comorbidities between the identified (and further) subtypes can contribute to the development of effective prevention interventions and promotes the conceptualization of tailored treatments.
... A growing literature has identified a small and uncharacteristic subgroup of highly socially anxious individuals who are also impulsive among clinical adults (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010;Kashdan et al., 2009;Mörtberg et al., 2014), and subclinical early adolescents (Tillfors, Mörtberg, et al., 2013; as well as adults Nicholls et al., 2014). Using a subclinical longitudinal sample of Swedish early adolescents (N T1 = 2,509, M age = 14.80; 52.6% girls), we expected to identify similar subgroups of social anxiety-impulsivity, including the atypical Anxious-Impulsive subgroup. ...
... Importantly, being socially anxious and impulsive appears to be linked to various negative outcomes over time. Riskprone behavior can be adaptive in the short term by helping to reduce anxiety via for instance taking drugs, but can be detrimental in the long term and compromise individual's well-being and social adjustment (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). Because of the (expectedly) small number of people in the atypical anxious-impulsive subgroup, it is likely to go undetected by those whose job it is to help alleviate anxiety, such as mental health professionals (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). ...
... Riskprone behavior can be adaptive in the short term by helping to reduce anxiety via for instance taking drugs, but can be detrimental in the long term and compromise individual's well-being and social adjustment (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). Because of the (expectedly) small number of people in the atypical anxious-impulsive subgroup, it is likely to go undetected by those whose job it is to help alleviate anxiety, such as mental health professionals (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). Understanding heterogeneous behavior patterns of young people with elevated levels of social anxiety and impulsivity is therefore crucial if we are to help prevent potentially negative consequences of this counterintuitive trait combination. ...
A growing body of research has acknowledged the heterogeneity of subclinical social anxiety, identifying a subgroup of individuals who exhibit high levels of impulsivity. In a sample of Swedish early adolescents ( N = 2,509, M age = 13.64; 52.8% girls), we conducted latent transition analyses (LTA) to identify four classes of subclinical social anxiety-impulsivity across three time points. We identified a Low Social Anxiety-Low Impulsivity class, as well as a High Anxiety-High Impulsivity class for girls and boys, which had high levels of Time-4 internalizing problems. The latter class was less stable but larger for boys. There was also a more typical High Anxiety-Low Impulsivity class for both genders. Nevertheless, Low Anxiety-High Impulsivity girls and boys fared the worst in terms of both internalizing and externalizing problems later on. To our knowledge, this is the first study to adopt an LTA framework to investigate trajectories of early adolescent social anxiety-impulsivity over time.
... Comparing the BIS-11 scores of the groups the mean total BIS-11 scores of the SAD group were found to be significantly higher than the mean total BIS-11 scores of the control group. Several studies in the literature suggest that some subgroups of patients with SAD have higher impulsivity characteristics than others (24)(25)(26)(27). Del Carlo et al. examined the characteristics of impulsivity and additional psychiatric disorders in patients with anxiety disorders and found that the impulsivity characteristics of the anxiety disorders (Agoraphobia, Panic Disorder, and SAD) were higher than those of healthy controls (24). ...
... A more robust examination of this causal relationship may be possible in future studies with larger samples and longer patient follow-ups. However, the findings of the present study support the current literature, which suggests that SAD is an anxiety disorder, which might have impulsivity characteristics (24)(25)(26)(27). ...
... Impulsivity can also affect symptom severity and treatment outcomes of patients with any kind of mental disorders (16)(17)(18)26). Therefore, one main purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between impulsivity and symptom severity levels of patients with SAD. ...
Objective: The purpose of this study is to examine the
characteristics of impulsivity and anxiety sensitivity in
patients with Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) and to investigate
relationships between these characteristics and
the severity of SAD. Method: The sample consisted of
outpatients (n=42) who had been diagnosed with only
SAD based on the American Psychiatric Association's
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, in
addition to healthy individuals (n=51) serving as the
control group. Data collection tools were the sociodemographic
form, the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS-11),
the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI-3), and Liebowitz Social
Anxiety Scale (LSAS). Results: The mean total score of
the BIS-11 in the SAD group was found to be significantly
higher than the mean total BIS-11 score in the
control group (p <0.001). Compared to the mean total
ASI-3 score, the SAD group's mean score was significantly
higher than the control groups mean scores (p
<0.001). The analysis of variance revealed that the cognitive
and social dimensions and total ASI-3 scores were
positively correlated with total LSAS scores (r=0.434,
r=0.427, and r=0.351, respectively). Additionally, there
was a negative correlation between the attention impulsivity
subscore and the LSAS avoidance subscore (r=-
0.353). Discussion: Patients with SAD have more impulsivity
and anxiety sensitivity characteristics than healthy
individuals. Moreover, anxiety sensitivity and attention
impulsivity characteristics of patients with SAD are associated
with symptom severity.
... For some individuals, negative self-evaluation can transform into feelings of inadequacy and negative psychological states, resulting in impulsive behaviors (41). Others may respond to negative evaluations with emotions like anger, leading to impulsive aggressive behaviors (42). For athletes, social evaluation anxiety can lead to behaviors such as attacking opponents, negative competition, and dropping out of competitions. ...
... Moreover, it extends the discussion by emphasizing that the impulsivity of athletes stems from the stress of negative social evaluations and a deficit in self-regulation abilities. The fear of negative evaluations increases athletes' anxiety on the field, making them more prone to irritability and depression (42). Inadequate self-regulation skills do not help them overcome this anxiety and regain a favorable competitive state, resulting in mistakes, negative performances, withdrawals, or even a series of aggressive behaviors (62). ...
Introduction
Athletes, due to frequent physical interactions in competitive sports, are prone to impulsive behavior. Impulsive behavior is a prevalent psychological factor in sports, often leading to performance-affecting errors. This cross-sectional survey investigated the relationship between mindfulness and athletes’ impulsive behavior.
Methods
We sampled 403 athletes from youth training centers, universities, sports academies, and clubs in China using convenience and snowball sampling. Using AMOS v23, we analyzed the data with a structural equation model.
Results
Our structural equation model confirmed that mindfulness and self-regulation inversely correlate with impulsive behavior, while social evaluation anxiety positively correlates with impulsive behavior. Furthermore, self-regulation and social evaluation anxiety serve as intermediaries in the link between mindfulness and impulsive behavior.
Discussions
This research suggests introducing mindfulness meditation practices in competitive settings to improve athletes’ social evaluation anxiety and enhance their self-regulation abilities, thereby boosting their psychological health and curbing impulsive behavior.
... The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between social anxiety and aggressive responses from an individualcentered perspective and to provide reasonable explanations for their association. This contributes to dispelling the stereotype that social anxiety always leads to avoidance and withdrawal, enabling a comprehensive understanding of the diverse coping strategies individuals employ in response to social anxiety (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). ...
... The present study further enriches this line of research by finding that individuals with impulsive social anxiety are also more aggressive. In clinical observation and diagnosis, few researchers and therapists consider diagnosing impulsive social anxiety as a social anxiety disorder (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). Since impulsive social anxiety exhibits different behavioral responses than typical social anxiety, it is easily missed and misdiagnosed by clinicians. ...
Although previous studies identified a subgroup of social anxiety characterized by high impulsivity, it has not received sufficient attention. The purpose of this study was to explore social anxiety-impulsivity profiles and examine differences in aggression across profiles in a Chinese sample. The latent profile analysis was conducted to identify distinct profiles among 515 college students (53.98% male) based on social anxiety constructs and impulsive behaviors. The results revealed six distinct profiles: low social anxiety-low impulsivity, low social anxiety-high impulsivity, moderate social anxiety-high impulsivity, moderate social anxiety-moderate impulsivity, high social anxiety-low impulsivity, and high social anxiety-high impulsivity. The combination of moderate to high social anxiety and high impulsivity reported more aggression than the other profiles. In contrast, the low social anxiety-low impulsivity subgroup reported the lowest aggression. Current findings provide further evidence for the presence of impulsive social anxiety subtypes and offer novel insights into the mixed results regarding the relationship between social anxiety and aggression.
... People with social interaction anxiety are likelier to feel distressed regarding emotional experiences, avoid or suppress emotions, avoid emotion expression, and express negative emotions more than positive emotions (Spokas et al. 2009;Turk et al. 2005). Emotional difficulties relate to challenges with regulating impulsivity and engagement in potentially harmful behaviors, including HRSB (Kashdan et al. 2009;Kashdan and Hofmann 2008;Kashdan and McKnight 2010). Regarding sexual satisfaction, difficulties with emotions among men are associated with increased solitary sexual behavior and decreased partnered sexual behavior, perhaps to distract from negative emotions (Dosch et al. 2016). ...
... Thus, although the effect sizes did not directly replicate, the significance and direction of differences in indicator means did. The present study's results also support other findings regarding the heterogeneity of social interaction anxiety (see Kashdan and McKnight 2010). The second goal of the present study was to replicate the Rahm-Knigge et al. (2018) study finding that the HSHU profile would be more likely than the HSLU profile to engage in HRSB. ...
Social anxiety disorder is prevalent and negatively impacts adolescents and young adults. People with social interaction anxiety, a presentation category of social anxiety disorder pertaining to social relationships, tend to be more withdrawn, avoidant, and sexually dissatisfied. Some individuals with social interaction anxiety are more likely to engage in health-risk sexual behavior (HRSB), likely associated with individual differences. The present study used finite mixture modeling to discern profiles comprised of social interaction anxiety and individual differences previously associated with HRSB, replicating and extending previous findings (Rahm-Knigge et al. 2018). We also examined differences in sexual satisfaction among profiles. We replicated identifying two profiles high in social interaction anxiety that substantively differed in response to positive and negative emotions, emotion-regulation strategies, risk seeking, and non-acceptance of emotions. The profile high in social interaction anxiety and these individual differences was likelier to engage in HRSB than the other high social anxiety profile. Both high social interaction anxiety profiles were similarly low in sexual satisfaction. Despite differences in individual differences and engagement in HRSB, profiles high in social interaction anxiety reported similarly lower sexual satisfaction than the profiles low in social interaction anxiety.
