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Emotion Regulation in Adulthood: Timing Is Everything
Abstract
Emotions seem to come and go as they please. However, we actually hold considerable sway over our emotions: We influence which emotions we have and how we experience and express these emotions. The process model of emotion regulation described here suggests that how we regulate our emotions matters. Regulatory strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have quite different outcomes than strategies that act later. This review focuses on two widely used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing how we think about a situation in order to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It involves inhibiting the outward signs of emotion. Theory and research suggest that reappraisal is more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases the experience and behavioral expression of emotion, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease the experience of emotion, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding in both the suppressors and their social partners.
... Besides the distinction between adaptive and maladaptive aspects, a further difference between ER strategies lies in the specific point in time at which they impact the emotion-generation process (Gross, 2014). According to the Process Model of Emotion Regulation (Gross, 1998(Gross, , 2001, emotions do not occur instantaneously, but rather unfold gradually, which is why ER strategies can intervene during this process at varying points in time. In the model's broadest sense, ER strategies can therefore be divided into two categories: Antecedent-focused 6 It is important to note that there are significant cultural differences in what constitutes maladaptive ER strategies (Schunk et al., 2022). ...
... Therefore, in collectivistic cultures, expressive suppression is more widely considered an acceptable strategy for coping with emotions and is consequently associated with fewer or no adverse long-term outcomes (Ramzan & Amjad, 2017;Tamir et al., 2023). and response-focused (Gross, 2001). The former pertains to strategies that are employed before emotions are fully developed, while the latter targets emotions that are already present (Gross, 2001). ...
... and response-focused (Gross, 2001). The former pertains to strategies that are employed before emotions are fully developed, while the latter targets emotions that are already present (Gross, 2001). As such, expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal are considered response-focused and antecedent-focused, respectively. ...
Psychopathy is a personality construct that has witnessed a surge in research interest since its initial conceptualization more than eight decades ago. Throughout this period, a prominent area of focus has been on socio-emotional deficits. Yet, the current body of research exhibits considerable heterogeneity, leaving conflicting results and multiple unanswered questions. In an effort to reconcile contradictory findings, explore socio-emotional deficits more holistically, and advance the conceptualization of psychopathy, this dissertation was conducted along with three studies.
The first study (Chapter 2: Study I) within this doctoral thesis is a comprehensive meta-analysis that synthesized the bulk of evidence concerning the relationship between psychopathy and both empathy and alexithymia. A total of 72 articles comprising more than 15,000 participants from 19 different countries were included in the analyses. The results suggest deficits not only in affective and cognitive empathy, but also in the understanding of one’s own emotions, i.e., alexithymia. Notably, the pooled correlations varied across psychopathy factors in terms of magnitude and direction, underscoring the importance of recognizing psychopathy as a multidimensional construct.
The second study (Chapter 3: Study II) explored whether alexithymia serves as a mediator in the relationship between psychopathy and empathy deficits, as well as between psychopathy and emotion dysregulation. This was tested across two diverse samples, one drawn from the general population and the other from a German forensic hospital. The results of our path analyses suggest that alexithymia contributes to the lack of empathy and emotion dysregulation in psychopathic individuals. However, these findings were again specific to certain psychopathy factors (i.e., meanness and disinhibition), with boldness indicating adaptive features by being linked to lower levels of alexithymia and fewer socio-emotional deficits overall.
In a final study (Chapter 4: Study III), we investigated the potential for overcoming psychopathy-related empathy deficits through explicit instructions to engage in affective perspective taking. To this end, we tested 87 participants from the community, using an experimental paradigm while simultaneously recording their physiological arousal. Although we observed a disconnect between behavioral and physiological measures of empathic concern, our results imply that empathy is not an automatic response in individuals with pronounced levels of meanness, leading to diminished empathic concern. Yet, this can be overcome when individuals are instructed to engage in affective perspective taking. Consequently, psychopathy does not appear to indicate a fundamental inability to empathize, but rather reflects a reduced propensity to do so automatically.
Taken together, the findings presented in this dissertation advance our comprehension of the various socio-emotional impairments in psychopathy. Specifically, four key conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, affective deficits in psychopathy are substantial, including not only impairments in sharing the emotions of others, but also in understanding one’s own feelings. Secondly, these deficits extend to cognitive empathy. Thirdly, empathic concern does not appear to be absent in individuals with psychopathy per se, but instead does not occur automatically, which may be due to a lack of motivation. Lastly, psychopathy is a multidimensional personality construct that must be viewed as a constellation of distinct traits in order to truly capture all its intricacies. As such, this dissertation offers significant implications for future research and clinical practice.
... There have been several different conceptualisations of emotion regulation, but by far the most in uential is the 'Process model of Emotion Regulation' [14], which describes the sequence of an emotional experience as it unfolds, and the distinct processes employed by an individual to manage this. According to this model, an individual recognises an ER goal (e.g. to communicate to others; to modify behaviour), selects, and nally implements speci c ER strategies [15]. Gross de ned a set of ve distinct ER processes occurring at different points in an emotional experience (see Fig. 1): situation selection, situation modi cation, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation [15]. ...
... According to this model, an individual recognises an ER goal (e.g. to communicate to others; to modify behaviour), selects, and nally implements speci c ER strategies [15]. Gross de ned a set of ve distinct ER processes occurring at different points in an emotional experience (see Fig. 1): situation selection, situation modi cation, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation [15]. Each of these strategies can be understood to in uence an individual's emotional response in a way that can be interpreted as adaptive (e.g., problemsolving, acceptance) or maladaptive (e.g., withdrawal, suppression [14]), depending on the context. ...
... Each of these strategies can be understood to in uence an individual's emotional response in a way that can be interpreted as adaptive (e.g., problemsolving, acceptance) or maladaptive (e.g., withdrawal, suppression [14]), depending on the context. Maladaptive patterns of emotional experience or expression are typically understood as emotion dysregulation and have physiological, cognitive, and social consequences [14,15]. Emotion dysregulation can also be understood to represent problematic emotion dynamics: persistence, lability, and intensity of emotions [16]. ...
Background
Interventions targeting emotion regulation (ER) have been shown to improve mental health in adults, but evidence on related interventions for adolescents is still emerging. Increasingly, self-directed digital interventions (e.g. mobile apps) are being developed to target ER in this population, but questions remain about their effectiveness. This systematic review aimed to synthesise evidence on current self-directed digital interventions available to adolescents (aged 11–18 years) and their effectiveness in addressing ER, psychopathology, and functioning (e.g., academic achievement).
Method
Several electronic databases were searched (e.g. PsycINFO) to identify studies published from January 2010 to March 2024 examining self-directed digital interventions for adolescents, which include an ER component. A narrative synthesis was employed to summarise the effectiveness of the interventions. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using the Effective Public Health Practice Project Quality Assessment tool (EPHPP).
Results
Five studies met the eligibility criteria, with a total of four self-directed digital interventions that targeted ER. All interventions were brief (< 1 month) and included different components to target ER (e.g. Mindfulness, Mood monitoring). Most interventions were effective in improving ER and were highly acceptable for use by an adolescent population.
Conclusions
Though the evidence base was small, included studies demonstrate preliminary evidence of the effectiveness and acceptability of self-directed, digital interventions for ER in adolescents. Large-scale empirical research focused on comprehensive ER interventions for adolescents across the world is needed, especially those which investigate the intervention effects on psychopathology.
... Linking EST with MI theory to observe EI and its relationship to EL is especially important when trying to identify risk of STS as it relates to teachers' microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem. As such, Gross's (2001) interpretation of findings on emotional regulation in adulthood suggests that suppression of emotions is not as effective as reappraising or discussing those emotions within context. This observation is important because of the concept of compassion fatigue (Osofsky et al., 2008;Cieslak et al., 2014). ...
... Some school cultures may include pressure on teachers to suppress personal emotion. This would be in contradiction to Gross's (2001) findings that reappraisal would be a better approach in which emotional distress is confronted in an appropriate context with the goal of lessening its impact on the individual. Likewise, Richards (2004) found that chronic, artificial suppression of emotion can lead to interference with cognitive functioning while, in contrast, reappraisal addresses the distressing emotion so that it can be alleviated which helps protect cognitive functioning. ...
... Likewise, Richards (2004) found that chronic, artificial suppression of emotion can lead to interference with cognitive functioning while, in contrast, reappraisal addresses the distressing emotion so that it can be alleviated which helps protect cognitive functioning. While not generalizable, Richards (2004) study highlights this issue to reinforce what other studies established in emphasizing reappraisal over suppression (Gross, 2001). This does not mean that teachers should emote their feelings when at school. ...
Several psychological factors are discussed in relation to teachers’ emotional labor (EL). Ecological systems theory (EST) is used in relation to the role of emotional intelligence (EI) to provide a perspective on ways to conceptualize how to address secondary traumatic stress (STS) risk among teachers. An international selection of the literature is synthesized in relation to the factors that may affect EL in relation to STS risk among teachers who have students with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). The concept of EI is central to this discussion of theoretical relationships between EI and STS risk relevant to teachers’ EL. While there is much literature on Bronfenbrenner’s EST and Gardner’s multiple intelligences (MI) theory separately, there is room in the literature for exploring EST to contextualize the topic of STS risk as it relates to the concept of EI. The purpose of this study is to discuss allostatic load factors that may affect teachers’ EL and to discuss potential ways to acknowledge EL.
... Mindfulness theory and interventions may therefore benefit from empirical tests of potential mediators that go beyond findings that there is a relationship between mindfulness and sleep to explaining why there is a relationship. We draw on emotion regulation theory (Gross, 2001) to position three theoretically relevant mediators connecting mindfulness to sleep health: positive affect, negative affect, and affective rumination. Specifically, we focus on the attentional awareness aspect of mindfulness, which has been positioned as the key factor driving the cognitive and affective outcomes of mindfulness (Lindsay & Creswell, 2017). ...
