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How Fast Do Students Forget What They Learn in Consumer Behavior? A Longitudinal Study
Abstract
The retention curve for knowledge acquired in a consumer behavior course is explored in a longitudinal study, tracking individual students from 8 to 101 weeks following course completion. Rasch measurement is used to link tests and to achieve intervally scaled measures of knowledge. The findings indicate that most of the knowledge gained in the course is lost within 2 years. Evidence is provided that knowledge acquired at a deep level of understanding is more likely to be retained than knowledge acquired at a surface level of understanding, and knowledge tested more than once during a course is more likely to be retained than knowledge tested only once. No significant differences in retention were observed related to material covered in a project. Implications are discussed.
... Because differences in test difficulty across these conditions confound the results, 21 studies were excluded. Studies that used some method to equate the tests remained in the research set (e.g., the Rasch model, see Bacon & Stewart, 2006). We next examined the studies' statistical analyses. ...
... The absence of structured targeting may also limit the effectiveness of applied projects. Bacon and Stewart (2006) demonstrated that deep learning leads to greater retention than superficial learning (d = .35); however, when the deep learning was related to applied projects, content retention did not improve. ...
... However, without elaboration, knowledge learned in business school may be quickly forgotten. Bacon and Stewart (2006) estimate that most of the knowledge gained in consumer behavior is lost within 2 years. Van Eynde and Spencer (1988) cite a personal communication from Greaves proposing that instructors would need to cut their content by as much as 25% to cover all of the content with greater elaboration; however, we suspect that effective content reduction may require even larger reductions in course content. ...
After decades of research in marketing and management education (MME), what do we now know about what educational practices work best? We answer this question with a qualitative systematic literature review of every contribution published in five marketing and management education journals from inception through May, 2020 that provides recommendations for evidence-based best pedagogical practice. Contributions were screened to identify empirical studies that employed measures of actual learning in an appropriate experimental design and reported analyses that met certain statistical standards. Of the 4,160 articles examined, 55 studies met our criteria. Based on the studies’ results, we developed a model for understanding the teaching methods that are most effective for achieving actual learning in MME. We provide evidence-based pedagogical recommendations for faculty and recommendations for additional research in key areas and for increasing the rigor of pedagogical research.
... Because differences in test difficulty across these conditions confound the results, 21 studies were excluded. Studies that used some method to equate the tests remained in the research set (e.g., the Rasch model, see Bacon & Stewart, 2006). We next examined the studies' statistical analyses. ...
... The absence of structured targeting may also limit the effectiveness of applied projects. Bacon and Stewart (2006) demonstrated that deep learning leads to greater retention than superficial learning (d = .35); however, when the deep learning was related to applied projects, content retention did not improve. ...
... However, without elaboration, knowledge learned in business school may be quickly forgotten. Bacon and Stewart (2006) estimate that most of the knowledge gained in consumer behavior is lost within 2 years. Van Eynde and Spencer (1988) cite a personal communication from Greaves proposing that instructors would need to cut their content by as much as 25% to cover all of the content with greater elaboration; however, we suspect that effective content reduction may require even larger reductions in course content. ...
... In these multiple posttests studies, researchers sometimes observe differences in the rate of learning decay across groups. Less learning decay is observed when interventions are (1) particularly stimulating (Shank et al., 1992;Steffes & Duverger, 2012); (2) involve repeated study of the same material (Bacon & Stewart, 2006;McIntyre & Munson, 2008); or (3) involve experiential learning (Van Eynde & Spencer, 1988). As experiential learning gains popularity in MME, studies with multiple observations of learning and retention over time may become more important. ...
... Recommendations for the length of MC tests are possible using the results of previously published MME studies. Four of The 55 studies report the length of the exam used (the number of questions/items used) and the observed reliability (Bacon, 2011;Bacon & Stewart, 2006;Hedgcock & Rouwenhorst, 2014;Young, 2016). These studies report details on 12 different MC exams. ...
Hamdani et al. recently provided guidance for prospective authors on a wide range of issues encountered in quantitative research papers submitted for review at the Journal of Management Education. Building on their insights, this essay focuses on experimental designs and provides more specific guidance and recommendations for conducting valid and powerful research. I review the types of experimental designs, statistical tests, and measures that are commonly used in the management education literature and thus provide some sense of the state of practice to date while including specific examples of effective research and analytical techniques. As will be shown, methodological weaknesses exist even in published papers, and so the guidance should be useful to new and experienced authors alike.