... Typically, many individuals with social anxiety (59-79%) are classified as behaviorally inhibited, withdrawn, and risk averse. However, studies indicate a subgroup of socially anxious individuals are less inhibited (21-41%; Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). Within the disinhibited group, socially anxious adults tend to seek out new experiences and engage in higher levels of risky behaviors (e.g., frequent unsafe sexual activity, aggression, substance use). ...
... As such, patterns amongst the constructs may be different from clinical samples of socially anxious adolescents. Literature assessing social anxiety and aggressive behavior suggests that socially anxious adults in both clinical and community samples show aggressive/risky behaviors (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). However, it is unclear whether this pattern would be present in an adolescent sample. ...
Social anxiety is linked to more covert forms of aggressive behavior, particularly reactive and relational aggression in early adolescent and young adult samples. Adolescents with social anxiety and those who engage in reactive relational aggression are also more likely to have difficulties regulating emotions (e.g., anger) and show maladaptive cognitive coping styles (e.g., rumination). The goal of the present study was to assess the relationship between social anxiety and reactive relational aggression in adolescents (14-17 years), combining the form and function of aggression, and to examine trait anger and anger rumination as underlying factors that may explain the relationship between social anxiety and reactive relational aggression. The current study hypothesized that adolescents with social anxiety would engage in reactive relational aggression through the use of anger rumination, and this relationship would only be present in adolescents with higher levels of trait anger. High school adolescents in grades 9 to 12 (N=105; Mage = 15.43; 61% female) were recruited through their local school and community to complete a 30-minute, battery of questionnaires examining social anxiety, trait anger, anger rumination, and reactive relational aggression. Adolescents completed questionnaires anonymously via an online survey platform, Qualtrics, and were subsequently compensated for their time. Results supported study hypotheses. Simple regression analyses found that social anxiety was positively related to trait anger, anger rumination and reactive relational aggression. Trait anger and anger rumination were also positively correlated with reactive relational aggression. A conditional process analysis was conducted to test the major study hypothesis. Adolescents with social anxiety were more likely to engage in reactive relational aggression if they ruminated about experiences that created anger, and this relationship was present in adolescents with higher levels of trait anger. Gender differences were also explored. Higher rates of social anxiety and anger rumination were found in females. No other gender differences were found. Overall, socially anxious adolescents showed a greater tendency to engage in reactive relational aggression adding to the current literature. Difficulties regulating negative emotions, like anger, and ineffective cognitive coping strategies, such as anger rumination, were precipitating factors that likely maintained socially anxious and aggressive behaviors.
... In the present study, the impulsivity characteristics of patients with agoraphobia and social phobia were found to be significantly higher than those of the simple and control groups. Several studies in the literature have investigated the impulsivity characteristics of anxiety disorders 6,[25][26][27][28][29][30] . Studies in the field of impulsivity characteristics of anxiety disorders have demonstrated that some of the patients with anxiety disorders have high impulsivity characteristics regardless of the additional symptoms of mood disorder or personality disorder 6,[25][26][27][28][29][30] . ...
... Several studies in the literature have investigated the impulsivity characteristics of anxiety disorders 6,[25][26][27][28][29][30] . Studies in the field of impulsivity characteristics of anxiety disorders have demonstrated that some of the patients with anxiety disorders have high impulsivity characteristics regardless of the additional symptoms of mood disorder or personality disorder 6,[25][26][27][28][29][30] . In a study by Summerfeldt et al., the impulsivity characteristics of patients with various anxiety disorders were examined by administering the BIS-11 scale, and patients with social phobia and those with panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia) found to have a significantly higher BIS-11 total score and attention and non-planning sub-scores than other groups including healthy controls 28 . ...
Abstract Background: The relationship between impulsivity and nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) has been revealed in several mental disorders other than phobias. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among impulsivity, anxiety sensitivity, and NSSI characteristics in patients with phobias, and to compare these relationships with healthy controls. Methods: The sample of this study consisted of outpatients (n = 109) who had been diagnosed with social phobia, agoraphobia or simple phobia in addition to healthy individuals (n = 51) serving as the control group. Data collection tools were the socio-demographic form, the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS-11), the Inventory of Statements About Self-Injury (ISAS), and the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI-3). Results: Mean BIS-11 and ASI-3 scores in the social phobia and agoraphobia groups were found to be significantly higher than those in the control group. In addition, a positive correlation was found between ISAS and cognitive anxiety sensitivity scores in the agoraphobia and simple phobia groups. Discussion: The study revealed a positive correlation between cognitive anxiety sensitivity and NSSI in both the agoraphobia and simple phobia groups. The results of this study indicate that anxiety sensitivity may play a regulatory role between impulsivity and NSSI in some sub-groups of phobia.
... There is a definite relationship between anxiety and risky behavior, but there are two distinct perspectives. Some experts believe that anxiety is associated with a tendency to engage in risky behavior (Kashdan et al. 2008;Kashdan & McKnight, 2010;Soleimani et al., 2017;Van Hamel et al., 2007), and according to the Van Hamel et al.'s (2007) model, high levels of anxiety encourage individuals to practice risky behaviors to reduce arousal. However, others argue that anxiety signals the presence of potential threats, leading individuals to avoid risks associated with potentially risky behavior (Broman-Fulks et al., 2014;Maner et al., 2007;Maner & Schmidt, 2006). ...
This study examines how risky online behaviors among Czech adolescents relate to social support, depression,
and anxiety. The behaviors investigated include sending videos to strangers, receiving explicit content, sharing
nude photos, encountering monetary offers for meetings, and exposure to blackmail. A nationwide sample of
1095 adolescents aged 15–19 participated in a paper-pencil survey. The research utilized the Scale of Online
Risky Behavior (SORB), the Social Support Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (CASSS-CZ), and the
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21) for data collection. Findings indicate the prevalence of risky online
behavior: 10.8% of participants reported sending videos, 34.5% received explicit content, 11.3% shared nude
photos, 9.2% encountered monetary offers for meetings, and 12.3% experienced online blackmail, with higher
rates observed in females. Anxiety and depression were consistently linked to an increased likelihood of engaging
in all types of risky online behavior. Parental support was negatively associated with the likelihood of sending a
video of oneself to a stranger and receiving video with inappropriate sexual content, while support from friends
showed no significant relationship with any risky behavior. Further research is needed to understand factors
influencing risky online behavior.
... This subgroup has been observed in adults seeking clinical help (Kachin et al., 2001), as well as in general populations of adolescents (Tillfors et al., 2013;Van Zalk et al., 2020). Approximately one in five persons with social anxiety falls into this highly impulsive subgroup of social anxiety (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). Nonetheless, there are still many gaps in understanding of this subgroup, and further research is required (Tillfors et al., 2021). ...
Objective: This review aimed to systematically gather empirical data on the link between social anxiety disorder and
ADHD in both clinical and non-clinical populations among adolescents and adults. Method: Literature searches were
conducted in PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, resulting in 1,739 articles. After screening, 41 articles were
included. Results were summarized using a narrative approach. Results: The prevalence of ADHD in adolescents and
adults with SAD ranged from 1.1% to 72.3%, while the prevalence of SAD in those with ADHD ranged from 0.04% to
49.5%. Studies indicate that individuals with both SAD and ADHD exhibit greater impairments. All studies were judged to
be of weak quality, except for two studies which were rated moderate quality. Discussion: Individuals with SAD should
be screened for ADHD and vice versa, to identify this common comorbidity earlier. Further research is needed to better
understand the prevalence of comorbid ADHD and SAD in adolescents.
... Notably, impulsivity surfaces as a crucial dimension warranting investigation (Patton et al., 1995). Extensive research underscores the intimate connection between impulsivity and SAD (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010;Lipton et al., 2016). For instance, a study within a clinical SAD cohort discovered a negative correlation between attention impulsivity and social avoidance (Ölmez & Ataoðlu, 2018). ...
This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of social anxiety disorder (SAD) among Malaysian secondary school students during the COVID-19 pandemic and to explore its correlations with demographic variables, impulsivity behavior, and internet gaming disorder (IGD). A total of 1574 participants from 12 government secondary schools across five Malaysian states, comprising 569 males and 1005 females, completed an online questionnaire containing validated Malay versions of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form. The findings revealed a notable SAD prevalence rate of 40.53% among Malaysian adolescents. Logistic regression analysis unveiled significant associations between SAD and factors such as attention impulsiveness (OR = 2.58, p < .001), motor impulsiveness (OR = 1.47, p = .03), female gender (OR = 2, p < .001), Malay ethnicity, and IGD (OR = 1.08, p < .001). In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the extent of social anxiety experienced by Malaysian secondary school students during the pandemic, shedding light on the demographic and psychosocial factors linked to its emergence. Furthermore, the research underscores a robust link between IGD and SAD, emphasizing the need for comprehensive interventions addressing both issues concurrently. By recognizing the multifaceted nature of these associations, future interventions can be tailored to provide holistic support for adolescents' mental well-being.
... For instance, work has found support for hostility as an important differentiating factor between subgroups of individuals with social anxiety (Cooper & Anderson, 2019), and a growing body of work has begun to challenge the idea that SAD is only characterized by inhibition, submissive, and avoidant behaviors (Andrews et al., 2019;Hanby et al., 2012;Kashdan, Collins, & Elhai, 2006;Kashdan, Elhai, & Breen, 2008;Kashdan & Hofmann, 2008;Kashdan, McKnight, Richey, & Hofmann, 2009). SAD, the fourth most common psychiatric disorder (Kessler et al., 2005) is marked by a persistent fear of negative evaluation from one's peers or embarrassment (APA, 2013); however, there is accumulating evidence that subsets of individuals with social anxiety disorder differentially respond to social situations (Kashdan & Hofmann, 2008;Kashdan & McKnight, 2010;Kashdan, McKnight, et al., 2009). Similar to Cooper & Anderson's (2019) findings, Kashdan, McKnight, and colleagues (2009) also found support for two distinct groups within a large sample of individuals with SAD: an inhibited prototypical group that was characterized by low aggression and a disinhibited atypical group that was characterized by moderate to high aggression and high anger. ...