... There was limited support for mediations at the within-person level, except for rumination mediating the relation between state mindfulness and daily sleep quality. These results position emotion regulation (Gross, 2001) as a strong theoretical explanation for the mindfulness-sleep link and, practically, point to both trait and state mindfulness as promising areas of intervention and likely subjective (but not actigraphy-measured) sleep benefits of mindfulness. ...
... As such, we attribute the sleep benefits of mindfulness to its promotion of healthy emotion regulation, especially minimal rumination. Relatedly, we position emotion regulation theory (Gross, 2001) as a viable explanatory framework. Second, trait and state mindfulness have not been thoroughly compared in their associations with worker health (Mesmer-Magnus et al., 2017), despite the general consensus that mindfulness manifests in both ways and that each represents a distinct aspect of mindfulness (Brown & Ryan, 2003;Tanay & Bernstein, 2013;Thompson & Waltz, 2007). ...
Objetivo: A pesar de la popularidad de la atención plena en las investigaciones y las intervenciones, falta información sobre cómo y por qué la atención plena puede beneficiar la salud del sueño de los empleados. A partir de la teoría de la regulación de las emociones, evaluamos la rumia afectiva, el afecto negativo y el afecto positivo como mecanismos potenciales. También exploramos los efectos diferenciales de la atención atencional de rasgo y estado en aspectos subjetivos (p. ej., calidad y suficiencia) y medidos por actigrafía (p. ej., duración y vigilia después del inicio del sueño) de la salud del sueño. Método: Se recopilaron datos de evaluación ecológica momentánea (EMA, por sus siglas en inglés) y actigrafía del sueño en dos muestras independientes de trabajadores de la salud (N1 = 60, N2 = 84). EMA también se utilizó para recopilar información diaria sobre el estado de atención, afecto y rumia. Resultados: Nuestros resultados respaldan la rumia y, en menor medida, el afecto negativo como mediadores de la asociación entre la atención plena y la salud del sueño, pero no el afecto positivo. La atención plena de rasgo y estado demuestra beneficios comparables para la salud del sueño de los empleados, pero estos beneficios surgen en gran medida para las dimensiones subjetivas del sueño que las medidas por actigrafía. Conclusiones: Estos hallazgos respaldan la regulación de las emociones como un marco teórico confiable para la investigación del sueño y la atención plena y pueden respaldar intervenciones de atención plena más informadas en el lugar de trabajo.
... Tapped into the advent of the pandemic and its impact on linguistic majors, the four phases would involve anticipating and actually facing the announcement of traditional class suspension and switch to online education (1), paying attention to the situation by considering its different aspects (2), appraising the change, including categorising any emotions at stake in terms of their valence (3) and responding to the new reality after reflecting how it affects the prospects of graduating from linguistic studies and developing one's competence as a linguist in terms of producing emotional reactions and, possibly, reapproaching the situation. e PMER (Gross / ompson 2007, Gross 2014) also assumes that it takes a sequence of stages for emotions to be generated, and expands the scope of the MMER (Gross 2001). Stage (1) is thus split into situation selection and, possibly, situation modification, stage (2) continues to involve attentional deployment, stage (3) may involve not merely cognitive appraisal, but also cognitive change; and stage (4) also involves response modulation. ...
... Much as the PMER (Gross / ompson 2007, Gross 2014) manages to capture the complexity of emotion generation, it does not considerably change the description of the case of linguistic majors who encountered the switch to online education, reflected on above, mostly due to the fact that the situation was involuntary and non-negotiable. e core features of all major ESR models (Gross 2001, Gross / ompson 2007, Koole et al. 2011, Gross 2014, Koole / Aldao 2016 involve: the ESR goals might primarily involve down-regulating negative emotions activated by major emotional distress, and a whole range of ESR strategies and outcomes were possible. Relying on research into ED (O'Neill et al. 2021), we paid particular attention to the five common causes of ED, that is, (1) perceived lack of control; (2) unfair treatment; ...
Self-regulated learning (SRL) expands far beyond task management and includes self-management, understood as efficient handling of an individual’s personal resources. Both emotional and volitional
processes are involved in SRL since whenever a learning task is approached, students do not only attempt to learn, but also to foster their well-being. Evidence exists that the COVID-19-enforced transition to online learning heavily impacted university students’ ability to remain in charge of the FLL process (Przybył / Chudak,
2022a, 2022b). Yet, while quantitative insights into self-regulated language learning shed some light on the implications of online learning for the areas of dialogue, structure, and language learners’ autonomy, qualitative insights are necessary so as to allow for data and method triangulation as well as to respond to the calls
for delving into the nuances of students’ use of language learning strategies, (LLS) particularly concerning affective LLS. Aiming to meet the above demands, the present chapter discusses the results of deductive thematic analysis of 321 language learners’ reflective insights into their learning experience during the transition period from traditional to online language education. The findings of the study elucidate the self-regulatory struggles and adjustments made
by the investigated language learners.
... Di Desa Jangkurang sendiri kasus pernikahan dini masih sangat banyak dan setiap tahun semakin meningkat begitu pula dengan perceraian yang meningkat juga hal ini banyak disebabkan karna faktor kematangan emosional dan juga mental. Untuk mencapai kehidupan pernikahan yang teratur dan harmonis suatu saat nanti maka penting sekali bagi calon suami dan calon istri untuk mulai belajar mengenali sumber emosi yang dirasakan dan bagaimana cara untuk mengelola emosi tersebut atau di dunia psikologi disebut dengan istilah regulasi emosi Gross (2001). mendefinisikan regulasi emosi sebagai proses yang dilakukan seseorang untuk memengaruhi emosi apa yang mereka rasakan, kapan mereka merasakannya, dan bagaimana cara mereka untuk merasakan dan juga mengekspresikan emosi tersebut. ...
... Agar mencapai kehidupan pernikahan yang teratur dan harmonis suatu saat nanti maka penting sekali bagi calon suami dan calon istri untuk mulai belajar mengenali sumber emosi yang dirasakan dan bagaimana cara untuk mengelola emosi tersebut atau di dunia psikologi disebut dengan istilah regulasi emosi. Gross (2001) mendefinisikan regulasi emosi sebagai proses yang dilakukan seseorang untuk memengaruhi emosi apa yang mereka rasakan, kapan mereka merasakannya, dan bagaimana cara mereka untuk merasakan dan juga mengekspresikan emosi tersebut. Banyak peserta merasa terbantu dengan metode pengelolaan emosi yang tidak hanya berfokus pada teknik psikologi, tetapi juga mengedepankan nilai-nilai Islam seperti kesabaran, keikhlasan, dan pengendalian diri (sabar). ...
Perceraian di Desa Jangkurang, Kec Leles, Kabupaten Garut, makin meningkat diakibatkan maraknya pernikahan usia dini atau dibawah umur (19 tahun kebawah), menikah usia muda merupakan hal yang lumrah dan biasa. Padahal, pernikahan usia dini memiliki implikasi bagi kesejahteraan keluarga dan juga masyarakat, pernikahan usia dini yang dilakukan oleh seseorang kurang mempunyai kesiapan, baik secara psikologis, biologis maupun sosial ekonomi. secara keseluruhan kurangnya pemahaman tentang hal-hal yang harus persiapkan sebelum melakukan pernikahan. Tujuan dari sosialisasi ini adalah untuk mencegah terjadinya pernikahan usia dini serta memberikan pemahaman kepada masyarakat Desa Jangkurang, Kec Leles, Kabupaten Garut, terhadap dampak psikologis yang ditimbulkan dari pernikahan usia dini. Metode pelaksanaan sosialisasi ini dengan ceramah, diskusi dan tanya jawab.
... Gross's (1998Gross's ( , 2002 model of emotion regulation illustrates how people influence their emotions, determining which emotions they experience and when and how they express them. The importance of cognitive management of emotions is highlighted here because it addresses one of the most reported aspects of emotion regulation, that is, emotional experience (Gross, 2001). This allows the adjustment of emotional responses and is considered a key aspect in understanding people's everyday emotional regulation (Gross and John, 2003). ...
... However, research on how teachers regulate their emotions is still scarce, and little empirical evidence is available. This is surprising, as how teachers regulate their emotions has been recognized as a fundamental aspect in improving their effectiveness (Gross, 2002), their personal and professional success, equipping them to show empathy toward their students, highlighting its indisputable importance in school contexts (Gross, 2001;Fan and Wang, 2022). ...
The importance of socioemotional teaching skills has been highlighted for its link with better academic, social, emotional, and behavioral results of students, as well as for its contribution to the work wellbeing, mental health, and prosperity of teachers. However, there are few instruments that measure these skills in teachers in the context of their professional practice. The purpose of this research was to analyze the psychometric properties of the socioemotional Skills Instrument for Teachers (SEMS-IT). An instrumental design and a sample of 853 Chilean secondary school teachers were used. To evaluate the dimensional structure of the instrument, a portion of the sample (n = 468) underwent a network estimation method with exploratory graph analysis (EGA) using a Gaussian GLASSO model. Then, in order to confirm the structural consistency and stability of the items, the analysis was replicated in a second sample (n = 385), where these results were additionally contrasted with those of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The EGA findings confirmed a structure of four dimensions and 19 items in total: (a) cognitive management of teacher emotion (four items), (b) teacher empathic concern (four items), (c) teacher–student relationship (four items), and (d) adverse classroom climate (seven items), with a 7-point Likert scale response format. The CFA showed good and acceptable fit indicators, X²(171) = 354.546 (p < 0.001), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.971, Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) = 0.966, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.061, and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = 0.062. In conclusion, a tool for the assessment of teachers’ socioemotional skills, valid for school-based educational research, is provided. Implications of the findings at the theoretical and practical levels are discussed, as well as limitations and future projections for future research.
... Emotion regulation (ER) is how people regulate their emotional response towards a certain situation [1]. As the process model of emotion [2] proposed, ER strategies can be categorized depending on their stage during generation. Although the model neatly explains the emotional process and their corresponding ER strategies, there are two major limitations to this model. ...