... It is substantiated by students that after having gone through the study material provided prior, when they discuss it in a group and hear the same from fellow colleagues, it helps them to remember and retain it for a long time. This finding is in accordance with Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve, which states that there is a direct correlation between memory and time [9]. Generally, forgetting is a rapid process. ...
... Experiments have shown that if one memorises things repeatedly within an hour, one will remember them for a day. If one memorises one day later, one will remember for one week [9]. ...
Introduction
Medical education is changing towards more flexible, effective, active, and student-centred teaching strategies that reduce the limitations of traditional methods of education. Recently, the flipped classroom method has been suggested to support this transition. However, research on the use of flipped classroom methods in medical education pertaining to short- and long-term retention of the topics is at an early stage. The present paper aims to determine and compare the effects of traditional and flipped classroom methods on first-year medical students' short-term and long-term retention.
Method
Fifty first-year medical students were subjected to traditional and flipped classroom modules in the form of five sessions each on gross anatomy topics of the thoracic region. These sessions were conducted during independent teaching slots for anatomy. Assessments were done at the completion of each module for both methods. Then, after a gap of two months, the students were again assessed on the content taught in the modules as a part of formative assessment. The data so obtained were compared and analysed statistically. Ethical approval was obtained prior to beginning the study. Written informed consent was obtained from the participating students.
Result
A total of 50 first-year medical students participated in the study. 33 (67%) participants were males, with a median age of 19.47 years, and 17 (33%) participants were females, with a median age of 19.39 years. The assessment scores showed differences between the two methods of teaching in the short and long term. The flipped classroom method was observed to have significant short-term retention with a p-value <0.0001, which is statistically significant.
Conclusion
The study concludes that the flipped classroom method serves as an advantageous tool and motivating factor for effective learning, understanding, and retention of conceptual and factual anatomical content.
... Furthermore, what value there is in marketing knowledge learned in school may not be retained for long. Bacon and Stewart (2006) found that most content that students learn in consumer behavior classes is forgotten within 2 years. Elaboration, repeated study, and practice are necessary for longer term retention (Bacon & Stewart, 2022), but such opportunities are usually lacking in programs with many stand-alone courses. ...
... Linacre (1995) extended this work by demonstrating that the Rasch model could be used to obtain equivalent estimates while allowing for missing data and not requiring the assumption that latent perceptions be normally distributed. Rasch and other IRT analyses have been applied previously in the broader marketing literature (e.g., de Jong et al., 2008;Ewing et al., 2005) and in the marketing education literature as well (e.g., Bacon & Stewart, 2006). ...
Marketing educators have long been interested in the value of the education they provide, and the importance of educational value has accelerated in an age of increasing educational options, rising college tuition and residential costs, and rapidly changing market needs. The present study surveys marketing managers and utilizes Thurstone pairwise comparisons, a methodology that has previously been overlooked in this context, to estimate the dollar value of several components of marketing education. These components include types of undergraduate and graduate degrees, industry certifications, internships, graduate academic certificates, additional undergraduate coursework, and written communication and Excel skills training. We provide recommendations concerning how marketing academic program directors can modify their programs to increase the return on investment for their students.
... Rather, it also lies in the learner's ability to retain information in memory for long periods. This is what has come to be known as retention (Afoan & Corebima, 2018;Bacon & Stewart, 2006). Retention is also associated with the learner's ability to retrieve information that has been stored in long-term memory when needed (Marzano et al., 1988). ...
... The learning process, which is still oriented towards passing exams, is believed to cause (Sele, Corebima, & Indriwati, 2016). Retention is related to retaining information (Bacon & Stewart, 2006). The process of storing information certainly can not be separated from the memory system. ...
Retention is the key to the success of a learning program. Several studies have shown that retention can be influenced by metacognitive skills, critical thinking, cognitive learning outcomes, and applied learning models. Meanwhile, testing the relationship between the three factors mentioned above and retention is only done using simple and multiple regression with two factors. This correlational study was conducted to determine the relationship between three factors, namely metacognitive skills, critical thinking, and cognitive learning outcomes on retention in students taught by RQA and QASEE learning models, as well as conventional learning. A total of 107 pre-service teachers of Biology Education students in South Sumatra, Indonesia, were involved in this study. The results showed a relationship between metacognitive skills, critical thinking, and cognitive learning outcomes with retention in students who were taught the RQA learning model. However, in the QASEE learning model and conventional learning, this relationship was not found. Thus, it can be concluded that more than two factors affect retention. Then, applying the appropriate learning model also influences the success of a learning program. Finally, conventional learning that only emphasizes efforts to get students to pass the exam must be abandoned immediately.