... Risk-taking is reflected in behaviours like high-risk sexual behaviour and substance use [9][10][11][12][13][14] and results from a combination of low-risk perception and high-risk propensity [15]. For example, low perception of risk for HIV is associated with engagement in activities such as having multiple sexual partners, early age of first sexual intercourse, unprotected sexual intercourse and inconsistent use of condoms, and not seeking treatment for sexually transmitted diseases [16,17]. ...
Background
Adherence to antiretroviral therapy and COVID-19 preventive behaviours among people living with HIV during the pandemic has received little attention in the literature. To address this gap in knowledge, the present study assessed the associations between viral load, adherence to antiretroviral therapy and the use of COVID-19 prevention strategies during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. This was a secondary analysis of data generated through an online survey recruiting participants from 152 countries. Complete data from 680 respondents living with HIV were extracted for this analysis.
Results
The findings suggest that detectable viral load was associated with lower odds of wearing facemasks (AOR: 0.44; 95% CI:0.28–0.69; p < 0.01) and washing hands as often as recommended (AOR: 0.64; 95% CI: 0.42–0.97; p = 0.03). Also, adherence to the use of antiretroviral drugs was associated with lower odds of working remotely (AOR: 0.60; 95% CI: 0.38–0.94; p = 0.02). We found a complex relationship between HIV positive status biological parameters and adherence to COVID-19 preventive measures that may be partly explained by risk-taking behaviours. Further studies are needed to understand the reasons for the study findings.
... Other studies have previously found a positive relationship between neuroticism and anthropomorphizing tendencies [88,94]. Neuroticism is characterized by negative emotional states and instability and is associated with social anxiety and avoidance of social evaluations [95,96]. Moreover, neuroticism is positively correlated with loneliness [97,98], which can increase the probability of being pessimistic, anxious, and distrustful in social situations [99,100]. ...
Social patterns and roles can develop when users talk to intelligent voice assistants (IVAs) daily. The current study investigates whether users assign different roles to devices and how this affects their usage behavior, user experience, and social perceptions. Since social roles take time to establish, we equipped 106 participants with Alexa or Google assistants and some smart home devices and observed their interactions for nine months. We analyzed diverse subjective (questionnaire) and objective data (interaction data). By combining social science and data science analyses, we identified two distinct clusters—users who assigned a friendship role to IVAs over time and users who did not. Interestingly, these clusters exhibited significant differences in their usage behavior, user experience, and social perceptions of the devices. For example, participants who assigned a role to IVAs attributed more friendship to them used them more frequently, reported more enjoyment during interactions, and perceived more empathy for IVAs. In addition, these users had distinct personal requirements, for example, they reported more loneliness. This study provides valuable insights into the role-specific effects and consequences of voice assistants. Recent developments in conversational language models such as ChatGPT suggest that the findings of this study could make an important contribution to the design of dialogic human–AI interactions.
... Batanova & Loukas, 2011) and forensic psychiatric outpatients' anger (Kraaimaat & Hornsveld, 2022). Also, there is evidence that a subgroup of patients with a social anxiety disorder shows aggressive behavior (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). Therefore, emotion regulation (discrimination of social anxiety and anger) and prosocial skills training are essential components of treatment programs aimed at reducing anger and aggression (e.g. ...
The present study examined the psychological determinants of self-reported and observed aggression in male violent forensic psychiatric inpatients. Baseline data came from 232 inpatients referred to a cognitive–behavioral treatment program. Linear regression models were used to assess the relationship between the patients’ psychological characteristics and aggressive behavior. Self-reported aggression was studied with cross-sectional data, while the inpatients’ observed aggression in the ward was investigated with prospective data. The main factors contributing to the prediction of self-reported aggression were state anger, antisocial lifestyle and agreeableness, while the main factors contributing to the prediction of observed aggression were trait anger and agreeableness. The findings support the focus of treatment programs for forensic psychiatric inpatients on anger management.
... Anxiety is a persistent problem in multiple fields of study (Daniel .M. 2012). In 1980, SAD (social anxiety disorder) was legitimately documented as a psychiatric condition defined by an extreme fear and prevention of social situations, where there is probable for valuation or denial by others (Kashdan B. T. & McKnight, 2010). Depression is common now in youth and it has many reasons and all of those one of them is social media. ...
In the present scenario students have modern ways to communicate with one another; they can interact easily through social media platforms. A lot of advantages and disadvantages of social media as one disadvantage is social anxiety. Social anxiety is the reason of hyper depression; it negatively effects physically, psychologically and increase complexity among students. These all causes are interlinked with social media. To study about the social anxiety among students, Social media needs to aware the youth about the harmful effects of it. The Purposive sampling technique was used; students were selected who are totally engaged with social media websites. The total numbers of 50 respondents of Postgraduate regular students of Kurukshetra University were selected for this study. The data collected through survey method. According to the research paper findings, there is no correlation between social media and social anxiety. Which means social media is not playing any crucial role in developing social anxiety among university students. Social anxiety may occur in situations, but in this research, social media don't develop the social anxiety among students. The purpose of this research paper is to find the relationship between social media and social anxiety. This study revealed that there is no connection between social media and social anxiety among the students of Kurukshetra University.
... It involves the perceived self-efficacy in expressing the positive affect, managing anger and irritation, and managing despondency and distress (Caprara et al., 2008). Kashdan and McKnight (2010) found that some individuals with social anxiety have poor emotion regulation ability, face difficulty in adapting to environmental changes, and experience varied negative emotions and strong hostile impulses. Individuals with social anxiety are emotionally instable, impatient, and impulsive; they express their emotions through repression and concealing and exhibit poor emotion regulation ability (Kashdan et al., 2011). ...
The present study explores the underlying mechanism of the relationship between college students’ social anxiety and mobile phone addiction. Adopting college students’ social anxiety scale, regulatory emotional self-efficacy scale, subjective well-being scale and mobile phone addiction scale, this research tested valid samples of 680 Chinese college students. The results indicated that social anxiety exerted a significant and positive impact on mobile phone addiction. Regulatory emotional self-efficacy played a partial mediating role between social anxiety and mobile phone addiction. Subjective well-being also played a partial mediating role between social anxiety and mobile phone addiction. Moreover, both regulatory emotional self-efficacy and subjective well-being were found to play a chain mediating role between social anxiety and mobile phone addiction. The study provides valuable insights into the impact of college students’ social anxiety on mobile phone addiction.
... Modest trait-state convergence raises questions about if and how trait and state measures assess different constructs (or different components of the same construct). Third, a subset of people with SAD deviate from the avoidance-oriented prototype and more frequently use approach-oriented strategies to manage anxiety (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). People with this atypical profile demonstrate more difficulty managing emotions and adapting to situational demands (Kashdan et al., 2008), suggesting that a broader assessment of regulatory strategies may better capture the breadth of regulatory dysfunction in SAD. ...
Background
Emotion regulation flexibility is a person's tendency to shift their use of emotion regulation strategies in response to contextual demands. A lack of flexibility is thought to underlie affective disorders, yet conceptualizations of “flexibility” vary widely, and few studies have empirically assessed flexibility. In this study, we outline methods for measuring emotion regulation flexibility and then examine evidence for inflexibility in people with a common affective disorder: social anxiety disorder (SAD).
Methods
Participants were community adults diagnosed with SAD and a psychologically healthycontrol group who completed a 14-day experience-sampling study. Participants recorded their most anxiety-provoking event each day, how they evaluated contextual demands (i.e., perceived controllability, emotional intensity) of these events, and their use of seven emotion regulation strategies to manage anxiety. Hypotheses and analyses were preregistered with the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/s7kqj/).
Results
Participants with SAD demonstrated some evidence of inflexibility. They used three disengagement strategies (rumination, thought suppression, expressive suppression) more often than controls and did so independently of contextual demands (specifically, perceived controllability). Nonetheless, participants with SAD largely demonstrated similar regulatory patterns as controls, most notably in their use of engagement strategies (acceptance, cognitive, reappraisal, problem-solving).
Limitations
We measured two of many possible contextual demands, did not compare to a mixed clinical group or other affective disorders (e.g., depression), and did not assess temporal sequences of strategy use.
Conclusions
People with SAD demonstrate some inflexibility in their use of disengagement regulation strategies.
... Both constructs share certain underlying characteristics such as the fear of negative evaluation, shyness, increased attention to social threats, and social withdrawal (Mattick & Clarke, 1998;Ruch et al., 2014). Empirically, this notion converges well with their convergent correlates, such as, among others, introverted neurotic personality (Ďurka & Ruch, 2015;Kotov et al., 2007), increased anger-proneness (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010;Papousek et al., 2014), victim of bullying-type behaviors (occurring both in young children and in adolescents; Navarro et al., 2011;Proyer et al., 2012), and poor emotional regulation (Goldin et al., 2014;Weiss et al., 2012). Carretero-Dios et al. (2010b) provided the first empirically robust support for the distinctiveness of gelotophobia, as measured by the GELOPH-15, and social anxiety. ...
The GELOPH-15 is a self-report measure that assesses individual differences in the fear of being laughed at (i.e., gelotophobia), a relatively understudied but important trait that is closely related to social anxiety. Using a multitrait–multimethod (MTMM) approach, the convergent and discriminant validity of the GELOPH-15 scale was examined based on 217 self- and 651 peer ratings (of three close acquaintances per target) of the traits gelotophobia, social anxiety, and paranoid ideation. Participants completed the Spanish versions of the GELOPH-15, the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale, and the Paranoia Scale. Applying MTMM models of multilevel confirmatory factor analyses (ML-CFA-MTMM) revealed relatively high associations between the self- and peer ratings, supporting the convergent validity of the GELOPH-15. Discriminant validity analyses confirmed the expected relationship patterns of gelotophobia with social anxiety and paranoid ideation (i.e., strong, but not perfect associations). The results showed that the ML-CFA-MTMM models might be a useful tool for analyzing the convergent and discriminant validity based on self- and peer ratings.