... Among the five stages of emotion generation, studies have proven that the intervention made during the cognitive change stage, as characterized by cognitive reappraisal, was relatively more effective as compared to other strategies [20][21][22][23][24]. Cognitive reappraisal is the cognitive effort to reevaluate an emotionally evoking situation [2]. However, cognitive reappraisal is not the only potentially adaptive cognitive strategy. ...
The recent affect-regulation (AR) model emphasizes the relevance of context and the diversity of AR strategies, which deepens our understanding of emotional processes. This study, conducted with 228 Chinese undergraduates, aims to support the AR model by investigating the connection between cognitive emotion regulation (CER) and procrastination, as suggested by the temporal mood regulation (TMR) model. The findings discovered a positive correlation between past negative (PN) time perspective and procrastination. Acceptance showed no significant correlation with procrastination, while refocus on planning exhibited a weak negative correlation. Surprisingly, PN acted as a suppressor in the relationship between CER strategies and procrastination. This study highlights the diverse impact of CER strategies on procrastination, providing support for both the AR and TMR models.
... Gross [18] indicated two main emotional regulation strategies that people use: reappraisal and suppression. Reappraisal is defined as a renewed cognitive evaluation, referring to a person's ability to change a negative emotion into a positive one by changing their way of thinking about the situation with the help of a renewed interpretation, thereby reducing the negative impact of the emotion [14]. ...
... Repression is defined as a delay in external behavior to express emotion. Gross [18] argued that reappraisal can reduce physiological and behavioral responses. However, repression does not affect the experience of the emotion but increases a physiological effect. ...
This study's aim was to examine the influence of a unique intervention program based on emotional self-awareness and the development of emotional regulation as an important component of SEL combined with metacognitive awareness. Seventy-two third-year preservice teachers participated for one year, tutoring a mathematically challenged student. This intervention was applied to an experimental group where each participant learned to assess his/her emotional state using a special ruler prior to teaching a lesson, and according to the ruler's assessment results, the preservice teacher was assisted by a variety of emotional regulations as well as metacognitive strategies. A control group learned only metacognitive strategies. This study's results indicated that experimental group participants showed notable improvement in cognitive reappraisal post-intervention compared to the control group, which showed no change. For metacognitive awareness, in both research groups, an increase was apparent post-intervention. Nevertheless, a comparison of the effect size of differences between the two measurement points indicated that the experimental group exhibited a greater improvement in metacognitive regulation compared to the control group. A significant positive correlation was found in the experimental group between cognitive reappraisal and metacognitive regulation. Assimilation and training of emotional skills among preservice teachers during training are necessary.
... Thus, effective adaptive emotion regulation strategies (ERS), including the initiation and maintenance of positive emotions and the ability to prevent overwhelming negative emotions [12] are vital to managing healthcare workplace stress and preventing burnout [11,13]. In the context of our study, we use emotion regulation as the conscious and unconscious processes by which a person can modify the quality, intensity and duration of the emotional response [14]. The adaptive cognitive strategies (e.g. ...
Background
Emergency department (ED) professionals face a high risk of physical, mental, and emotional strain, which can lead to burnout. Burnout arises from chronic work-related stress, which negatively impacts ED professionals, the healthcare system, as well as patient outcomes. Effective adaptive emotion regulation strategies (ERS) are crucial for handling stress in healthcare workplaces and mitigating the risk of burnout. High-quality patient-professional relationships, including empathy, significantly improve patient compliance and disease outcomes. This cross-sectional exploratory study aims to investigate the relationship between mental distress, burnout, adaptive and maladaptive ERS among healthcare professionals in an ED.
Methods
A total of 159 ED workers participated in an online survey. Emotion regulation was assessed using the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, while burnout and mental distress were measured using the Maslach Burnout Inventory and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale.
Results
The findings revealed that more than 20% of participants displayed severe symptoms of stress (N = 35), anxiety (N = 36), and depression (N = 31), and only 10.7% (N = 27) had no signs of burnout. Despite these findings, it appears that the majority of ED professionals primarily utilise adaptive ERS (91.8%, N = 146). However, as burnout levels increased, the use of adaptive ERS declined compared to maladaptive strategies. Regression analysis identified several significant predictors of Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalisation, and reduced Personal Accomplishment, including gender, age, physical exercise, smoking, sedative usage, stress, depression, maladaptive strategies and adaptive strategies such as positive reappraisal.
Conclusions
These study results highlight the urgent need to address workplace stress, burnout, and mental distress among healthcare professionals in EDs. Implementing effective strategies for adaptive emotion regulation and promoting a supportive work environment can help mitigate burnout and enhance the well-being of ED workers, ultimately benefiting patient care and outcomes.
... This scale, encompassing both the total scale and individual subscales or short forms, was applied in 24 studies. The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) (Gross, 2001), either as a total scale or using only the Suppression Subscale, was used in 10 studies. The Questionnaire to Assess Children's and Adolescents' Emotion Regulation strategies Global difficulties in ER were lower in girls from the non-problematic cluster than in girls from the clusters elevated shape & weight concern, clinical shape & weight concern, clinical disordered eating, high shape & weight concern, and clinical disordered eating, high restraint. ...
... ER refers to the "extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions, especially their intensity and duration" 32 . It plays an essential role in everyone's life: many studies highlighted the correlation between healthy ER strategies and social and affective adaptation 33,34 , how it affects decision-making 35 and coping with stress 36 or the severity of symptoms in conditions such as Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 37 or Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 38 . Also, the typical state that characterizes mood and anxiety disorders often depends on emotion dysregulation 39 . ...
Emotion classification using electroencephalographic (EEG) data is a challenging task in the field of Artificial Intelligence. While many researchers have focused on finding the best model or feature extraction technique to achieve optimal results, few have attempted to select the best methodological steps for working with the dataset. In this study, we applied two different theoretical approaches based on the noise of the dataset: curriculum learning and confident learning. Curriculum learning involves presenting training examples to the model in a specific order, starting with easier examples and gradually increasing in difficulty. This approach has been shown to improve model performance. Confident learning is a method for identifying and correcting label errors in datasets. By identifying and correcting these errors, confident learning can improve the performance of machine learning models trained on noisy datasets. We then applied the Integrated Gradient technique in order to assess the explainability of each model. Our aim was to explore the impact of different models and methods on emotion classification performance using EEG data. We collected and used an EEG dataset in which participants rated the emotional valence of positive and negative pictures while performing an emotion regulation (ER) task, comparing a control condition (Look) with two ER strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. We performed a multilabel classification to identify emotional neutrality or polarization of emotional valence (both positive and negative) rated by participants and the emotion regulation strategy adopted during the task. We compared the performance of models trained on three datasets selected based on label noise and evaluated their suitability for this task. Our results suggest different patterns based on the architecture used for feature importance, highlighting both advantages and criticisms.
... It is simply that manysome would say mostemotional experiences are influenced by cognitive appraisal processes and the confirmation or disconfirmation of expectations and self-theory postulates (Epstein (1973(Epstein ( , 2014; the contributors to Scherer et al. (2001). Furthermore, cognitive strategies play a leading role in emotion regulation (Gross & Thompson, 2007;Gross, 2001). As well, much of our emotional experience is precipitated by cognitions about emotion. ...
Under the leadership of its founding editor, Dante Cicchetti, Development and Psychopathology has been recognized for decades as the foremost journal integrating developmental theory and clinical research programs. Contributors have often highlighted the implications of attachment theory and research for understanding developmental processes and pathways, and as a testing ground for intervention strategies. In this paper we reflect on the strengths and limitations of the traditional developmental perspective. We suggest that behavioral, cognitive, and emotional development are better understood as a process of bricolage (construction within constraints). This perspective is illustrated in an analysis of change mechanisms, and behavioral and representational changes, in attachment development from pre-locomotor infancy to later adulthood. Special emphasis is placed on ordinary learning and cognitive processes, rather than those specific to attachment, and on the roles that socialization pressures and changing circumstances play in shaping the course of attachment development.
... In the perspective of cognitive therapy models both aspects are closely connected to affective disorders (Lehmberg & Soyka, 2016). Gross (2016) developed the 'process-model of emotion regulation'. He differentiates between processes preceding the situation, as reappraisal and those referring to the emotional response, as suppression or disinhibition of the emotional reaction. ...
Abstract –
Background: Substances can be instrumentalized to down-regulate or escape overwhelming
emotions. Few studies have focused on emotion regulation (ER) strategies in clinical samples
with Substance Use Disorders (SUDs). Bodily experience of emotions has almost not been ex
amined among SUD-patients. The aim of the present study was to investigate in a quasi-exper
imental design whether SUD-inpatients differ regarding their use of ER strategies and their
bodily experience of emotions and to evaluate the relationship between ER and bodily experi
ence of emotions.
Method: The sample consisted of 29 abstinent SUD-inpatients (male: n = 20) and 28 control
participants (male: n = 11) aged 18-58. ER was examined using self-report questionnaires
(ERQ; FEEL-E). By the aid of the emBODY tool (Nummenmaa et al. 2014) emotion-related
bodily sensation maps (BSMs) were obtained. Participants marked subjectively sensed bodily
(de)activations following emotional stimuli in two silhouettes. Psychopathology was assessed
by the SKID-I.
Results: Results showed no significant differences in ER-measures. In the SUD-group greater
BSM-activation was found in the head-area following fear-inducing stimuli and less activation
in the trunk-area following sadness-inducing stimuli. Adaptive ER was negatively correlated,
and maladaptive ER inversely positively correlated with BSM-activation. BSM-activation in
an emotion could not predict the application of (mal)adaptive strategies to this emotion.
Discussion: Our results suggest, that ER is not conspicuous in SUD-patients and that associa
tions between ER and bodily experience of emotions exist, whereby found patterns are open to
various interpretations. This study suggests that emotion-related bodily sensations of SUD-in
patients are quite comparable to non-addicted individuals.