... More research is required to determine whether an increase in teaching hours could in fact assist the long-term results. In their study, Bacon and Stewart (2006) found that after the completion of a course, students tended to forget most of the financial knowledge they had learned. The Bacon and Steward study suggests that if knowledge is learned at a deeper level, accompanied by repeated testing, it could augment long-term learning outcomes ( (Bacon and Stewart, 2006). ...
... In their study, Bacon and Stewart (2006) found that after the completion of a course, students tended to forget most of the financial knowledge they had learned. The Bacon and Steward study suggests that if knowledge is learned at a deeper level, accompanied by repeated testing, it could augment long-term learning outcomes ( (Bacon and Stewart, 2006). ...
This experimental study with a pre-post and follow-up design evaluates the financial education program “SaveWise” for ninth grade students in the Netherlands (n = 713). SaveWise adopts a holistic approach, emphasizing action rather than mere cognition. Benefitting from explicit instruction imbedded in real-life contexts, students in the program set a personal savings goal and are coached on how to achieve it. The short-term treatment results indicated that SaveWise expanded the students’ level of financial knowledge; encouraged their intentions to save more, spend less and earn an income; and broadly improved their financial and savings behavior. The program demonstrated that it could serve as an effective and low-cost method to enhance the financial literacy of pre-vocational students, a financially vulnerable group. Although long-term effects were expressed only through financial socialization, this study offers evidence linking curricula to increased knowledge and improved behavior for a specific sample of students.
... Students could then be less satisfied about learning and teaching which negatively affects the overall student satisfaction. Overall, these findings are consistent with the findings of Bacon and Stewart (2006) on the importance of the project design in the experiential learning process to enhance student learning and to also ensure that the experience is educative. ...
... The success of this method will highly depend on the degree to which it stimulates deep motivation and learning strategies. Our findings here are in line the previous findings of Bacon and Stewart (2006) on the importance of "developing a pedagogy that requires deep learning early and often". Understanding the effect of the simulation-based experiential learning on the learning process is key to understanding why many high performing students might not be fully satisfied with the learning process. ...
This study evaluates the impact of implementing a simulation-based experiential learning method on student satisfaction. We develop a simulation-based experiential learning activity and use it in teaching a postgraduate finance course to engage students in the learning process and enable them to develop deeper understanding of the finance theories, models and concepts covered in the course. We then use a survey to collect data from students and use a Structural Equations Modelling technique to test our research hypotheses. Our results show that the simulation-based experiential learning activity can provide students with a hands-on experience of the real-world practice of finance. This helps students to engage in the learning process and become active learners who utilise deep learning strategies. Consequently, learners become more satisfied with their learning experience.
... Students could then be less satisfied about learning and teaching which negatively affects the overall student satisfaction. Overall, these findings are consistent with the findings of Bacon and Stewart (2006) on the importance of the project design in the experiential learning process to enhance student learning and to also ensure that the experience is educative. ...
... The success of this method will highly depend on the degree to which it stimulates deep motivation and learning strategies. Our findings here are in line the previous findings of Bacon and Stewart (2006) on the importance of "developing a pedagogy that requires deep learning early and often". Understanding the effect of the simulation-based experiential learning on the learning process is key to understanding why many high performing students might not be fully satisfied with the learning process. ...
This study evaluates the impact of implementing a simulation-based experiential learning method on student satisfaction. We develop a simulation-based experiential learning activity and use it in teaching a postgraduate finance course to engage students in the learning process and enable them to develop a deeper understanding of the finance theories, models, and concepts covered in the course. We then use a survey to collect data from students and use a Structural Equations Modelling technique to test our research hypotheses. Our results show that the simulation-based experiential learning activity can provide students with a hands-on experience of the real-world practice of finance. This helps students to engage in the learning process and become active learners who utilize deep learning strategies. Consequently, learners become more satisfied with their learning experience.