... Impulsive behavior has also been associated with social anxiety (Helbig-Lang, 2014;Hoffman, 2007). Some studies have even found evidence of an impulsive sub-type of social anxiety, finding that individuals with social anxiety and higher levels of impulsive behavior also exhibit higher rates of negative behavioral responses to situations that elicit anxiety (e.g., anger, substance use) and experience greater problems managing emotions than individuals with social anxiety disorder who are lower in impulsive behavior (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010;Nicholls et al., 2014). As a result, when high levels of social anxiety and impulsivity co-occur, DPDR may occur as an unconscious strategy for regulating intense emotions. ...
Social anxiety is associated with dissociative experiences, which are thought to occur when coping or avoidance is unavailable, and distress is experienced. Emotion regulation difficulties maintain social anxiety. The current study examined the moderating effect of emotion regulation on social anxiety and dissociation. It was hypothesized that social anxiety would be positively associated with dissociation and that emotion regulation difficulties would moderate the relationship between social anxiety and dissociation such that the relationship would be stronger at higher levels of emotion regulation difficulties. College students aged 18 or older (n = 572) were recruited from a large public university. All participants completed measures of social anxiety, emotion regulation, and dissociation as part of a larger online study. Results supported both hypotheses. Future studies should investigate dissociative symptoms during times of acute stress or anxiety in social anxiety, how emotion regulation difficulties are associated with the genesis of dissociative symptoms, and how these variables are related in more diverse community samples.
... Here, social anxiety appears to be associated with lower evidence accumulation suggesting more rapid impulsive decision making irrespective of the decision-making scenario. Classically, patients with SAD display behaviours linked to being shy, submissive, behaviourally inhibited, and risk-aversive 46,47 . Our findings suggest social anxiety may be related to inadequate evaluation of evidence. ...
Doubt can modulate our decision-making process. Although conceptually different, conflict (choice similarity: difficult or easy) and uncertainty (individual reward-likelihoods: uncertain or certain) are commonly related and often conflated. By posing as an evidence-accumulation problem, we assessed doubt, dissociating contextual conflict, and uncertainty and showed obsessive-compulsive disorder patients have specific impairments while processing difficult-uncertain contexts. It remains unclear whether this deficit is disorder-specific or a reflection of broader mental-health dimension. Multi-dimensional trans-diagnostic approaches help to tease out the mechanistic nature (specific or usual) of clinical observations and their validity in sub-clinical populations. Here, we first aimed to validate our conflict-uncertainty analysis approach in a larger non-clinical cohort (n>1300). Second, we assessed the relationship between decisional-parameters of difficult-uncertain contexts and a trans-diagnostic factor capturing individual differences in ‘compulsive-behavior and intrusive-thoughts’. We replicate our previous findings in a large, general population sample and highlight that the amount of evidence accumulated in difficult–uncertain scenarios increases functionally with compulsive-behavior and intrusive-thought emphasizing greater cautiousness. We further show that those with high social-withdrawal tendencies gather less evidence irrespective of context reflecting a ‘jumping to conclusions’ tendency in judgment. We attempt to bridge the gap between behavior and psychological markers by integrating trans-diagnostic and computational methods.
... These challenges are particularly important for understanding anxious youths who will exhibit heightened risk taking (e.g., substance use, unprotected sex, impulsive decisions), which is often theorized to serve as a strategy for regulating affective distress (108)(109)(110)(111)(112)(113)(114). Whether the tendency toward heightened risk taking is specific to some anxiety disorders versus others and whether it is modulated by age and/or contextual factors also remains unclear. ...
Avoidant behavior is a defining feature of pediatric anxiety disorders. Although prior research has examined it from the perspective of early information processing events, there has been relatively less consideration of the processes by which anxious youth make avoidant decisions and how these choices are reinforced over time. Studies of risk taking are valuable in this regard as they consider how individuals identify the pros and cons of their choices, how they weight potential gains and losses and estimate their respective probabilities, and how they tolerate the uncertainty intrinsic to any decision. In this review, we place risk taking within existing models of information processing in pediatric anxiety disorders and highlight the particular value of this construct for informing models of developmental psychopathology and individual differences in outcome over time. We review existing behavioral and neurobiological studies of risk taking in anxious youth and conclude by identifying directions for future research.
... Generally, ODD and CD are especially strongly associated with externalizing disorders (such as ADHD) as well as with internalizing disorders such as anxiety and mood disorders [9,[32][33][34]. The presence of anxiety symptoms alongside disruptive and aggressive behavior has been relatively well studied [35][36][37][38][39], with some consensus on the existence of distinct variants of psychopathy based on the presence of anxiety symptoms. Despite some differences, most studies agree on the existence of two distinct subgroups of individuals with high levels of CU traits and either low (primary variant) or high (secondary variant) anxiety who differ in their levels of psychopathology, personality traits, severity of behavioral problems and gender [13,16,[40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48]. ...
Disruptive behavior during childhood and adolescence is heterogeneous and associated with several psychiatric disorders. The identification of more homogeneous subgroups might help identify different underlying pathways and tailor treatment strategies. Children and adolescents (aged 8-18) with disruptive behaviors (N = 121) and healthy controls (N = 100) were included in a European multi-center cognition and brain imaging study. They were assessed via a battery of standardized semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. K-means cluster-model analysis was carried out to identify subgroups within the group with disruptive behaviors, based on clinical symptom profiles, callous-unemotional (CU) traits, and proactive and reactive aggression. The resulting subgroups were then compared to healthy controls with regard to these clinical variables. Three distinct subgroups were found within the group with disruptive behaviors. The High CU Traits subgroup presented elevated scores for CU traits, proactive aggression and conduct disorder (CD) symptoms, as well as a higher proportion of comorbidities (CD + oppositional defiant disorder + attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The ADHD and Affective Dysregulation subgroup showed elevated scores for internalizing and ADHD symptoms, as well as a higher proportion of females. The Low Severity subgroup had relatively low levels of psychopathology and aggressive behavior compared to the other two subgroups. The High CU Traits subgroup displayed more antisocial behaviors than the Low Severity subgroup, but did not differ when compared to the ADHD and Affective Dysregulation subgroup. All three subgroups differed significantly from the healthy controls in all the variables analyzed. The present study extends previous findings on subgrouping children and adolescents with disruptive behaviors using a multidimensional approach and describes levels of anxiety, affective problems, ADHD, proactive aggression and CU traits as key factors that differentiate conclusively between subgroups.
... Generally, ODD and CD are especially strongly associated with externalizing disorders (such as ADHD) as well as with internalizing disorders such as anxiety and mood disorders [9,[32][33][34]. The presence of anxiety symptoms alongside disruptive and aggressive behavior has been relatively well studied [35][36][37][38][39], with some consensus on the existence of distinct variants of psychopathy based on the presence of anxiety symptoms. Despite some differences, most studies agree on the existence of two distinct subgroups of individuals with high levels of CU traits and either low (primary variant) or high (secondary variant) anxiety who differ in their levels of psychopathology, personality traits, severity of behavioral problems and gender [13,16,[40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48]. ...
Disruptive behavior during childhood and adolescence is heterogeneous and associated with several psychiatric disorders. The identification of more homogeneous subgroups might help identify different underlying pathways and tailor treatment strategies. Children and adolescents (aged 8–18) with disruptive behaviors (N = 121) and healthy controls (N = 100) were included in a European multi-center cognition and brain imaging study. They were assessed via a battery of standardized semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. K-means cluster-model analysis was carried out to identify subgroups within the group with disruptive behaviors, based on clinical symptom profiles, callous–unemotional (CU) traits, and proactive and reactive aggression. The resulting subgroups were then compared to healthy controls with regard to these clinical variables. Three distinct subgroups were found within the group with disruptive behaviors. The High CU Traits subgroup presented elevated scores for CU traits, proactive aggression and conduct disorder (CD) symptoms, as well as a higher proportion of comorbidities (CD + oppositional defiant disorder + attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The ADHD and Affective Dysregulation subgroup showed elevated scores for internalizing and ADHD symptoms, as well as a higher proportion of females. The Low Severity subgroup had relatively low levels of psychopathology and aggressive behavior compared to the other two subgroups. The High CU Traits subgroup displayed more antisocial behaviors than the Low Severity subgroup, but did not differ when compared to the ADHD and Affective Dysregulation subgroup. All three subgroups differed significantly from the healthy controls in all the variables analyzed. The present study extends previous findings on subgrouping children and adolescents with disruptive behaviors using a multidimensional approach and describes levels of anxiety, affective problems, ADHD, proactive aggression and CU traits as key factors that differentiate conclusively between subgroups.
... In general, socially anxious individuals will emphasize avoidance behaviors to minimize the potential for social rejection, embarrassment, and negative outcomes. However, some individuals may use alternative strategies that are more approach-focused, which tend to fall into categories of impulsive or risk-taking behavior (Kashdan, 2007;Kashdan & Hofmann, 2008;Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). For example, some individuals with high social anxiety and disinhibition are more likely to have problems managing negative emotions, report less psychological flexibility (e.g., adapting to change), and engage in higher rates of substance misuse . ...
Individuals may drink or use cannabis to cope with social anxiety, and drinking or using cannabis prior to social situations (e.g., pregaming) may be a way to limit the experience of anxiety when entering social settings. However, theoretical and empirical work has reported mixed associations between social anxiety and substance use, specifically alcohol and cannabis. Little work has looked at how other variables, such as impulsivity (a central component to high risk drinking such as pregaming), may shed light onto these mixed findings. College students who reported past year pregaming (n = 363) completed self-report surveys. Supporting prior work, we found that social anxiety was associated with fewer pregaming days, even among those high in sensation seeking. However, those reporting higher social anxiety also reported higher cannabis use during pregaming, specifically among those who reported high sensation seeking and high positive urgency. Results suggest specific facets of impulsivity may affect the association between social anxiety and cannabis use during high risk drinking events.