Keywords: emotion regulation; substance use disorder, illegal drugs, bodily maps, experience
of emotion
... Dentro del campo de estudio de este modelo intervienen además aspectos sociales, considerando la respuesta del individuo hacia su entorno (retroalimentación); aspectos cognitivos, como la estrategia de la reevaluación cognitiva (rc); y, el impacto en el bienestar que pueda ocasionar elegir ciertas familias de estrategias (Gross, 2002). Es así que se posiciona a la rc y la supresión emocional (se) como las estrategias de regulación emocional que generan un impacto favorable o desfavorable en la salud (Gross, 2001). ...
El consumo excesivo de alcohol es un comportamiento de riesgo en el que las personas buscan efectos placenteros a pesar de las consecuencias negativas. La investigación sugiere que el consumo excesivo puede estar asociado con una variedad de comportamientos de riesgo dañinos, incluidos la agresión, accidentes automovilísticos y conducta sexual de riesgo. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la toma de decisiones de riesgo y la impulsividad para definir el mejor predictor para el consumo excesivo. Los participantes fueron 68 adultos jóvenes, se utilizaron las tareas: bart y descuento por demora. Se encontró que solo la tarea de bart presenta diferencias significativas en el consumo de alcohol, esto fue consistente con otros estudios, los modelos de regresión no fueron significativos. Se concluye que una medida de asunción de riesgos podría ser un mejor predictor para el consumo de alcohol frente a una medida de impulsividad.
... Emotional expression, a correlate of emotion regulation, is the potential to convey emotions through externalization in the form of our actions or words (Gross, 1998;Savage et al., 2016). The emotion regulation executive mechanisms entail three functions; internal/intake regulation, reevaluation or reconsideration and external, resultant or product regulation in addition to the emotional expressions (Gross, 2001;Schulz & Lazarus, 2012). It is important to get knowledge about the roots of gender variations in emotion regulation so as to get an insight into the future behavioral patterns (Bowie, 2010) and is a prerequisite for a healthy state of mind later in life (Fox & Calkins, 2003). ...
Research in the area of emotion regulation in children has provided substantial
evidence that a well emotionally regulated child has the potential to have a healthy
state of mind throughout his life. Emotional patterns developed during childhood
serve as a guide for future growth and development. It is also focussed in many
researches that children’s accomplishment of various goals in different spheres of life
is greatly affected by how socially and emotionally competent they are in their early
years. Therefore, understanding the gender variations also become a crucial
component to study in this regard. Objectives- Based on this, the present review will
(a) understand the nature of gender differences in emotion regulation and expression
among the two genders, i.e, male and female; (b) explore the factors that lead to such
kinds of variations, and (c) identify the variations in adaptive strategies and how they
affect both the genders. Method- Analysis of several researches was done with
regards to emotion regulation in children. The analysis only included the two sex, i.e.,
male and female. Conclusion- based on the review it was seen that gender played a
crucial role in terms of emotion regulation because researchers suggested that there
are specific intrinsic and extrinsic behaviors that children observe. Also, it was
analyzed that there is an overlap in the factors that govern regulation in children and
only defining emotion regulation through one aspect is not enough and therefore a
thorough understanding is required taking all causes into account and that the present
emotional behavior patterns in children can help predict future developmental
outcomes throughout their life which also serves as an intervention strategy for
various psychopathological problems.
... Emotional expression, a correlate of emotion regulation, is the potential to convey emotions through externalization in the form of our actions or words (Gross, 1998;Savage et al., 2016). The emotion regulation executive mechanisms entail three functions; internal/intake regulation, reevaluation or reconsideration and external, resultant or product regulation in addition to the emotional expressions (Gross, 2001;Schulz & Lazarus, 2012). It is important to get knowledge about the roots of gender variations in emotion regulation so as to get an insight into the future behavioral patterns (Bowie, 2010) and is a prerequisite for a healthy state of mind later in life (Fox & Calkins, 2003). ...
Abstract
The spirit of the Indian Constitution is to guarantee that every citizen, regardless of caste,
religion, or gender, has an equal opportunity to develop and realize their potential. Certain
cultures, organisations, and people have historically been marginalised in many countries
throughout the world as well as in our own because of conventional views, a lack of
knowledge, or inefficient planning and policies for societal and global development. When
it comes to social, educational, economic, psychological, and psychosexual well-being,
the well-known “Hijra” community is also marginalised. They have also fought for their
identity and rights for millennia. Today, transgender students will attend schools, colleges,
and universities, and all of these institutions will approve their entrance as a “disadvantaged
group” as specified by the Right to Education Act of 2009. The transgender community is a
component of society, and they are entitled to the same opportunities as everyone else. For
entrance to schools, colleges, and universities, transgender people are eligible for a 25%
reservation under the category of economically disadvantaged pupils. They have poor social
and economic standing. The transgender people will be provided employment opportunities
and entrance to schools, colleges, and universities. Transgender people will have access
to educational and career opportunities, according to the Supreme Court. The transgender
community encounters numerous difficulties and forms of prejudice, which limits its chances
in comparison to others. They do not acquire a proper education because they are neither
socially accepted nor well educated. Even after being accepted into a college or university,
students endure daily bullying and harassment and are frequently asked to leave their classes
or drop out on their own. This is why they start begging and doing sex jobs.
... Emotion dysregulation is a complex phenomenon (Gross, 2001) and, as operationalized by Gratz and Roemer (2004), it involves difficulties in emotional awareness, a lack of clarity about experienced emotions, and a non-acceptance of one's own emotions. It also encompasses difficulties in having access to appropriate emotion regulation strategies, in controlling one's behavior when confronted with negative emotions, and in concentrating and accomplishing tasks during negative emotions. ...
Several studies indicate a link between personal distress and vulnerability to depression. The literature also suggests that personal distress is associated with emotion dysregulation and that emotion dysregulation plays a role in depression. However, which of the various emotion regulation difficulties mediates the relationship between personal distress and depression remains unexplored. This study therefore aims to investigate the mediating role of specific emotion regulation difficulties in the relationship between personal distress and depression. Of the 702 initially recruited participants, 635 completed a survey comprising the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, and the Beck Depression Inventory. A mediation analysis was used to explore which emotion regulation difficulties mediate the relationship between personal distress and depression. Over a quarter (27%) of participants reported moderate-severe depression symptoms. Difficulties in accessing adaptive emotion regulation strategies and in having a clear understanding about one's own emotions partly mediated the relationship between personal distress and depression symptoms. Our results are the first to indicate that personal distress is linked to depression risk through specific emotion regulation difficulties in medical students. They also highlight possible modifiable skills that could be targeted by prevention intervention.
... 5 Bu stratejilerden biri olarak kabul edilen bastırma veya dışavurumcu bastırma (expressive suppression) duygu uyandıran bir olaya tepki olarak ortaya çıkan duygu ifadesini engellemeyi içerir 5 ve yapılan çalışmalarda baskılayıcı tipteki düzenleyici stratejilerin kişilerin sağlıkları açısından risk faktörü olduğunu öne sürülmüştür. 6 Alanyazında sıklıkla karşılaşılan duygu düzenleme stratejilerinden biri de ruminasyondur (yani, kontrol edilmesi zor olarak algılanan bir veya daha fazla olumsuz kaygılı durum hakkında tekrarlayan düşünme) ve duygu düzenlemenin negatif bilişsel sürecini temsil eder. 7 Ruminasyon stratejisinin altında yatan düşünce kalıplarına bakıldığında "problem odaklı düşünceler, tekrarlayan düşünceler, karşı-olgusal düşünme (geçmişte olmuş olan olaylara olumlu veya olumsuz bir şekilde sonuçlanan yeni alternatifler düşünme" 8 ve öngörülü düşünme (henüz gerçekleşmemiş durumlar üzerine düşünme, örneğin; "eğer bu durum olursa onu düşünmeyi asla bırakamayacağım" gibi) karşımıza çıkmaktadır. ...
Duygu düzenleme süreçleri ve bu süreçlerin birçok değişken üzerindeki etkileri günümüzde alan yazında sık araştırılan konulardandır. Özellikle bu süreçlerin ergenlik döneminde sıklıkla rastlanılan intihar amacı olmayan kendini yaralama davranışı üzerinde etkilerinin de olduğu alan yazında belirtilmektedir. Bu nedenle, mevcut çalışmanın amacı ergenlerde duygu düzenleme ve intihar amacı olmayan kendini yaralama davranışı arasındaki ilişkiyi inceleyen son 15 yıl içerisinde yapılmış olan çalışmaların sistematik olarak incelenmesidir. Bu derleme, “Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis” kriterleri esas alınarak yazılmıştır ve makaleler belirlenen anahtar kelimeler kullanılarak “PubMed”, “ScienceDirect/Elsevier” ve “Wiley Online Library” veri tabanlarında Nisan-Mayıs 2021 tarihleri arasında taranmış ve belirlenen kriterlere uygun olan 20 makale derlemeye dahil edilmiştir. Dahil edilen çalışmaların yedisi boylamsal ve on üçü kesitsel olarak yapılmıştır. Çalışmalarda duygu düzenleme kapsamında en sık olarak “duygu düzenleme, duygu düzensizliği, bilişsel yeniden değerlendirme, dışavurumcu bastırma ve ruminasyon” kavramları ele alınmıştır. Ayrıca, bu kapsamda daha fazla ve birbirinden farklı kavramlar da incelenmiştir. Çalışmaların sonuçları genel olarak ele alındığında, duygu düzenleme stratejilerinin uyumsuz olanlarının daha fazla kullanılmasının ergenlerde intihar amacı olmayan kendini yaralama davranışını yordadığı ve ergenlik döneminde özellikle de duygu düzenlemede zorlukların oluşmasında rolü olabilecek başka değişkenlerin de duygu düzenleme ve kendini yaralama davranışı arasındaki ilişkiye etki ettiği bulunmuştur. Bulgular, ergenlik döneminde ortaya çıkan bu zorluklar ve riskli davranışların sıklıkla görüldüğünü ve ergenlerde bu süreçlere ayrı bir dikkatin olması gerektiğini göstermeleri açısından önem arz etmektedir
... Ainda que não altere o significado da ativação da emoção (e.g. tristeza), pode inibir um comportamento associado a ela(GROSS, 2001;JOHN, 2003).No que se refere ao funcionamento social, os estudos demonstram que os indivíduos que preferem a supressão emocional têm tendência a evitar relações emocionalmente próximas e positivas. Em contrapartida, os indivíduos que utilizam mais a reavaliação cognitiva têm tendência a partilhar as suas emoções, estabelecendo relações emocionais mais próximas com os seus pares (GROSS;JOHN, 2003).Tendo em conta que o objeto deste estudo é implementar um programa de intervenção que amplie as competências emocionais dos pais para conseguirem regular melhor as emoções no âmbito familiar, optamos por trabalhar mais com a reavaliação cognitiva, uma vez que a supressão emocional apresenta característica evitativa nas relações, conforme já mencionado.Sendo assim, utilizamos o treino da partilha social das emoções enquanto tática de regulação emocional interpessoal e o mindfulness para regulação emocional intrapessoal. ...