... Students indicated that after studying the pre-presented course materials, discussing them in groups along with clinical scenarios, and solving them with the help of the teacher, they could remember the material for a long time and achieve a deeper understanding of basic and clinical science concepts. These results are consistent with the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve, which reports a direct relationship between memory and time [20]. Medical students take control and responsibility for their own learning in terms of subject mastery, study speed, and class attendance. ...
Background
Medical education is evolving towards more practical, active, effective, and student-centered approaches that address the limitations of traditional lecture methods. Recently, the flipped classroom method has been considered to support these reforms. However, research on the use of flipped classroom methods in medical education, particularly related to clinical scenarios and educational technology, is still in its early stages. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the flipped classroom method using clinical scenarios and educational technology versus subject-based lectures in the course of gastrointestinal physiology for medical students.
Methods
A total of 60 medical students participated in this study. The control group (n = 30) received traditional subject-based lectures and participated in question-and-answer sessions. The intervention group (n = 30) received non-attendance educational content and participated in small group discussions based on clinical scenarios. Course satisfaction was measured using an 18-item questionnaire, and learning outcomes were assessed with a 20-question multiple-choice test, corresponding to levels 1 and 2 of Kirkpatrick’s model. Data were analyzed using descriptive and analytical statistical tests with SPSS software version 24.
Results
The findings indicated that the post-test scores in the intervention group were significantly higher compared to the control group. However, according to the student satisfaction questionnaire, satisfaction was significantly lower in the intervention group compared to the control group.
Conclusion
This study demonstrated that the flipped classroom method, compared to traditional lectures, improved the learning and performance of medical students at Hamadan University of Medical Sciences in the course of gastrointestinal physiology.
... The immediacy and closeness of real practical experience provide students with opportunities to make connections that might not emerge from other pedagogical approaches (Wang and Calvano 2018). Therefore, students benefit and retain knowledge longer when learning at a deeper level (Bacon and Stewart 2006). ...
This study aims to assess the ability of accounting students to identify fraud symptoms, analyze prevention and detection controls, and determine legal consequences during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research data were collected from an online discussion forum completed by accounting students in the “Fraud Examination” course at a public university in the United States. Adapting to the framework of experiential learning theory, we assessed students’ performance using a rubric based on five learning objectives over three semesters from Spring 2020 to Spring 2021. The results indicate that most of the students, regardless of the semester, demonstrated proficiency in applying fraud examination concepts and performing fraud analyses in the pandemic setting, meeting the expected learning objectives.
JEL Classifications: K42; I20.
... An FC centers around basic themes involving flexible environments including a shift from a routine learning culture [9]. According to Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve, there is a direct correlation between memory and time [10,11]. The FC promotes short-term and long-term retention of conceptual and factual content. ...
Introduction
Traditional classroom teaching involves a process where knowledge is disseminated to students by the teachers through a one-way process. Such a learning environment makes students passive and muted, which can be improved by alternative teaching and learning (TL) methods like the flipped classroom (FC) technique. The FC approach involves a student-inclusive TL process. FC is a student-centered approach that benefits teachers and students by emphasizing the key information during the learning process. The present study aimed to understand the efficacy of the FC TL method and evaluate students' perception of FC among underachieving first-year medical students in learning physiology.
Methods
This prospective, descriptive, and cross-sectional study was conducted on 100 underachieving first-year Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) students in the Department of Physiology at a tertiary care teaching hospital. All the participants were taught cardiovascular physiology through the FC method. The study subjects were asked to take a pretest including multiple choice questions a week before the study. The study period was four weeks, following which the students were asked to take a post-test. A questionnaire was used to understand the student's perception of FC. The responses to the questionnaire were graded based on the Likert scale.
Results
The mean scores of the post-test (19.40±4.22) were significantly (p< 0.05) greater than those of the pre-test (12.43±4.26). Regarding the perception of FC, 68% (68/100) of students agreed that the objectives, methodology, and outcomes were well-defined. Around 39% (39/100) of students strongly agreed that the study material was adequate, relevant, and easy to learn. Nearly 58% (58/100) of the students agreed that the competencies are dealt with completely in every session. Roughly 16% (16/100) of students agreed that the classroom time is sufficiently utilized for peer-based learning. Many (61%, 61/100) students agreed that sufficient time was given for learning. About 34% (34/100) of the students strongly agreed that the assessment tools were relevant. About 56% (56/100) of students agreed and 21% (21/100) strongly agreed that the FC method helped them to improve their understanding of the subject. More than half (54%, 54/100) of the students agreed and 18% (18/100) strongly agreed that the FC promoted self-directed learning. Most students (71%, 71/100) believed FC to be an interesting and satisfactory learning experience.