... Thus, they feel that others in their environment treat them unfairly and are hostile towards them. For example, some students deliberately damage the private belongings of shy students or mock them, which only fuels their aggression (Kashdan & Mcknight, 2010). Specifically, when they find themselves in tense interpersonal relationships, particularly when they are attacked by peers, such experiences strengthen their hostility and aggression towards others. ...
Many people empirically believe that shyness, as a withdrawn personality trait, is not correlated or is negatively correlated with aggression, however, previous studies have found that shy individuals show higher levels of aggression. According to the social fitness model, shy children are more likely to be excluded from the outside world and to exist in an internal state of unease. From this perspective, the present study investigated the effects of shyness on aggression by considering peer victimization and security and by finding moderating factors (parent–child attachment) to improve this phenomenon. The sample consisted of 689 children. Questionnaires were utilized to investigate the mediating mechanism of shyness on aggression from the perspective of peer victimization and security in children and the possible moderating effect of parent–child attachment. The results showed that shyness not only directly predicts aggression but also can influence aggression through the multiple mediating effects of peer victimization and security. In addition, we found that mother–child attachment moderated the relationship between shyness and peer victimization and between shyness and security. Father–child attachment moderated the relationship between security and aggression and between shyness and aggression.
... Kaygı bozukluğu bulunan birey, kendisini reddeden ve/veya engelleyen diğerlerinin kendisine saldıracağı ve zarar vereceği düşüncesiyle onlardan önce saldırıya geçebilir. Sosyal kaygı bozukluğu olan bireyin bu tür stratejileri onun kendisini savunmasında başarılı sonuçlar elde ederse, bu başarılı sonuç sosyal öğrenme kuramı çerçevesinde ele alındığında saldırgan stratejileri pekiştirebilir (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). Başka bir ifadeyle, sürekli kaygı düzeyi yüksek olan bireyler sosyal ilişkilerinde, sürekli reddedildiği ve/veya eleştirildiği hissine kapılır. ...
Bu araştırmanın amacı, dindarlık, sürekli kaygı ve saldırganlık arasındaki ilişki ve etkileşimleri tasvir ve tespit etmektir. Ayrıca, cinsiyetin dindarlık, sürekli kaygı ve saldırganlık bakımından fark oluşturup oluşturmadığı bu araştırma çerçevesinde ele alınmıştır. Araştırmaya, 2017 -2018 yıllarında, farklı üniversite ve çeşitli fakülte ve bölümlerinde, farklı sınıf seviyelerinde öğrenim gören toplam 415 gönüllü öğrenci katılmıştır. Veriler tesadüfi örnekleme yöntemi ile toplanmıştır. Araştırmada Hellmeister ve Zwingmann tarafından geliştirilen ve Apaydın (2010) tarafından Türkçeye tercüme edilen Münchner Motivasyonel Dindarlık Envanteri, Buss-Perry Saldırganlık Ölçeği (BPSÖ) ve Sürekli Kaygı Ölçeği-16 (STAI FORM TX-2) kullanılmıştır. Verilerin çözümlenmesi sürecinde t-test ve regresyon analizleri uygulanmıştır. Örneklemin dindarlık ve saldırganlık bakımından genel profili çıkarılmış, katılımcıların dindarlık düzeylerinin yüksek olduğu, saldırganlık ölçeğinin ise sözel saldırganlık ve şüpheci-düşünsel düşmanlık alt ölçeklerinden ölçek ortalamasının üzerinde bir değer alırken, diğer alt ölçeklerde saldırgan eğilimlerin düşük olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Kadınlar, dindarlığın Tanrıyla ilişki alt ölçeğinde erkeklerden farklılaşmıştır. Erkekler sürekli kaygı ölçeğinin mutlu ve memnun olmama alt ölçeğinde daha yüksek ortalama elde ederken, kadınlar yorgunluk ve kaçınma alt ölçeğinden daha yüksek ortalama almışlardır. Saldırganlığın alt ölçeklerinde de cinsiyet fark oluşturmuştur. Erkekler fiziksel saldırganlık, duygusal düşmanlık ve öfke boyutlarında kadınlara nazaran daha yüksek ortalamalara sahiptir. Sürekli kaygı, saldırganlığın duygusal-bilişsel düşmanlık, duygusal-tepkisel öfke ve şüpheci ve düşmanlık boyutlarını; dindarlığın Tanrı ile ilişki boyutu, şüpheci ve düşünsel düşmanlık dışındaki diğer boyutlarını yordamaktadır. Bununla birlikte dindarlığın, dini inanç ve yardımlaşma alt ölçeği, saldırganlığın duygusal-tepkisel öfke boyutunu açıklamaktadır.
... For example, although there is only one combination of symptoms for a diagnosis of social anxiety disorder (SAD) according to the DSM-5, meaningful subtypes have emerged based on clinical features. A subset of people with SAD are characterized by elevated levels of aggression and impulsive behaviors, a profile that deviates from the prototypical person with SAD as inhibited, shy, and risk averse (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). A person with prototypical SAD might appraise anxiety as harmful and believe it signals weakness. ...
... Ignore any of these elements and you will be misled about how they operate together. For instance, there is a subgroup of people with social anxiety disorder (as high as one out of five diagnosed with the condition; Kashdan, McKnight, Richey, & Hofmann, 2009) who instead of trying to escape anxious situations and experiences, tend to be novelty seeking, impulsive, and risk-prone (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010). These people might take over a conversation to demonstrate social dominance or engage in risky sexual behavior to control, instead of being controlled by, their anxiety. ...
For decades, researchers and practitioners have theorized psychological disorder and health as opposite ends of a single continuum. We offer a more nuanced, data driven examination into the various ways that people with psychological disorders experience well-being. We review research on the positive emotions, meaning and purpose in life, and social relationships of people diagnosed with major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, social anxiety disorder, schizophrenia, and trauma-related disorders. We also discuss when and how friends, family members, and caregivers of these people are adversely impacted in terms of their well-being. Throughout, we highlight important, often overlooked findings that not all people with mental illness are devoid of well-being. This review is meant to be illustrative as opposed to comprehensive, synthesizing existing knowledge and inspiring explorations of unclear or undiscovered territory.
... Si la FS incluye periles heterogéneos (Kashdan & McKnight, 2010), no todos los individuos que presentan FS, cumplen con el estereotipo del grupo prototípico, por lo tanto, las diferencias en las estrategias de procesamiento cognitivo y de regulación emocional, entre los distintos grupos de fóbicos sociales, podrían conducir a diferentes resultados. De acuerdo con esta clasiicación, exclusivamente el grupo desinhibido podría presentar riesgo de consumo excesivo de alcohol y en el presente estudio, no fueron considerados los subtipos de ansiosos sociales. ...
p>Gradualmente se incrementa la investigación acerca de la fobia social, argumentando asociación entre ésta y diversas medidas de disfuncionalidad. Se obtuvieron datos sociodemográficos, mediciones de ansiedad social y de consumo de alcohol, de 3164 adolescentes mexicanos escolarizados voluntarios (hombres y mujeres) entre 12 y 18 años de edad ( = 14.7, DE 1.7), turno escolar (matutino o vespertino) y actividades extracurriculares (realizar o no actividades deportivas, artísticas y tener o no una relación de noviazgo). Se formaron dos grupos: el primero con bajo y el segundo con alto grado de ansiedad social, y se compararon sus niveles de consumo de alcohol, encontrando que: contrario a lo que establece la literatura del tema en adultos, el patrón de consumo de alcohol en los grupos de adolescentes de alta y baja ansiedad social, no presentó diferencias estadísticamente significativas (X2 = 1.201, gl = 2, p = .361). Probablemente, las diferencias reportadas en el consumo de alcohol entre adultos social y no socialmente ansiosos, surjan sólo en ciertas variantes de la fobia social, o bien, se requiere de otras variables mediadoras, entre fobia social y el consumo abusivo de alcohol.</p
... Rejection sensitivity and interpersonal sensitivity are highly correlated with each other (Downey & Feldman, 1996), and while other distal factors may play a role, both in part appear to stem from ACE (Figueroa, Silk, Huth, & Lohr, 1997;Richmond, Elliott, Pierce, Aspelmeier, & Alexander, 2009;Romero-Canyas, Downey, Berenson, et al., 2010;Surrey, Swett, Michaels, & Levin, 1990;Swett, Surrey, & Cohen, 1990). Further indirect evidence of this is offered by the findings that interpersonal sensitivity is highly correlated with hostility and with such disorders as depression and social anxiety, and these disorders are related to a sensitivity to rejection and subsume hostile subtypes (Gilbert, 2000;Gilbert et al., 2006;Gilbert & Miles, 2000;Kashdan & McKnight, 2010;Kennedy, Morris, Pedley, & Schwab, 2001;Wolfe, Wekerle, Reitzel-Jaffe, & Lefebvre, 1998). Thus, interpersonal sensitivity as measured by the SCL-90-R may potentially elucidate IPV perpetration and victimization and prove useful both as a broader concept and as a more widely used screening and research measure. ...
The present study examined interpersonal sensitivity and hostility as separate and sequential mediators in the association between adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and the conflict tactic of negotiation (e.g., a strategy utilized to resolve conflict with a romantic partner) among female inmates. Participants were 258 female inmates recruited from three Southern California jails. After statistically controlling for partner-negotiation, results from a sequential mediation model revealed that the association between ACE and negotiation was mediated through three separate pathways. The first single mediational pathway indicated that ACE was positively associated with interpersonal sensitivity, which in turn had a positive association with negotiation. The second single mediational pathway revealed that ACE was positively associated with hostility, which in turn had a negative association with negotiation. Finally, the sequential meditational path revealed that interpersonal sensitivity through hostility mediated the ACE and negotiation relationship. The present results suggest that ACE may result in increased interpersonal sensitivity, which may paradoxically result in both more and less negotiation with romantic partners. That is, ACE through interpersonal sensitivity alone may result in more negotiation, and ACE through interpersonal sensitivity and then hostility may result in less negotiation with romantic partners. We explicate how the psychopathological construct of interpersonal sensitivity may lead to increased and decreased rates of the positively construed conflict tacit of negotiation. In addition, the present findings are discussed in light of the high rates of both revictimization and perpetration of violence among female inmates.