Embora a escola ainda não tenha sido devidamente explorada para este fim, estudos recentes vêm evidenciando a importância dos programas de inteligência emocional para os pais neste ambiente, visando o desenvolvimento das competências emocionais na família. Por meio de um programa de intervenção em inteligência emocional de sete sessões semanais, pretendeu-se verificar a eficácia da partilha social das emoções, do mindfulness e das emoções positivas no desenvolvimento das competências emocionais dos pais. O programa Reconstruindo as Emoções na Parentalidade utilizou a metodologia de investigação quase-experimental, em função da não aleatorização da amostra. A amostra de conveniência foi recolhida presencialmente em resposta a 6 questionários, composta por 62 participantes, 36 (58%) pertencentes ao grupo experimental e o restante, 26 (42%) ao grupo controle. 100% dos participantes são portugueses. Os resultados revelam que houve aumento das competências emocionais, particularmente na capacidade de lidar com as emoções. Quanto à interação familiar, ocorreu um aumento do estilo parental autoritativo e uma maior coesão familiar. No que diz respeito às expectativas parentais, houve também um aumento desta variável. Os benefícios retirados da partilha social das emoções também apresentaram um valor maior.
... Research focusing on age groups has revealed noteworthy distinctions in emotion regulation strategies. Older adults tend to gravitate towards positive states amidst challenging experiences (Gross, 2001), whereas young adults often employ suppression, inhibiting the expression of emotions (John & Gross, 2004). Additionally, young adults exhibit a heightened need to alleviate stress levels compared to their older counterparts (Cameron et al., 2018). ...
This study aims to explore the efficacy of a cognitive emotion regulation program tailored for university students grappling with anxiety. The program, designed to equip participants with effective cognitive emotion regulation strategies, employed a pre-test, post-test experimental framework encompassing both experimental and control groups. Evaluation of the program's effectiveness drew upon the Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory, and Cognitive Emotion Regulation Scale. The research engaged a total of 20 undergraduate university students—10 in each experimental and control group. Across 14 sessions lasting 90 minutes each, the program unfolded. Data analysis involved the Mann-Whitney U Test and Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test. The outcomes unveiled a notable discrepancy in depression reduction between the experimental and control groups, favoring the former. Moreover, the program exhibited a dual benefit by enhancing cognitive emotion regulation strategies while concurrently diminishing anxiety levels among the experimental group. These findings robustly underscore the program's efficacy. The program's noteworthy contributions prompt its potential application within university psychological counseling centers and group therapy sessions for university students.
... Although very little research has been conducted on the antecedent emotional factors of self-acceptance, many results have explored the emotional process. Gross's (2001) widely known emotion regulation process suggests that after emotions occur, individuals have reactive-oriented emotion regulation, i.e., there is an effect on various emotional reaction trends (psychological experience, facial expression, physiological reaction). This regulation is used to avoid or reduce emotions and can also affect mental health (Gross, 1998). ...
Self-acceptance is known as a strong indicator of positive mental health, and previous studies have identified the relationship between self-acceptance and emotion. However, there are still some research gaps in the relationship between self-acceptance and key emotional variables such as emotional awareness and emotional regulation strategies. The exploration of this part is also more conducive to the future design of effective ways to improve self-acceptance. Considering the Gross emotion regulation model, the present study aimed to examine the relationship between emotional awareness and self-acceptance, as well as the mediating effect of emotion regulation strategies. Data were collected from 419 college students in Zhejiang Province, China. Results showed that emotional awareness (IV) was positively associated with self-acceptance (DV), and both cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression partially mediated the influence of emotional awareness on self-acceptance. The results suggest an underlying mechanism between emotional awareness and self-acceptance with emotion regulation strategies as robust factors. Theoretically, all of the results had significant ramifications and supplemented the empirical findings in the area of emotional health and self-acceptance. The mediation model also offers emotion-based innovation for approaches to improve self-acceptance, which has practical implications.
... A key future direction for the field of PNIindeed, one in which further growth seems needed for the emerging field of affective immunology to develop and thriveis to better incorporate and understand the impact of emotion regulation at a mechanistic level. The term "emotion regulation" can be thought of as broadly encompassing the shaping of the experience and expression of emotion based on context, needs, and goalssuch as via strategies related to changing situational context, attention, cognitions (e.g., cognitive reappraisal), and responses such as emotion expression or suppression [105][106][107]. Work in this area will be particularly valuable given that emotion regulation is a modifiable target [108][109][110]. ...
The term “affective immunology” has recently been used to denote a field focused on the interplay between affective processes (including mood states, specific emotions, and regulatory processes) and various aspects of immune function. The overarching goals of this commentary are a) to provide historical underpinnings of this field with a focus on the profound impact of the work of Janice Kiecolt-Glaser, who is further honored in this special issue, b) to review important off-shoots of her legacy work in this domain, and c) to highlight important future directions for the field. Kiecolt-Glaser's work laid much of the foundation for affective immunology, with groundbreaking research related to depression, hostility and dyadic interactions, loneliness, and other affective patterns, often in the context of holistic models, novel experimental designs, and interventions. Her former mentees (and many of their mentees) have carried on her legacy in these domains, in ways that continue to advance appreciation of how affective processes relate to immune function. There are numerous remaining questions for the field to pursue, including better understanding of the role of emotion regulation, emotional reactivity and recovery, restorative processes, affective variability, and developmental and dynamic social processes. Such work will require greater use of longitudinal and within-person approaches and/or examination of processes in daily life, as well as models that account for interactive and reciprocal processes and which integrate behavior, social context, sociocultural factors, individual differences, and other aspects of health. As more work in these domains continues, building on Kiecolt-Glaser's rich legacy, we move toward the emergence of affective immunology as an important subfield in the domain of psychoneuroimmunology, one which will offer more nuanced understanding of the role of affective processes in immune health.
... There are many reasons to implement ER strategies: from seeking to increase positive emotions and decrease negative ones (hedonic emotion regulation, Kobylińska & Kusev, 2019) to achieving context-specific goals (Eldesouky & English, 2019;Gross, 2014). In the emotional unfolding, several ER strategies are present, as described in the Process Model of Emotion Regulation (Gross, 1998(Gross, , 2001(Gross, , 2014. ...
Objective: This study aimed to explore the efficiency of different emotion regulation strategies, specifically reappraisal and suppression, in relation to adaptive and maladaptive personality profiles.
Background: Personality conditions emotions and influences emotion regulation. Of the available regulation strategies, reappraisal (reinterpreting the situation) is described as an efficient strategy, whereas suppression (not displaying the experienced emotion) carries higher physiological and cognitive costs. Little is known, however, about the influence of personality on these efficiencies.
Method: We tested the personality structure of 102 participants (Meanage = 20.75, SDage = 2.15), based on the Five-Factor Model and the Maladaptive Personality Trait Model. Experience, expressivity, and physiological arousal were recorded during the viewing of emotionally charged positive and negative images while participants reappraised, suppressed, or viewed the images without regulating their emotions.
Results: We identified two clusters for adaptive personality (“Adaptive Resilient” and “Anti-resilient”) and two for maladaptive personality (“Maladaptive Resilient” and “Under-controlled”). The major finding was for emotional experience in maladaptive personalities, where reappraisal was efficient in the Maladaptive Resilient profile, while none of the strategies brought relief in the Under-controlled profile.
Conclusion: This study, which systematically contrasts personality and efficiency of emotion regulation strategies, is one of the first attempts to refine the understanding of how personality influences the emotional regulation process.
The Internet has far-reaching effects on various aspects of human life and the extreme use of the Internet is associated with numerous personal and social harms. The present study investigates the mediating role of emotion regulation strategies and psychological distress in the relationship between insecure attachment and problematic internet use. The present study was descriptive-correlational and structural equation modeling. The statistical population of the present study was all students studying in the undergraduate and graduate courses of the Islamic Azad University, Research Sciences, Center and Karaj Branch in the academic year 2019-2020. By cluster sampling method, 397 people were selected as the sample group. Data collection tools included Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire, Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, scale for Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale and Adult Attachment Scale. Data analysis was performed by Pearson correlation coefficient and path analysis using LISREL software. The results showed that psychological distress (0.50), maladaptive strategies (0.23), adaptive strategies (-0.21), avoidant attachment (0.11), and ambivalent attachment (0.10) have the highest to the lowest correlation coefficient with harmful use of the Internet (P <0.05). Strategies for regulating emotional distress and distress also mediated the relationship between insecure attachment style and problematic internet use. Accordingly, in the field of designing the necessary measures to reduce the problematic internet use, programs can be developed to improve insecure attachment styles, emotion regulation strategies and psychological distress.