Conclusions
The results indicate that most students believed FC was an effective and innovative TL technique. The FC method could help underachievers improve their cognitive skills and analytical thinking and enhance exam performance.
... Retrieval practice + spacing: a potential solution to an age-old problem Some common undergraduate studying practices, such as rereading notes and textbooks, promote only fleeting memory of course content. Information is retained long enough to support adequate performance on near-term tests but is forgotten soon after (Bacon & Stewart, 2006;Conway et al., 1991;Kamuche & Ledman, 2005;Rawson et al., 2013). Forgetting course content is antithetical to the central premise of education and is especially problematic when success in higher-level courses depends on retention from lower-level courses. ...
Background
Undergraduate STEM instructors want to help students learn and retain knowledge for their future courses and careers. One promising evidence-based technique that is thought to increase long-term memory is spaced retrieval practice, or repeated testing over time. The beneficial effect of spacing has repeatedly been demonstrated in the laboratory as well as in undergraduate mathematics courses, but its generalizability across diverse STEM courses is unknown. We investigated the effect of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses. Retrieval practice opportunities were embedded in bi-weekly quizzes, either massed on a single quiz or spaced over multiple quizzes. Student performance on practice opportunities and a criterial test at the end of each course were examined as a function of massed or spaced practice. We also conducted a single-paper meta-analysis on criterial test scores to assess the generalizability of the effectiveness of spaced retrieval practice across introductory STEM courses.
Results
Significant positive effects of spacing on the criterial test were found in only two courses (Calculus I for Engineers and Chemistry for Health Professionals), although small positive effect sizes were observed in two other courses (General Chemistry and Diversity of Life). Meta-analyses revealed a significant spacing effect when all courses were included, but not when calculus was excluded. The generalizability of the spacing effect across STEM courses therefore remains unclear.
Conclusions
Although we could not clearly determine the generalizability of the benefits of spacing in STEM courses, our findings indicate that spaced retrieval practice could be a low-cost method of improving student performance in at least some STEM courses. More work is needed to determine when, how, and for whom spaced retrieval practice is most beneficial. The effect of spacing in classroom settings may depend on some design features such as the nature of retrieval practice activities (multiple-choice versus short answer) and/or feedback settings, as well as student actions (e.g., whether they look at feedback or study outside of practice opportunities). The evidence is promising, and further pragmatic research is encouraged.
... The lectures are given in one large classroom which can accommodate up to 500 students while lab sessions are given in smaller groups of 30 students in each. Thus, the challenges that the instructors have are the following: (a) a relatively large number of topics has to be covered during the semester, (b) since the instructor meets with students every second week, there should be a way to keep students active (many things are forgotten very quickly (Bacon & Stewart, 2006), (Murre & Dros, 2015)), (c) asynchronous method of teaching should be employed (Vonderwell et al., 2015) to give students chances to practice themselves between the classes, (d) a good balance between theory and practical exercises should be found. ...
The paper is devoted to the development of digital competences of second year bachelor students at the Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology of the Riga Technical University for the course in numerical methods. The structure of the course is described in detail. The key component in the organization of the lectures and lab sessions is interactivity. Many interactive components (presentations, tests) in H5P format are available for students. The digital proficiency Levels 7 and 8 in accordance with DigComp 2.1 framework is expected to be achieved by carefully selecting topics and practical tasks to be solved during the course. The e-book written for the course and published by the Publishing house of the Riga Technical University is one of the teaching resources available to students. The course is fully digitalized so that it can be given in any of the three formats: (a) classroom and lab instruction, (b) fully online course or (c) mixed mode (blended learning). The preference is given to option (c). Both synchronous and asynchronous teaching methods are used. The organization of tests and exams (in the form of online tests) allows instructors to organize the grading effectively without spending too much time on it but at the same time effectively testing students’ knowledge.