Social interactions promote well-being, yet challenges like geographic distance and mental health conditions can limit in-person engagement. Advances in AI agents are transferring communication, particularly in mental health, where AI chatbots provide accessible, non-judgmental support. However, a key challenge is how effectively these systems can express empathy, which is crucial in human-centered design. Current research highlights a gap in understanding how AI can authentically convey empathy, particularly as issues like anxiety, depression, and loneliness increase. Our research focuses on this gap by comparing empathy expression in human-human versus human-AI interactions. Using personal narratives and statistical analysis, we examine empathy levels elicited by humans and AI, including GPT-4o and fine-tuned versions of the model. This work aims to enhance the authenticity of AI-driven empathy, contributing to the future design of more reliable and effective mental health support systems that foster meaningful social interactions.
Introduction
In the current trend toward youthfulness and age reduction in competitive sports, the issue of obligatory exercise among young athletes is becoming more severe. This not only affects their physical and mental health but also hampers their future prospects in the sports world. While delving into the impact of mindfulness on the issue of obligatory exercise among young athletes, it reveals the mediating role of obsessive passion and cognitive state anxiety.
Methods
This study is a cross-sectional research that employs convenience and snowball sampling methods. We selected 403 young athletes from several universities and high-level sports teams in the central-southern region of China as valid samples and used AMOS v.23 to construct a structural equation model to validate the hypotheses.
Results
The research findings indicate a significant positive correlation between obsessive passion, cognitive state anxiety, and obligatory exercise. Furthermore, obsessive passion and cognitive state anxiety mediate the relationship between mindfulness and obligatory exercise. This implies that young athletes can better regulate their emotional state during training, manage training loads sensibly, and avoid issues with obligatory exercise through mindfulness training.
Discussion
In conclusion, to enhance the cognitive levels of young athletes and reduce their obligatory exercise behaviors, national sports authorities and coaching teams should develop reasonable mindfulness training programs for athletes and encourage their participation in mindfulness training.
There is limited evidence in the literature that hostility, anger, and aggression are involved with social anxiety. The present study examined the relationship of personality traits and aggression with social anxiety and social skills in forensic psychiatric outpatients convicted of a violent crime. Social anxiety was mainly contributed to by neuroticism, state anger, and social skills, while neuroticism and social anxiety were the main contributors to social skills. Anger, next to neuroticism and social skills, appeared to be involved in the outpatients’ social anxiety. Neuroticism and social anxiety were found to be the main contributors to social skills.
Socially anxious individuals struggle with establishing and maintaining social relationships. We hypothesized that, when socially anxious, people often turn to nostalgia, which alleviates the interpersonal competence deficits that accompany social anxiety. We tested and supported this hypothesis in six studies ( N = 1,858), three preregistered. In cross-sectional Study 1, higher (compared with lower) social anxiety individuals more frequently identified interpersonal incompetence as a trigger of nostalgia. In cross-sectional Study 2, social anxiety was associated negatively with interpersonal competence, but positively with nostalgia, which in turn predicted higher interpersonal competence. In the final four studies, we tested causation. Although social anxiety reduced interpersonal competence, it also triggered nostalgia (Studies 3–3S), and nostalgia increased interpersonal competence (Studies 4–5).
The aim of this study is to examine the serial mediating roles of shyness, interaction anxiety, interaction anxiety, and true self-perception on the internet in the relationship between self-esteem and phubbing. A total of 646 people, including 391 women (60.5%) and 255 men (39.5%), participated in the study. The ages of the study participants ranged from 18 to 45 (mean= 28.11, SD= 8.25) data from the research were collected with the Self-Esteem Scale, Interaction Anxiety Scale, General Phubbing Scale, Revised Buss and Check Shyness Scale, UCLA Loneliness Scale-Short Form, and True Me on the Net Scale. The descriptive statistics of the data collected in the study were calculated and correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationships between the variables. Mediation analyses in the research were made by using Hayes process macro-Model 6. As a result of serial mediation analysis, it is seen that the total effect of self-esteem on phubbing is significant. In addition, it was found that shyness, loneliness, interaction anxiety, and true self-perception on the internet had a significant direct effect on phubbing. Finally, shyness, interaction anxiety, loneliness, and true self-perception on the internet were found to have significant multiple serial mediating roles in the relationship between self-esteem and phubbing.
Extant cognitive behavioral models of social anxiety disorder (SAD) have primarily focused on cognitions and behaviors that maintain the disorder. Emotional aspects of SAD have been investigated but have not been sufficiently integrated into current models. To facilitate such integration, we reviewed the literature on emotional constructs (emotional intelligence, emotional knowledge, emotional clarity, emotion differentiation, and emotion regulation), and discrete emotions (anger, shame, embarrassment, loneliness, guilt, pride, and envy) in SAD and social anxiety. We present the studies conducted on these constructs, summarize the main findings, suggest areas for future research, discuss the findings in the context of existing models of SAD and attempt to integrate the findings into these existing models of the disorder. Clinical implications of our findings are also discussed.
Although both concurrent and longitudinal relations between shyness and behavioral problems are well-established in childhood, there is relatively less work exploring these associations in emerging adulthood. In addition, age-related differences in the strength of these relations in child and adult samples have not been fully explored within the same study. We collected measures of shyness, internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and social problems in a sample of 94 typically developing 6-year-old children (50 female; Mage = 78.3 months, SD = 3.1 months) and 775 undergraduate students (633 female, Mage = 18.2 years, SD = 0.9 years) from parent-reported and self-reported questionnaires, respectively. Shyness interacted with age in predicting internalizing behaviors and social problems, but not externalizing behaviors. Specifically, shyness was concurrently and positively related to internalizing and social problems in young adulthood, but this relation was not found in childhood. Findings are discussed in terms of developmental consequences of shyness across the lifespan and limitations of relying on ratings from different informants when examining age-related differences.
According to literature, a person's level of social connection greatly influences how brave they will be when speaking in front of others. In the twenty-first century, speaking up in public with confidence is crucial for all undergraduate students. Therefore, after completing their university degree, every undergraduate student needs to have sufficient social interaction. Additionally, a student's level of social anxiety affects how much they engage with others. The amount of social interaction anxiety experienced by undergraduate students at Nigerian universities, however, has received less attention in the literature. This study investigated the undergraduate students at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka's level of social interaction anxiety. A sample of 223 undergraduate students from the University of Nigeria was used in this cross-sectional survey study. Data were gathered using the social interaction anxiety scale (α = .86), and frequency, percentage, and bar charts were utilized to analyze the results. The findings showed that most undergraduate students reported very high levels of social interaction anxiety. This means that if this high degree of social interaction anxiety is not addressed, undergraduate students will not be able to properly develop their social interaction.
Die psychische Gesundheit, Selbstverwirklichung und Lebensqualität von Menschen hängen vielfach von ihren Fähigkeiten ab, Interaktionen mit Mitmenschen in Gang zu setzen und bedürfnisgerecht und zielführend (mit) zu gestalten. Gibt es bei diesen sozialen Kompetenzen Defizite oder Probleme, kann das auch schon bei Kindern und Jugendlichen kurz- und langfristig erhebliche negative Folgen haben, z. B. wenn dadurch die schulische, berufliche oder psychosoziale Entwicklung beeinträchtigt wird. Aus diesem Grunde wurden mittlerweile zahlreiche Interventionen zur Förderung sozialer Kompetenzen entwickelt. Dabei dominieren inzwischen multimodale Gruppentrainings, in denen v. a. Rollenspiele und Verhaltensübungen eingesetzt werden, aber auch z. B. klientengerechte Entspannungstechniken, Wahrnehmungs- und Diskriminationsübungen sowie Übungen zum Transfer in den Alltag. Es gibt universelle Programme (z. B. für ganze Schulklassen), aber auch Interventionen, die sich an spezielle Risikogruppen wenden oder an Kinder/Jugendliche, die bereits eine klinische Störung mit sozialen Kompetenzproblemen aufweisen (z. B. bestimmte Angststörungen oder Depressionen). Im Artikel werden exemplarisch einige Beispiele für diese verschiedenen Trainingskonzeptionen dargestellt.
Stress can precipitate the onset of mood and anxiety disorders. This may occur, at least in part, via a modulatory effect of stress on decision-making. Some individuals are, however, more resilient to the effects of stress than others. The mechanisms underlying such vulnerability differences are nevertheless unknown. In this study we attempted to begin quantifying individual differences in vulnerability by exploring the effect of experimentally induced stress on decision-making. Threat of unpredictable shock was used to induce stress in healthy volunteers (N=47) using a within-subjects, within-session design, and its impact on a financial decision-making task (the Iowa Gambling Task) was assessed alongside anxious and depressive symptomatology. As expected, participants learned to select advantageous decks and avoid disadvantageous decks. Importantly, we found that stress provoked a pattern of harm-avoidant behaviour (decreased selection of disadvantageous decks) in individuals with low levels of trait anxiety. By contrast, individuals with high trait anxiety demonstrated the opposite pattern: stress-induced risk-seeking (increased selection of disadvantageous decks). These contrasting influences of stress depending on mood and anxiety symptoms might provide insight into vulnerability to common mental illness. In particular, we speculate that those who adopt a more harm-avoidant strategy may be better able to regulate their exposure to further environmental stress, reducing their susceptibility to mood and anxiety disorders. The threat of shock paradigm we employed might therefore hold promise as a ‘stress-test’ for determining individual vulnerability to mood and anxiety disorders.