The stage of early adulthood in human development is to establish romantic relationships with the opposite sex. Therefore, having a romantic relationship is important for individuals at that age. Out of these four types of violence, emotional violence is the one that cannot be seen in real life, and even the victims don't really feel that what they are experiencing is a form of emotional violence. In emotional violence, the perpetrator will play a role by manipulating the victim, so that the victim does not even realize what he is experiencing, but gradually the impact of the violence is felt in everyday life. Meanwhile, the position of victims who are manipulated and unaware of the violence they experience, makes them feel that their perception of the situation they are experiencing is unrealistic, victims usually do not recognize or recognize emotional violence, and they develop coping mechanisms such as denial and minimize the violence they experience. With this condition it is difficult for victims to seek help for what they are experiencing. There are predictors that can influence the behavior of seeking help, including the regulation of the victim's emotions, the intensity of the search for help itself, and so on. In order to seek help from a manipulative, emotionally abusive state, the victim must have trust in others. Conditions that are astonishing and difficult to understand and believe are like victims of natural emotional abuse, forcing them to only want to open up to people they truly trust.
This article discusses how the affectivism framework and the componential approach to emotion may serve the future of affective sciences. A particular aim of the article is to show that an appraisal-based componential approach to emotion can help reconcile opposing theories. It begins by contextualizing the evolution of emotion science within the framework of affectivism, acknowledging that the significant epistemological differences between various theories have paradoxically spurred interest in studying emotion across various perspectives and disciplines. If affectivism is regarded as the pursuit of a deeper understanding of not only emotions and other affective processes but also cognitive and behavioral processes, then its success can be partly attributed to the existence of multiple approaches, allowing each discipline and perspective to advance using the most suitable theory and methodology. We contend that a componential approach reveals that the five principal theories of emotion have each focused on one of five components of emotion. Overall, based on the analysis of several articles published in the special issue on the future of affective science, we argue that affective scientists are well equipped not only to build a future in which conceptual and methodological tools will be used to test diverging hypotheses between competing theories but also to acknowledge and celebrate where such theories converge.
This research paper explored significant differences in self-emotional management among undergraduates across academic programs. The study revealed distinct variations in self-emotional management levels among students enrolled in B.Com., B.Sc., BBA, and BCA programs, with B.Sc. students displaying heightened levels. These findings aligned with prior research, indicating science students' superior emotional management abilities. The investigation found semester progression did not significantly impact self-emotional management scores, suggesting consistent emotional regulation across academic stages. Additionally, the absence of a substantial interaction effect between program and semester underscored semester's universal influence on emotional management across programs.
Despite recent interest in language learners' psychology, a noticeable gap remains in understanding the effects of a range of psychological factors, such as emotion-regulation (ER) strategies (i.e. cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression), foreign-language enjoyment (FLE), and perceived academic stress (PAS) on foreign-language learners’ proficiency. To address this gap, this study collected quantitative data from 215 undergraduate Saudi students studying English as a foreign language (EFL). A partial least squares structural equation modelling approach was used to construct and test a hypothesised structural model of the direct and indirect effects of ER, FLE, and PAS on EFL proficiency. The findings indicate that FLE and PAS positively predict high EFL proficiency. ER strategies do not directly influence EFL proficiency, but do so indirectly through FLE and PAS. The findings also reveal that the adoption of cognitive reappraisal predicts high levels of FLE and PAS, whereas the adoption of expressive suppression predicts lower PAS without reducing FLE. The findings indicate a complex and evolving relationship between the positive and negative emotions of language learners, which can influence their progress in language learning both directly and indirectly.
En la actualidad, la prevalencia de síntomas de ansiedad y depresión en la población general representa un problema para los sistemas de salud. Estos cuadros comparten síntomas, factores etiológicos y de mantenimiento. La presente investigación buscó identificar perfiles latentes de sintomatología ansiosa y depresiva, y posibles factores de riesgo y protección (variables sociodemográficas y estrategias de regulación emocional (RE)) en una muestra de 632 participantes con edades entre los 18 y los 65 años (M= 31,04; DE= 10,14), residentes en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires y el conurbano bonaerense (Argentina), a quienes se administró un cuestionario sociodemográfico, el Inventario de Ansiedad de Beck, el Inventario de Depresión de Beck y el Cuestionario de Regulación Emocional. Se identificaron tres perfiles caracterizados por su severidad sintomática. Mediante una regresión logística multinomial se halló que recurrir en mayor medida a la estrategia de RE reevaluación cognitiva, tener entre 40 y 49 años y niveles de ingresos medio-bajos, medios o medio-altos se constituyen como factores protectores; mientras que pertenecer al género femenino y la mayor utilización de la estrategia de RE supresión expresiva se presentan como factores de riesgo de sintomatología ansiosa y depresiva. Estos resultados ponen de manifiesto la importancia de considerar los factores protectores y de riesgo en el diseño de intervenciones con miras a reducir la severidad de los síntomas de ansiedad y de depresión, y mejorar la salud mental de las personas.
Purpose
The study aims to closely look at the phenomenon of transformational leadership and the psychological capital of followers by using affective process theory (APT). It has empirically tested the mediation of the perceived emotional labor (EL) of a leader and susceptible emotional contagion (EC) of followers when studying the effect of transformational leadership on the psychological capital (PsyCap) of followers.
Design/methodology/approach
The method adopted was mixed methodology. The data were collected from the 120 respondents and their perception regarding the construct as identified by previous literature was captured through a structured questionnaire. The relationships and hypotheses were tested by the structural equation modeling (SEM) model using SMART PLS. Further 20 semi-structured interviews were conducted using a qualitative approach.
Findings
The current research has empirically shown how specific aspects of transformational leadership, i.e. individual consideration perceived by followers also show high use of perceived deep acting strategy. Deep acting EL strategy is impacting positive EC and positive EC is leading to higher PsyCap of followers generating more work efficacy, hope, optimism and resilience. Mediation of positive EC between Deep acting EL and PsyCap was also observed. In qualitative studies done with the participants, major themes that emerged were transformational leadership, EL strategies, EC and PsyCap.
Practical implications
In times of uncertainty and stress after the post-COVID scenario, employees are facing emotional burnout due to increased work pressure and workload. Transformational leadership has become very critical to manage the PsyCap of followers by using correct EL strategies. Leaders can focus on the optimism and resilience aspect of PsyCap.
Originality/value
The current research has taken affective process theory (APT) as a foundation to understand the connection between transformational leadership and the PsyCap of followers. The study has specifically picked up the fourth mechanism of affective linkage as suggested by Elfenbein (2014) called emotional recognition and seen how emotions are transferred from source (leaders) to recipient (followers). The research has contributed by empirically testing the mediation of the perceived EL of leaders and the susceptible EC of followers and how they affect the PsyCap of followers.
Au fil du temps, les théories des émotions en psychologie et neurosciences ont oscillé entre perspectives centralistes et périphéristes. Les théories récentes intègrent ces deux visions, soulignant le rôle des processus cognitifs et du ressenti corporel dans la construction du vécu émotionnel. Des recherches ont montré que les afférences intéroceptives et proprioceptives constitutives du ressenti corporel influencent significativement notre vécu émotionnel. Ceci a mené au développement de thérapies de régulation émotionnelle centrées sur le corps, telles que la Pleine Conscience Orientée vers le Corps et la Thérapie par la Danse et le Mouvement. Ces thérapies encouragent le développement de la conscience des sensations corporelles pour aider les individus à gérer leurs états émotionnels de manière plus efficace. Elles se révèlent être des outils efficaces dans le traitement des troubles psychologiques. Cette revue vise à fournir un aperçu des connaissances actuelles sur le lien entre le ressenti corporel, les émotions et la régulation émotionnelle et à discuter des applications thérapeutiques qui en découlent. Nous examinerons également les limites théoriques et expérimentales présentes dans la littérature actuelle, ainsi que les perspectives futures pour la recherche expérimentale et l’élaboration de nouveaux outils thérapeutiques.
Abstract: Depression is an important psychological disorder that is common in society and has a negative impact on a person's life. It has been reported that cognitive processes are important in the depression process. There have been few studies on this subject in our country. The aim of this study is to review the findings of studies examining the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depression, and to present information about the strategies associated with depression. In this study; articles published between 2012 and 2022 were scanned using Google Scholar, ScienceDirect and Dergipark databases. Articles to be included for this review was identified by taking into account the research question on the possible relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depression. Examination of the research articles revealed that there was a significant and strong relationship between cognitive emotion regulation and depression. In particular, frequent use of strategies like rumination, catastrophizing, self-blame, and blaming others was positively and significantly correlated with
depression (increasing the level of depression), while more frequent use of strategies like positive reappraisal, positive refocusing and planning refocusing was negatively correlated with depression (increasing the level of depression). These findings were repeatedly reported in the studies examined. For this reason, by examining the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation and depression, this study might be an important contribution to the understanding and treatment of depression.
Keywords: Depression, Cognitive Emotion Regulation, Depressive Symptoms, Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies
İnsanlar var olduğu günden itibaren birbirinden farklı duygular yaşanmaktadır. Bu duyguları yaşamadan önce ise bireyde duyguya sebep olan duruma karşı ilk başta bir tepki gelişmekte ve bu tepki sonucunda ise duygular meydana gelmektedir. Duygu oluşmadan önce verilen tepki kişiden kişiye farklılaşmakta aynı zamanda bu tepkinin şiddeti, süresi ve pozitif-negatif olması da değişmektedir. Tüm bunların birleşmesi ise duygusal tepkisellik kavramını ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu kavramla ilgili Dünya’da birçok çalışma varken Türkiye’de az sayıda araştırma vardır. Bu çalışma ile duygusal tepkisellik kavramının Dünya’da nasıl araştırıldığına bakmak için Web of Science veri tabanından 778 makale bibliyometrik analiz yöntemi incelenmiş ve ulusal çalışmalar için ise Türkiye’de 6 makale ve 15 lisansüstü tezi olmak üzere 21 araştırma doküman incelenmesi yöntemiyle incelenmiştir. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre Türkiye, duygusal tepkisellik kavramını araştırmada Dünya geneline göre geride kaldığı ve bu kavramın Türkiye’de yeni araştırılmaya başlandığı tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca duygusal tepkiselliğin olumsuz etkisini azaltacak önleyici çalışmaların yapılmadığı da doküman incelemesi sonucunda tespit edilmiştir.