... Four digital marketing skills were found to be of particular relevance for entry-level candidates in the field of digital and social media marketing; and these are: web analytics, inbound marketing, e-mail marketing, and social media management. In another study [4] suggestions are given that marketing courses should include content which is directly relevant to the digital challenges which students will face in their first-time jobs. Because digital and social media keep evolving and changing, faculty and students alike are facing challenges. ...
Based on the views of educators and industry
professionals an investigation is carried out in order to reveal
the essential digital marketing competencies for success in
business organizations. By ranking a set of thirty-five
competency items it was shown that Entrepreneurs and
Industry Professionals place a higher level of importance to
some competencies related to Search Engine Optimization and
Content Marketing. As a result, a taxonomical analysis is
proposed based on a set of key success digital marketing
competencies. These are presented in a form of a Digital
Marketing framework comprised of five main dimensions:
Marketing Strategy, Content Marketing, Search Engine
Optimization (SEO), Social Media, and E-mail Marketing. Such
a framework model would be useful to educators and industry
professionals but also to graduates for building a successful
career in today’s complex interrelated digital economy.
... Repeated exposure also affects retention and lead to greater learning when those exposures are spread over time. Project-related learning which calls for more active learning also improves retention in the sense that active learning enhances memory by encouraging the students to make additional connections with the target material (Bacon & Stewart, 2006). This study agrees with the stated claim due to the fact that in the PWIM strategy, the three factors can be observed.Along the process, the students were actively involved in the activity. ...
... This can provide students with the opportunity to review and practice what they have previously studied, helping them to develop new knowledge and the ability to recall past learning. When students are repeatedly taught water-related topics, it becomes conducive to successful learning, and the lessons appear to be even more effective when they are spread over time [109]. The practice of quizzing and discussing the relevant material on a regular basis can help with the retention of the studied materials in the students' memory [110]. ...
Due to climate change and increased urbanisation, the current level of freshwater withdrawals and corresponding water usage in Uganda has increased, affecting the availability of these resources and becoming a concern. Education can play a crucial role in providing support to and training students on sustainable water use, both at home and in relation to school activities. Therefore, it is imperative that the education system develops actions, approaches and materials to achieve this goal. The paper assesses the current state of existing Ugandan education on this subject, by identifying the water-related topics currently featured in the curriculum at different class levels, with the aid of questionnaires conducted in four schools in Uganda. Three questionnaires (one for primary school pupils, one for secondary school pupils and one for teachers) were designed for collecting targeted data, and thematic analysis was adopted to analyse the data collected. The results revealed important insights regarding students’ behaviours towards water usage at home. They also revealed that water sustainability topics are delivered in the science curriculum at the primary level, as opposed to geography at the secondary level, confirming that overall, there is a lack of integrated practical teaching incorporated within the courses currently taught in Ugandan schools.
... Moreover, another study conducted on the small firms of UK indicated that market related factors and business factors has an enormous effect on the manners by which high pricing practices are being adopted in the small firms. Also, implementation of other programs related to pricing practices has become a vital part and there is a major impact of it on customer satisfaction in the firms so the organization becomes more responsive to the changes in market and understands customer demands in a better way because of high insecurity (Bacon and Stewart, 2006;Wu and Chen, 2014).The premium pricing strategy is a motivator for the customers consumers which significantly affects their execution and results. A larger part of the fast food restaurant/outlets asserted that they have a policy of setting price targets whether local or international, which they trust produces positive vitality and aide the customers towards creating an image in their mind towards the brand. ...
The main drive of this research was to study the practices of marketing that include social media marketing, electronic word of mouth and consumer brand identification while exploring the influence on customer willingness to pay premium price within food industry by mainly focusing on coffee shops of the twin cities (Rawalpindi and Islamabad), Pakistan. The significance of this research is the identification of critical high performance marketing strategies for customer satisfaction within a Pakistani context by comparing a total of 10 local and international coffee shop outlets within Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Capital Territory. Data collection method was quantitative through detailed questionnaires for an overall sample size of 250 respondents. The critical business areas were, therefore, customized to incorporate data collection from customers to ascertain preference and satisfaction of local or international coffee shop outlets. Additionally, the marketing high performance data was also collected qualitatively through Electronic Word of Mouth (EWOM) from social media platforms of different coffee shops online pages, thus it was proved that social media marketing efforts have an indirect or moderate relationship with premium price products because social media marketing does not influence the consumer’s purchase decision and willingness to pay premium price, but it may only enhances the Customer-Brand Identification or help generating electronic word of mouth. whereas, the food industry in Pakistan also showed a positive relationship between the consumer brand identification and customer’s willingness to pay premium price because when consumers regularly purchases products from a brand they are likely to become brand loyal, and the factor that is most effective is e-WOM influencing brand image, Thus this study shows the positive relationship between the EWOM and customers’ willingness to pay premium price. In this study it becomes clear that customer’s purchase decision is positively affected by the EWOM & CBI. Whereas, Social Media Marketing efforts helps in creating awareness and in enhancing the EWOM and CBI, not directly influencing the customer to pay premium.