In the last decade, increasing literature focused on camouflaging as a strategy adopted to cope with social environment by patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A better understanding of this phenomenon may shed more light on cognitive mechanisms and coping strategies of patients in the autism continuum, eventually leading to reconsider some previous "dogmas" in this field, such as the gender discrepancy in ASD diagnosis. Moreover, shared features can be observed in the camouflaging strategies adopted among the general population, among patients of the autism spectrum, and among patients with different kinds of psychiatric disorders, further challenging our perspectives. Camouflaging behaviors might be considered as a transdiagnostic element, closely associated with the continuous distribution of the autism spectrum among the general and the clinical population.
Somewhat surprisingly, social anxiety has been linked with aggressive behavior in adults. Among youth, this connection has been demonstrated with anxiety symptoms more broadly. This review extends previous work by evaluating this association specifically with social anxiety in the child and adolescent literature. Given the complexities of aggressive behavior, the review is organized by its various forms (relational and physical) and functions (reactive and proactive). Findings from sixteen identified studies are suggestive of links between social anxiety and reactive and relational forms of aggression. Albeit more tenuous, there appear to be associations with physical aggression as well. Overall, though suggestive of connections between social anxiety and aggression, confidence in the findings is attenuated by the relatively small number of relevant studies combined with inconsistent gender findings. Before suggesting directions for further study, we propose putative dysfunctional biological, emotional, and cognitive processes as factors that may underlie associations between social anxiety and these particular forms of aggression. Future research should target differences in age, gender, relationship type, and anxiety subtype. Determining the extent to which these associations may be attributable to comorbid pathology such as depression or a broader internalizing syndrome is also important.
Background: Individuals with social interaction anxiety, a facet of social anxiety disorder, are heterogeneous with respect to approaching or avoiding risky behaviors, including substance use. Additionally, the relation between social anxiety and cannabis use frequency has been inconsistent in the literature. Objective: The present study aimed to clarify the relation between social interaction anxiety and cannabis use by examining the effects of personality traits known to differentially predict substance use, including sensation seeking, emotion dysregulation, urgency, behavioral approach, and behavioral inhibition. Methods: We explored heterogeneity in social interaction anxiety using finite mixture modeling to discern profiles differing in mean scores on measures of social interaction anxiety and personality. We then examined how profiles differed in their likelihood of cannabis use. Results: The profile with low social interaction anxiety and high scores on personality measures was the most likely to use cannabis at all time periods. Two profiles with high social interaction anxiety scores were discerned. Between these two profiles, the profile with the highest levels of social interaction anxiety and most measured personality traits was more likely to use cannabis across all measured time periods. The profile with the high social interaction anxiety and low scores on personality measures was the least likely to use cannabis. Conclusions: Results of the present study identified personality traits most associated with increased risk of cannabis use for people high and low in social interaction anxiety, including facets of emotion regulation, urgency, and sensation seeking.
Social anxiety (SA) is thought to relate to alcohol misuse. However, current evidence is inconsistent - especially in young adulthood. Recent non-experimental data show that trait impulsivity moderates the effect of SA on alcohol misuse. Specifically, this work suggests that concurrently elevated impulsivity may draw attention to the immediate, anxiolytic effects of drinking - thus promoting alcohol misuse among those high in SA. Otherwise, without elevated impulsivity, a socially anxious person may not drink due to focusing on alcohol's possible negative outcomes (e.g., embarrassing behaviours). The next step in this research is to examine if impulsivity impacts in-the-moment subjective craving among socially anxious individuals. This was the goal of the present experiment. After baseline measures, undergraduate participants (N = 110) completed the Trier Social Stress Test followed by an alcohol (versus neutral) cue exposure. Subjective craving ratings were collected at both baseline and post-cue exposure. Moderation analyses revealed that socially anxious individuals endorsed strong cravings following an alcohol (but not a neutral) cue exposure, but only if they also had elevated impulsivity. In-lab craving was positively correlated with retrospective reports of alcohol misuse. Our findings demonstrate that impulsivity contributes to SA-related risk for alcohol misuse.
This study was intended to examine the relationship between children’s shyness and play behaviour during peer play, and the moderating effect of the level of children’s language development. Participants were 229 South Korean children aged 48–53 months. The results of the study are as follows. Children's shyness was negatively associated with their positive play interactions and positively associated with their play disconnection. Children's receptive language skills moderated the relationships between their shyness and positive play interactions, as well as between their shyness and play disconnection. However, their expressive language skills did not work as a moderator. The findings of the study indicate that receptive language helps shy children join peer play better than expressive language does, because verbal conversations only become more important later in childhood. Interventions for shy children, particularly those with low language skills, should be tailored to improve their receptive language abilities.
A growing body of literature has begun to examine anger, hostility, and aggression using the psychological flexibility model among both youth and adults. This manuscript provides the first overview of this research. Papers were included in this review if they were published in English, peer-reviewed, published throughDecember 8th 2017 on PsycInfo and PubMed, or were recommended during the review process. The research reviewed examines anger, hostility, and aggression in a variety of contexts, such as interpersonal difficulties, emotional difficulties (e.g., depression, posttraumatic stress disorder), impulse control, and externalizing. The article also reviews Acceptance and Commitment Therapy-based interventions targeting problems related to anger and aggression. Generally, there is support for the psychological flexibility model in this domain and treatment studies have been demonstrated a beneficial impact of ACT on aggression and domestic violence in adults. The literature in youth is extremely limited, although some supportive findings were demonstrated. More extensive and methodologically stronger examinations would strengthen this area of study and are discussed.
People high in rejection sensitivity (RS) anxiously expect rejection and are at risk for interpersonal and personal distress. Two studies examined the role of self-regulation through strategic attention deployment in moderating the link between RS and maladaptive outcomes. Self-regulation was assessed by the delay of gratification (DG) paradigm in childhood. In Study 1, preschoolers from the Stanford University community who participated in the DG paradigm were assessed 20 years later. Study 2 assessed low-income, minority middle school children on comparable measures. DG ability buffered high-RS people from interpersonal difficulties (aggression, peer rejection) and diminished well-being (e.g., low self-worth, higher drug use). The protective effect of DG ability on high-RS children's self-worth is explained by reduced interpersonal problems. Attentional mechanisms underlying the interaction between RS and strategic self-regulation are discussed.
Aggressive behavior in childhood has long been separated into that which is proactively motivated and that which is reactive. We report a meta-analytic review of the existing empirical literature that examines the associations of each type of aggression with six indices of psychosocial adjustment: internalizing problems, emotional dysregulation and ADHD-type symptoms, delinquent behaviors, prosocial behavior, sociometric status, and peer victimization. Even though not detectable in most single studies, meta-analytic combination revealed that reactive aggression was more strongly related to most of the indices of adjustment than was proactive aggression. This difference was small, however, and we argue that the difficulty in detecting differential correlates is due to the high intercorrelation between the functions of aggression, which appears to be an artifact of traditional measurement procedures. It is recommended that future research use measures that provide distinct assessment of the functions in order to more clearly distinguish the correlates of proactive and reactive aggression.
People high in rejection sensitivity (RS) anxiously expect rejection and are at risk for interpersonal and personal distress. Two studies examined the role of self-regulation through strategic attention deployment in moderating the link between RS and maladaptive outcomes. Self-regulation was assessed by the delay of gratification (DG) paradigm in childhood. In Study 1, preschoolers from the Stanford University community who participated in the DG paradigm were assessed 20 years later. Study 2 assessed low-income, minority middle school children on comparable measures. DG ability buffered high-RS people from interpersonal difficulties (aggression, peer rejection) and diminished well-being (e.g., low self-worth, higher drug use). The protective effect of DG ability on high-RS children's self-worth is explained by reduced interpersonal problems. Attentional mechanisms underlying the interaction between RS and strategic self-regulation are discussed.
Self-presentation may require self-regulation, especially when familiar or dispositional tendencies must be overridden in service of the desired impression. Studies 1-4 showed that self-presentation under challenging conditions or according to counter-normative patterns (presenting oneself modestly to strangers, boastfully to friends, contrary to gender norms, to a skeptical audience, or while being a racial token) led to impaired self-regulation later, suggesting that those self-presentations depleted self-regulatory resources. When self-presentation conformed to familiar, normative, or dispositional patterns, self-regulation was less implicated. Studies 5-8 showed that when resources for self-regulation had been depleted by prior acts of self-control, self-presentation drifted toward less-effective patterns (talking too much, overly or insufficiently intimate disclosures, or egotistical arrogance). Thus, inner processes may serve interpersonal functions, although optimal interpersonal activity exacts a short-term cost.
This article reviews the literature on the relationship between interpersonal rejection and aggression. Four bodies of research are summarized: laboratory experiments that manipulate rejection, rejection among adults in everyday life, rejection in childhood, and individual differences that may moderate the relationship. The theoretical mechanisms behind the effect are then explored. Possible explanations for why rejection leads to anger and aggression include: rejection as a source of pain, rejection as a source of frustration, rejection as a threat to self-esteem, mood improvement following aggression, aggression as social influence, aggression as a means of reestablishing control, retribution, disinhibition, and loss of self-control.
This book describes the clinical presentation of social anxiety disorder, presents theoretical perspectives on its etiology, and examines the latest empirical data with respect to both pharmacological and behavioral interventions. Social anxiety disorder occurs in children, adolescents, and adults, but its manifestation and treatment differ depending on developmental factors. Drawing from a broad literature base as well as their extensive clinical experience, the authors illustrate the impact of developmental stage on all aspects of the disorder. They also provide practical implementation guidelines, enhanced by case examples; tips on patient management; lists of assessment instruments; and sample forms to use with clients. Since publication of the first edition in 1998, knowledge about social anxiety disorder has advanced on several fronts. The new edition includes information from new studies differentiating patterns of distress characteristic of social anxiety disorder versus shyness. It draws on more substantive data bases to support firmer conclusions about the presentation of social anxiety disorder among children and adolescents as well as across various ethnocultural groups. New assessment strategies reviewed in this book include neuroanatomical assessment using magnetic resonance imaging and well-validated self-report instruments and clinician rating scales. The authors review a greatly expanded literature addressing pharmacological treatment and psychosocial treatments. New case descriptions and clinical materials are also included. This highly informative and comprehensive volume will be illuminating reading for practitioners, researchers, and students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes the clinical presentation of social phobia, discusses theoretical perspectives on etiology, and surveys empirically supported treatments used to treat the disorder.