Pengabdian masyarakat ini berlandaskan pada fenomena dimana fase perkembangan anak usia sekolah memainkan peran penting dalam pertumbuhan individu. Lingkungan perkotaan dan pedesaan mempengaruhi pola pengasuhan anak-anak, terutama bagi mereka yang memiliki kebutuhan khusus. Sehingga anak-anak ini menghadapi kesulitan beradaptasi dan mengatur respons emosional, menggarisbawahi pentingnya dukungan komprehensif dari keluarga, sekolah, dan lingkungan. Adapun tujuan pengmas ini adalah untuk membentuk komunitas parenting inklusif di SD Muhammadiyah 37, Tangerang Selatan. Pengabdian masyarakat ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif untuk mengeksplorasi pembentukan komunitas parenting di SD Muhammadiyah 37. Data dikumpulkan melalui seminar, observasi, dan wawancara dengan anggota komunitas, dengan peneliti sebagai instrumen utama. Hasil Pengabdian masyarakat ini menekankan bahwa pentingnya membangun komunitas parenting inklusif untuk anak-anak berkebutuhan khusus. Dukungan sosial, adaptasi lingkungan pendidikan, dan pemanfaatan teknologi menjadi langkah kunci dalam menciptakan lingkungan yang mendukung. Komunitas parenting yang inklusif diharapkan menjadi fondasi bagi pertumbuhan anak-anak, memberikan dukungan yang berarti bagi orang tua, dan membawa perubahan positif bagi anak-anak berkebutuhan khusus di SD Muhammadiyah 37, Tangerang Selatan. Pengabdian masyarakat ini menggarisbawahi perlunya pendekatan holistik dan inklusif dalam mendukung perkembangan anak-anak berkebutuhan khusus di lingkungan pendidikan.
This thesis applies and critically examines Self-Determination Theory’s concepts of basic need satisfaction, autonomy support and motivational types in the context of a major UK music conservatoire.
The study is a mixed methods study with an explanatory, concurrent and independent design. The quantitative analysis involved a survey questionnaire, the qualitative analysis involved repertory grid interviews and follow-up interviews. Results of the quantitative analysis show overall medium basic need satisfaction, high autonomy support and high self-determined forms of motivation. There are no significant differences between departments, undergraduate and postgraduate students and between male and female students. Whilst the case study findings support the results with regard to basic needs satisfaction, in six of the nine case studies, aspects of performance environments emerged which are not autonomy supportive and led students to experience introjected avoidance motivation in the form of fear of failure and not living up to the perceived expectations of important others. This is particularly the case in performance classes, assessment situations and auditions. The discrepancy between findings on the domain and situation levels question SDT’s top-down model of motivation.
The qualitative case studies suggest that this institution’s concept of a proto-professional environment might in some instances contribute to the creation of ego-involving climates. Finally, SDT’s teleological outlook with its emphasis on self-actualization, reflected in the conservatoire’s drive for excellence, might itself be a source of stress. In the case studies this is evident in participants’ experience of pressure with regard to achieving integrated motivation.
SDT’s newer strand of Integrative Emotion Regulation (IER) and a pedagogical framework based on Acceptance and Commitment Coaching (ACC) are introduced as noteworthy recent developments which might go some way in alleviating the pressures experienced at music conservatoires by students and staff alike.
Aims
Natural environments have been widely recognized to have many beneficial effects on emotions and emotion regulation processes. However, this mechanism is still largely overlooked in current research and practice, with only a few studies that specifically investigated these processes applying terminology and approaches grounded in the emotion regulation theories. This review explores the literature regarding how nature-related aspects impact on emotion regulation, considering studies based on relevant emotion regulation concepts and language.
The aim is to bridge the nature-health literature with the emotion regulation field, enhancing theoretical development and understanding of the benefits of nature exposure by identifying common terminology and measurement approaches.
Methods
To inform future research with existing evidence, a rapid review of the literature on this topic was conducted in November 2022. In January 2024, an additional literature search was conducted to incorporate recent articles and update the review. Five databases (PsycInfo, PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubPsych) were searched for relevant studies reporting effects of nature exposure and other nature-related aspects (e.g., nature connectedness) on emotion regulation processes.
Results
Following the application of inclusion and exclusion criteria, twenty-seven relevant articles were selected for the review. The assessment of emotion regulation and nature-related aspects used in the studies were diverse and the research was heterogeneous; therefore, a narrative synthesis of the results was conducted. Overall, nature exposure appears to have a positive impact on emotion regulation processes in general as well as on specific emotion regulation strategies, such as decreasing rumination and worry, and enhancing the use of adaptive emotion regulation strategies (i.e., mindfulness and cognitive reappraisal). Furthermore, the review indicated that there is an association between nature connectedness and affect regulatory processes, for example emotion regulation and dysregulation have been found to mediate the effects of nature connectedness on perceived stress and happiness.
Conclusions
Despite the variety in the methods adopted by the reviewed studies, most findings reported positive impacts of nature on affect regulatory processes in general, and more particularly on specific strategies of emotion regulation. These findings highlight the importance of further research on this topic and the need for enhanced methodological rigor in study designs and measurements tools to assess the association among individuals’ exposure to nature and the strategies they adopt to regulate their emotions. Achieving greater consistency in the terminology adopted across studies is also crucial for building a cohesive body of knowledge and facilitating evidence accumulation across diverse contexts.
While workers of all stripes are compelled to embrace uncertainty under conditions of neoliberalism, ideologies of risk assume a particular guise in the platform economy, wherein laborers are exhorted to ‘put yourself out there’. Given the attendant harms associated with public visibility – especially for women and other marginalized groups – it seems crucial to explore platform-dependent laborers’ experiences of ‘putting themselves out there’. This article draws upon in-depth interviews with 23 social media influencers and content creators, sampled from across platforms, content niches and subjectivities. Our analysis revealed that vulnerability is a structuring concept in the influencer economy – one that operates at multiple, often overlapping levels. First, the commercial logic of authenticity casts personal vulnerability as a strategy for building community and accruing followers. But influencers’ individual disclosures were often entangled with their social identities (e.g., gender, race, sexuality, ability and body type), which rendered them socially vulnerable to targeted antagonism from audiences. Interviewees experienced a range of harms, from identity-based hate and harassment to concerted take-down campaigns. These personal and social vulnerabilities were compounded by the vulnerabilities of platform-dependent labor: not only did participants identify the failures of platforms to protect them, some shared a sense that these companies exacerbated harms through a commercial logic that incentivizes antagonism. After examining the emotional labor necessary to manage such platform vulnerabilities, we close by reiterating the unique precarity of platform labor, wherein participants lack the social and legal protections typically afforded to ‘vulnerable workers’.
Using a process model of emotion, a distinction between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation is proposed. To test this distinction, 120 participants were shown a disgusting film while their experiential, behavioral, and physiological responses were recorded. Participants were told to either (a) think about the film in such a way that they would feel nothing (reappraisal, a form of antecedent-focused emotion regulation), (b) behave in such a way that someone watching them would not know they were feeling anything (suppression, a form of response-focused emotion regulation), or (c) watch the film (a control condition). Compared with the control condition, both reappraisal and suppression were effective in reducing emotion-expressive behavior. However, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression increased sympathetic activation. These results suggest that these 2 emotion regulatory processes may have different adaptive consequences.
Emotion regulation plays a central role in mental health and illness, but little is known about even the most basic forms of emotion regulation. To examine the acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion, we asked 180 female participants to watch sad, neutral, and amusing films under 1 of 2 conditions. Suppression participants (N = 90) inhibited their expressive behavior while watching the films; no suppression participants (N = 90) simply watched the films. Suppression diminished expressive behavior in all 3 films and decreased amusement self-reports in sad and amusing films. Physiologically, suppression had no effect in the neutral film, but clear effects in both negative and positive emotional films, including increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system. On the basis of these findings, we suggest several ways emotional inhibition may influence psychological functioning.
This study examined the effects of emotional suppression, a form of emotion regulation defined as the conscious inhibition of emotional expressive behavior while emotionally aroused. Ss (43 men and 42 women) watched a short disgust-eliciting film while their behavioral, physiological, and subjective responses were recorded. Ss were told to watch the film (no suppression condition) or to watch the film while behaving "in such a way that a person watching you would not know you were feeling anything" (suppression condition). Suppression reduced expressive behavior and produced a mixed physiological state characterized by decreased somatic activity and decreased heart rate, along with increased blinking and indications of increased sympathetic nervous system activity (in other cardiovascular measures and in electrodermal responding). Suppression had no impact on the subjective experience of emotion. There were no sex differences in the effects of suppression.
In this review, the authors examine the evidence linking social support to physiological processes and characterize the potential mechanisms responsible for these covariations. A review of 81 studies revealed that social support was reliably related to beneficial effects on aspects of the cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems. An analysis of potential mechanisms underlying these associations revealed that (a) potential health-related behaviors do not appear to be responsible for these associations; (b) stress-buffering effects operate in some studies; (c) familial sources of support may be important; and (d) emotional support appears to be at least 1 important dimension of social support. Recommendations and directions for future research include the importance of conceptualizing social support as a multidimensional construct, examination of potential mechanisms across levels of analyses, and attention to the physiological process of interest.
Individual differences in emotionality and regulation are central to conceptions of temperament and personality. In this article, conceptions of emotionality and regulation and ways in which they predict social functioning are examined. Linear (including additive) and nonlinear effects are reviewed. In addition, data on mediational and moderational relations from a longitudinal study are presented. The effects of attention regulation on social functioning were mediated by resiliency, and this relation was moderated by negative emotionality at the first, but not second, assessment. Negative emotionality moderated the relation of behavior regulation to socially appropriate/prosocial behavior. These results highlight the importance of examining different types of regulation and the ways in which dispositional characteristics interact in predicting social outcomes.