Although social phobia occurs in children and adults, its manifestation and treatment differ in various age groups. The authors describe the similarities and differences in the syndrome across all ages. Drawing from the clinical, social, and developmental literatures, as well as from their own extensive clinical experience, the authors illustrate the impact of developmental stage on phenomenology, diagnoses, and assessment and treatment of social phobia. Within the different age groups, issues of etiology, prevalence, and clinical management are presented. The volume includes many case illustrations and practical information.
This book will be useful for practitioners, researchers, and students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We examined the hypothesis that under specific conditions, socially anxious individuals may be risk-prone as opposed to risk-averse in domains such as heavy drinking, illicit drug use, unsafe sexual practices, and aggression. A college-aged sample, predominantly women, completed a series of questionnaires on social anxiety and risk-taking behavioral intentions. Results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that positive outcome expectancies moderated relationships between social anxiety and sexual risk-taking and aggression. Socially anxious individuals expecting desirable outcomes reported the greatest risk-taking behavioral intentions. Socially anxious individuals expecting less desirable outcomes reported the least risk-taking intentions. Social anxiety interaction effects were not accounted for by other anxiety and depressive symptoms. Data suggested that social anxiety was also positively related to illicit drug use. Although preliminary, these significant findings suggest that a subset of socially anxious individuals may engage in risky activities that likely serve the purpose of regulating emotions.
The present study examined social anxiety, anger, and depression among 234 persons with social anxiety disorder and 36 nonanxious controls. In addition to greater social anxiety, persons with social anxiety disorder exhibited more severe depression, greater anger, and poorer anger expression skills than did nonanxious control participants. Analyses investigating attrition and response to cognitive-behavioral group treatment (CBGT) among a subset of 68 persons treated for social anxiety disorder indicated that patients who experienced anger frequently, perceived unfair treatment, and were quick-tempered were less likely to complete a 12-session course of CBGT. Among treatment completers, significant reductions in the frequent experience of anger to perceived negative evaluation and in anger suppression were noted. However, those who suppressed anger responded less favorably to CBGT. Future directions and clinical implications are discussed.
The goal of the present study was to determine whether the investigation of interpersonal problems in social phobia would lead to qualitatively different subgroups, subgroups that would provide additional nonoverlapping information to the Mental Disorders-IV (DSM-IV) classification. 30 generalized socially phobic (college students, aged 18-29 yrs old), 30 nongeneralized socially phobic, and 30 nondisordered control participants were selected based on dual structured interviews. All participants completed the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems Circumplex Scales (IIP-C). Results showed that when social phobia subtypes were classified using the DSM-IV definition, the IIP-C reflected subgroup differences in global severity of interpersonal problems, with the generalized social phobia group evidencing the greatest difficulty. However, the subgroups could not be discriminated on core or central interpersonal problems. In contrast, when an interpersonal analysis of subtype classification was employed, 2 groups were formed, each with discriminating core unifying features suggesting qualitatively different problematic reactions to interpersonal situations. The potential clinical relevance of an assessment of interpersonal dysfunction to the treatment of social phobia is discussed.
Little is known about people with social anxiety disorder (SAD) who are not behaviorally inhibited. To advance knowledge on phenomenology, functional impairment, and treatment seeking, we investigated whether engaging in risk-prone behaviors accounts for heterogeneous outcomes in people with SAD. Using the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication (NCS-R) dataset, our analyses focused on people with current (N = 679) or lifetime (N = 1143) SAD diagnoses. Using latent class analysis on NCS-R risk-prone behavior items, results supported two SAD classes: (1) a pattern of behavioral inhibition and risk aversion and (2) an atypical pattern of high anger and aggression, and moderate/high sexual impulsivity and substance use problems. An atypical pattern of risk-prone behaviors was associated with greater functional impairment, less education and income, younger age, and particular psychiatric comorbidities. Results could not be subsumed by the severity, type, or number of social fears, or comorbid anxiety or mood disorders. Conclusions about the nature, course, and treatment of SAD may be compromised by not attending to heterogeneity in behavior patterns.
A meta-analysis of psychological and pharmacological treatments for social phobia was conducted to evaluate whether the various treatments differ in their efficacy for treating social phobia, whether they are more effective than wait-list and placebo controls, whether rates of attrition differ, and whether treatment gains are maintained at follow-up. A total of 108 treatment-outcome trials for social phobia met inclusion/exclusion criteria for the meta-analysis. Eleven treatment conditions were compared: wait-list control, pill placebo, benzodiazepines (BDZs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), monoamine oxidase inhibitors, attention placebo, exposure (EXP), cognitive restructuring (CR), EXP plus CR, social skills training, and applied relaxation. The most consistently effective treatments for social phobia were pharmacotherapies. BDZs and SSRIs were equally effective and more effective than control conditions. Dropout rates were similar among all the active treatment conditions. Assessment of the durability of treatment gains for pharmacotherapies was not possible because an insufficient number of drug studies included follow-up data. The treatment gains of psychological therapies, although moderate, continued during the follow-up period. BDZs and SSRIs seem to be effective treatments for social phobia, at least in the short term. Recommendations for future research include assessing the long-term outcome for pharmacotherapies and evaluating the inclusion of a cognitive-behavioral treatment during the drug tapering period.
Self-regulation is a highly adaptive, distinctively human trait that enables people to override and alter their responses, including changing themselves so as to live up to social and other standards. Recent evidence indicates that self-regulation often consumes a limited resource, akin to energy or strength, thereby creating a temporary state of ego depletion. This article summarizes recent evidence indicating that regular exercises in self-regulation can produce broad improvements in self-regulation (like strengthening a muscle), making people less vulnerable to ego depletion. Furthermore, it shows that ego depletion moderates the effects of many traits on behavior, particularly such that wide differences in socially disapproved motivations produce greater differences in behavior when ego depletion weakens the customary inner restraints.
Until recently, there has been limited recognition that diminished positive psychological experiences are important to understanding the nature of social anxiety. Meta-analytic techniques were used to evaluate the strength, consistency, and construct specificity of relations between the social anxiety spectrum with positive affect and curiosity. The social anxiety spectrum had significant inverse relations with positive affect (r=-.36; 95% CI: -.31 to -.40) and curiosity (r=-.24; 95% CI: -.20 to -.28). Relations between social anxiety and positive affect were stronger in studies sampling from clinical populations. Specificity findings (e.g., statistically controlling for depressive symptoms and disorders) further confirmed negative associations with positive affect (r=-.21; 95% CI: -.16 to -.26) and curiosity (r=-.21; 95% CI: -.08 to -.32). The literature on social rank, self-presentation concerns, self-regulatory resources, and experiential avoidance is reviewed and integrated to elaborate a framework of how, why, and when social anxiety may be inversely related to positive experiences. The specificity of theory and data to social interaction anxiety is supported by an examination of existing work on social performance/observation fears and other anxiety conditions. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of diminished positive psychological experiences in understanding excessive social anxiety.
This study examined potential subgroups of patients with generalized social anxiety disorder (SAD) based on novelty-seeking tendencies. Eighty-two outpatients with DSM-IV generalized SAD were recruited from an outpatient anxiety clinic and assessed with the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire. The novelty-seeking subscales, reflecting risk-prone and disinhibited behavior tendencies, served as dependent measures in a series of cluster analysis procedures. Two qualitatively different SAD subgroups were identified: (1) low novelty-seeking tendencies and (2) high-novelty-seeking tendencies. These groups did not differ in social anxiety symptom severity. Women were less likely to be classified in the high-novelty-seeking group. Clinician severity ratings for comorbid substance use disorders were greater in the high-novelty-seeking group. These findings contribute to growing evidence for the heterogeneity of SAD. High-novelty-seeking, risk-prone, and disinhibited behavior tendencies are a characteristic feature of a distinct subgroup.
We examined how social anxiety is related to appraisals for various disinhibited behaviors and sought to identify potential subgroups of socially anxious people. College students completed trait measures and appraised disinhibited behaviors on their potential for threat, opportunity to satisfy curiosity, and ability to enhance social status. Three months later, participants were asked to report on their frequency of disinhibited behaviors since the initial assessment. People with greater social anxiety demonstrated frequent approach-avoidance conflicts - co-existing recognition of threats and rewards - about social interactions and disinhibited behaviors. Even when asked about the activity most likely to be avoided, participants with greater social anxiety evaluated these as having potential to satisfy curiosity and advance their social status. Three qualitatively different groups of people were identified based on social anxiety tendencies and approach-avoidance appraisal patterns. Groups differed on the degree of approach-avoidance conflicts, measures of psychological and social well-being, and frequency of social interactions and disinhibited behaviors. Moderately socially anxious people who were approach oriented reported the most difficulties. Results suggest that social anxiety is associated with tension between competing desires to avoid anxiety and explore. However, there appears to be important variability in the regulatory orientation, behavior, and well-being of socially anxious people. Conclusions about the nature of social anxiety may be compromised by not attending to existing differences in self-regulatory orientation and strategies.
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical
manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text rev.) Washington, DC:
American Psychiatric Association.
International handbook of social anxiety: Concepts, research and interventions relating to the self and shyness
- W R Crozier
- L E Alden
Crozier, W.R., & Alden, L.E. (2001). International handbook of social
anxiety: Concepts, research and interventions relating to the self
and shyness. New York: Wiley.