An emerging literature has begun to document the affective consequences of emotion regulation. Little is known, however, about whether emotion regulation also has cognitive consequences. A process model of emotion suggests that expressive suppression should reduce memory for emotional events but that reappraisal should not. Three studies tested this hypothesis. Study 1 experimentally manipulated expressive suppression during film viewing, showing that suppression led to poorer memory for the details of the film. Study 2 manipulated expressive suppression and reappraisal during slide viewing. Only suppression led to poorer slide memory. Study 3 examined individual differences in typical expressive suppression and reappraisal and found that suppression was associated with poorer self-reported and objective memory but that reappraisal was not. Together, these studies suggest that the cognitive costs of keeping one's cool may vary according to how this is done.
Individual differences in emotionality and regulation are central to conceptions of temperament and personality. In this article, conceptions of emotionality and regulation and ways in which they predict social functioning are examined. Linear (including additive) and nonlinear effects are reviewed. In addition, data on mediational and moderational relations from a longitudinal study are presented. The effects of attention regulation on social functioning were mediated by resiliency, and this relation was moderated by negative emotionality at the first, but not second, assessment. Negative emotionality moderated the relation of behavior regulation to socially appropriate/prosocial behavior. These results highlight the importance of examining different types of regulation and the ways in which dispositional characteristics interact in predicting social outcomes.
Modern emotion theories emphasise the adaptive value of emotions. Emo- tions are by no means always helpful, however. They often must be regulated. The study of emotion regulation has its origins in the psychoanalytic and stress and coping traditions. Recently, increased interest in emotion regula- tion has led to crucial boundary ambiguities that now threaten progress in this domain. It is argued that distinctions need to be made between (1) regulation of emotion and regulation by emotion; (2) emotion regulation in self and emotion regulation in others; and (3) conscious and nonconscious emotion regulation. U sing a process model of emotion generation, this review considers promising research on basic processes and individual differences in emotion regulation and poses ® ve theoretical challenges.
EVIDENCE EXISTS THAT PEOPLE DO NOT ALWAYS MAKE DECISIONS INVOLVING UNCERTAIN MONETARY REWARDS AS IF THEY WERE MAXIMIZING EXPECTED UTILITY OF FINAL ASSETS. EXPLANATIONS FOR THIS BEHAVIOR POSTULATE THAT THE COGNITIVE DEMANDS OF CONSISTENCY TO SUCH A THEORY ARE TOO GREAT. HOWEVER, SITUATIONS EXIST IN WHICH MORE THAN MENTAL SHORTCUTS ARE INVOLVED AND THESE ANOMALIES RAISE EQUATIONS ABOUT EXPECTED UTILITY THEORY AS A GUIDE TO BEHAVIOR. THIS STUDY EXPLORES THE POSSIBILITY THAT EXPECTED UTILITY THEORY APPEARS TO FAIL BECAUSE THE SINGLE OUTCOME DESCRIPTOR - MONEY - IS NOT SUFFICIENT. AFTER MAKING A DECISION UNDER UNCERTAINTY, A PERSON MAY DISCOVER, ON LEARNING THE RELEVANT OUTCOMES, THAT ANOTHER ALTERNATIVE WOULD HAVEBEEN PREFERABLE. THIS KNOWLEDGE MAY IMPART A SENSE OF LOSS,OR REGRET. THE DECISION MAKER WHO IS PREPARED TO TRADEOFF FINANCIAL RETURN IN ORDER TO AVOID REGRET WILL EXHIBIT SOME OF THE BEHAVIORAL PARADOXES OF DECISION THEORY.
Researchers interested in emotion have long struggled with the problem of how to elicit emotional responses in the laboratory. In this article, we summarise five years of work to develop a set of films that reliably elicit each of eight emotional states (amusement, anger, contentment, disgust, fear, neutral, sadness, and surprise). After evaluating over 250 films, we showed selected film clips to an ethnically diverse sample of 494 English-speaking subjects. We then chose the two best films for each of the eight target emotions based on the intensity and discreteness of subjects' responses to each film. We found that our set of 16 films successfully elicited amusement, anger, contentment. disgust, sadness, surprise, a relatively neutral state, and, to a lesser extent, fear. We compare this set of films with another set recently described by Philippot (1993), and indicate that detailed instructions for creating our set of film stimuli will be provided on request.
Considers the role of emotion regulation in adaptation. More specifically, the authors contrast two specific, theoretically defined forms of emotion regulation--reappraisal and suppression--and show their divergent consequences for cognitive, affective, and social functioning. The general thesis is that different emotion regulation strategies may have profoundly different implications for well-being. The authors draw upon both laboratory and individual-difference studies to examine the consequences of these forms of emotion regulation and discuss the implications of these findings for a broader conception of the role emotion regulation plays in emotionally intelligent behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The emerging field of emotion regulation studies how individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. This review takes an evolutionary perspective and characterizes emotion in terms of response tendencies. Emotion regulation is defined and distinguished from coping, mood regulation, defense, and affect regulation. In the increasingly specialized discipline of psychology, the field of emotion regulation cuts across traditional boundaries and provides common ground. According to a process model of emotion regulation, emotion may be regulated at five points in the emotion generative process: (a) selection of the situation, (b) modification of the situation, (c) deployment of attention, (d) change of cognitions, and (e) modulation of responses. The field of emotion regulation promises new insights into age-old questions about how people manage their emotions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies tested the hypothesis that certain positive emotions speed recovery from the cardiovascular sequelae of negative emotions. In Study 1, 60 subjects (Ss) viewed an initial fear-eliciting film, and were randomly assigned to view a secondary film that elicited: (a) contentment; (b) amusement; (c) neutrality; or (d) sadness. Compared to Ss who viewed the neutral and sad secondary films, those who viewed the positive films exhibited more rapid returns to pre-film levels of cardiovascular activation. In Study 2, 72 Ss viewed a film known to elicit sadness. Fifty Ss spontaneously smiled at least once while viewing this film. Compared to Ss who did not smile, those who smiled exhibited more rapid returns to pre-film levels of cardiovascular activation. We discuss these findings in terms of emotion theory and possible health-promoting functions of positive emotions.
Emotional distress has been related to mortality in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD), but little is known about the role of personality in long-term prognosis. We postulated that type-D personality (the tendency to suppress emotional distress) was a predictor of long-term mortality in CHD, independently of established biomedical risk factors.
We studied 268 men and 35 women with angiographically documented CHD, aged 31-79 years, who were taking part in an outpatient rehabilitation programme. All patients completed personality questionnaire at entry to the programme. We contacted them 6-10 years later (mean 7-9) to find out survival status. The main endpoint was death from all causes.
At follow-up, 38 patients had died; there were 24 cardiac deaths. The rate of death was higher for type-D patients than for those without type-D (23 [27%]/85 vs 15 [7%]/218; p < 0.00001). The association between type-D personality and mortality was still evident more than 5 years after the coronary event and was found in both men and women. Mortality was also associated with impaired left ventricular function, three-vessel disease, low exercise tolerance, and the lack of thrombolytic therapy after myocardial infarction. When we controlled for these biomedical predictors in multiple logistic regression analysis, the impact of type-D remained significant (odds ratio 4.1 [95% CI 1.9-8.8]; p = 0.0004). In this group of CHD patients, type-D was an independent predictor of both cardiac and non-cardiac mortality. Social alienation and depression were also related to mortality, but did not add to the predictive power of type-D.
We found that type-D personality was a significant predictor of long-term mortality in patients with established CHD, independently of biomedical risk factors. Personality traits should be taken into account in the association between emotional distress and mortality in CHD.
Emotion regulation plays a central role in mental health and illness, but little is known about even the most basic forms of emotion regulation. To examine the acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion, we asked 180 female participants to watch sad, neutral, and amusing films under 1 of 2 conditions. Suppression participants (N = 90) inhibited their expressive behavior while watching the films; no suppression participants (N = 90) simply watched the films. Suppression diminished expressive behavior in all 3 films and decreased amusement self-reports in sad and amusing films. Physiologically, suppression had no effect in the neutral film, but clear effects in both negative and positive emotional films, including increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system. On the basis of these findings, we suggest several ways emotional inhibition may influence psychological functioning.
Using a process model of emotion, a distinction between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation is proposed. To test this distinction, 120 participants were shown a disgusting film while their experiential, behavioral, and physiological responses were recorded. Participants were told to either (a) think about the film in such a way that they would feel nothing (reappraisal, a form of antecedent-focused emotion regulation), (b) behave in such a way that someone watching them would not know they were feeling anything (suppression, a form of response-focused emotion regulation), or (c) watch the film (a control condition). Compared with the control condition, both reappraisal and suppression were effective in reducing emotion-expressive behavior. However, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression increased sympathetic activation. These results suggest that these 2 emotion regulatory processes may have different adaptive consequences.
Despite the prominence of emotional dysfunction in psychopathology, relatively few experiments have explicitly studied emotion regulation in adults. The present study examined one type of emotion regulation: voluntary regulation of short-term emotional responses to unpleasant visual stimuli. In a sample of 48 college students, both eyeblink startle magnitude and corrugator activity were sensitive to experimental manipulation. Instructions to suppress negative emotion led to both smaller startle eyeblinks and decreased corrugator activity. Instructions to enhance negative emotion led to larger startle eyeblinks and increased corrugator activity. Several advantages of this experimental manipulation are discussed, including the use of both a suppress and an enhance emotion condition, independent measurement of initial emotion elicitation and subsequent regulation of that emotion, the use of a completely within-subjects design, and the use of naturalistic emotion regulation strategies.
The social consequences of emotion regulation
- E A Butler
- B Egloff
- F H Wilhelm
- N C Smith
- J J Gross
The term "reappraisal" has a
long history. Although some research-References
Butler, E.A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F.H., Smith, N.C.,
& Gross, J.J. (2001). The social consequences of
emotion regulation. Manuscript submitted for
publication.