... It is believed that a good relation between the instructor and the students is important during this sort of learning activity as it will spark student initiatives to share their knowledge not only with their peers but also with the teacher who inspired them. Research showed that average students tend to forget 70% of what they learned over a period of 24-48 hours [22][23][24]. By directly applying the knowledge they gained in the lecture, theoretical concept can be better understood and knowledge gained can be retained and not forgotten. ...
Conventional method of teaching Bioreactor Design course are mostly conducted in a teacher-centred manner. This method is inefficient solution for education as compared to more active learning styles which is proven to be more effective in ensuring students to fully comprehend a particular subject. The work presents the use of various computational tools to support the implementation of cooperative learning (CL) methods in Analysis and Design of Bioreactor course. This subject is offered to 3rd year students of ChemicalBioprocess Engineering program in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. The CL method was implemented to improve student cognitive skills attainment in each of the course learning outcomes. Achievements of student cognitive skills were assessed quantitatively where else effectiveness of the CL method applied were evaluated qualitatively. Results showed that the student performance and attainment of their cognitive skills at thinking level of ‘application' has improved at least by 30-40%. Reflection analysis from students indicated that the proposed student-centred teaching method managed to not only increase students understanding on the subject but also nurtured students creativity and enhances their computational skills.
... This is contrary to what we do in science; as scientists, we seek answers to difficult questions, and we never know with certainty what the answer may be. The focus on a single expected answer stifles creativity and critical thinking, as students become fixated on memorizing facts they will soon forget (Amabile 1998;Bacon and Stewart 2006;Custers 2010;Voice and Stirton 2020). Science advances through exploration, curiosity, and risk-taking, and it is with these principles in mind that the activity presented here was developed. ...
In undergraduate science education, emphasis is often placed on teaching subject matter rather than science process skills (e.g., critical thinking, problem solving). Although important to scientific training, these skills are often not taught because science educators do not feel equipped to teach them. We therefore present a case-scenario activity that aims to facilitate the development of science process skills. This activity, which takes the form of a visual novel, asks students to generate hypotheses for the seemingly odd events that are described in the story. We implemented this activity in a science-process-focused course. Upon completion of the activity, we asked students to submit a written response to the prompt: “What are you taking away from the activity?” In this exploratory study, we conducted a qualitative analysis of these written responses to ascertain whether meaningful codes and themes related to science process would arise from this open-ended prompt. Based on student responses, four main themes emerged: scientific inquiry, student satisfaction, flexibility, and collaboration. These results demonstrated the activity was both enjoyable, and it successfully enabled students to apply science process skills. We offer this activity in anticipation it will provide educators with a tool to include these skills in their classes.
... Apart from the possible explanations already ofered for hypotheses 1 and 2, another possible reason for this fnding is that the interval between the two post-tests may be too short, so that most participants still have a good memory of what they learned in the VR experiences. To measure long-term memory of knowledge, some educational researchers suggest using longitudinal measures across a wide time frame of weeks to several months to even years [25]. ...
... Repeated exposure also affects retention and lead to greater learning when those exposures are spread over time. Project-related learning which calls for more active learning also improves retention in the sense that active learning enhances memory by encouraging the students to make additional connections with the target material (Bacon & Stewart, 2006). This study agrees with the stated claim due to the fact that in the PWIM strategy, the three factors can be observed.Along the process, the students were actively involved in the activity. ...
Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM) is an inquiry-based vocabulary strategy which uses pictures to transmit information to the learners. This study investigated how PWIM affected the vocabulary achievement and attitude of the Grade 8 students. There were 50 participants of the study, 25 from the group exposed to PWIM and 25 from the group not exposed to PWIM. The vocabulary achievements of the students were identified using the 64-item teacher-made pre-test, posttest, and retention test. Students’ attitudes towards vocabulary learning were determined through a 20-item Likert-Scale Questionnaire on The Learners’ Attitude Towards Vocabulary Learning adapted from Gimolatan (2016). Results showed that the group exposed to PWIM strategy outperformed the unexposed group in vocabulary achievement in terms of posttest and retention test. Non-PWIM strategy was able to increase the students’ vocabulary achievement, but the increase was not as high as of the learners exposed to PWIM. Also, the students exposed to PWIM improved their attitude towards vocabulary learning from moderately positive to positive attitude while the group not exposed to PWIM remained to have a moderately positive attitude. Moreover, the vocabulary achievement of students exposed to PWIM was significantly higher than the students who were not exposed to PWIM. There was also a significant difference on the attitude of the students exposed and not exposed to PWIM towards vocabulary learning. Thus, PWIM was effective in improving the students’ vocabulary achievement as well as in enhancing their attitude towards vocabulary learning.
... We typically expand on the activity-based discussion when covering other aspects of the marketing mix throughout the semester. According to Bacon and Stewart (2006), frequent exposure to and assessment of concepts leads to deeper learning and long-term retention. We continue to revisit the core ideas from the activity throughout the semester as needed in order to support students as they develop into marketing professionals. ...
Consumers' psychological perceptions and reactions to marketing management strategies are important factors for the success of any organization. Optimistic sales predictions based on quantifiable production-side factors such as changes in promotion, product, price, and distribution may fail miserably if consumers do not see value in such “objective” changes. Despite the inseparability of organizations' marketing management activities and consumers' perceptions of these offerings, there is a lack of simple learning activities to cover this topic. Application of the elasticity concept across marketing mix elements (4P's: promotion, product, price, place/distribution) was determined to be an effective way to demonstrate the inseparability between production and consumer perspectives in marketing.
... These common college student struggles might be explained by their visuospatial, psychomotor, memory, and metacognitive deficiencies (Cannoni et al. 2015;Kornell and Bjork 2007). For instance, a longitudinal study found that college students, in general, experience long-term memory challenges and suffer from low course concept retention after completing assessments and courses (Bacon and Stewart 2006). Because the BDT measure identifies these deficiencies, it can Bicycle Drawing Test; macroeconomics; economics education; assessment; multiple choice questions; graph-based questions be beneficial to use this measure to examine whether the BDT measure is correlated with students' performance on graph-based and multiple choice assessment questions relevant to economics. ...
The Bicycle Drawing Test (BDT) serves to identify poor memory, psychomotor deficiencies, and cognitive deficiencies. This study examined 206 students’ performance on the BDT measure, text-based and graph-based questions in undergraduate-level macroeconomics courses. Correlational analyses suggest that the drawing task component of BDT is positively correlated with students’ performance on text-based questions. BDT performance also positively related with students’ performance on graph-based questions. Regression analyses suggest that the BDT measure may positively impact students’ performance on assessment questions. Lastly, gender differences were found in the performance of graph-based questions and the BDT measure. Implications are offered to instructors of economics courses.
... Apart from the possible explanations already ofered for hypotheses 1 and 2, another possible reason for this fnding is that the interval between the two post-tests may be too short, so that most participants still have a good memory of what they learned in the VR experiences. To measure long-term memory of knowledge, some educational researchers suggest using longitudinal measures across a wide time frame of weeks to several months to even years [25]. ...
... According to students' characteristics investigations, there is a hypothesis that being a successful student in engineering is dependent on being successful in math during high school. University students learn a huge amount of new information; therefore, it is a necessary skill to be able to recall most of what you have learnt (Bacon and Stewart, 2006;Rawson et al., 2013). Pearson and Miller (2012) found that the bachelor degree in engineering is highly dependent on the calculus course during high school, and the number of calculus courses taken at university. ...
Attrition is an important issue in higher education, especially in the field of computer science (CS). Here, we investigate to what extent an education reform affects the attrition of students by analyzing the pattern of grades of CS students’ academic achievement from 2010 to 2018 by IRT, based on Rasch-model analysis. We analyze data from 3673 undergraduate students of a large public university. In 2016 an education reform—as an intervention—was added to our BSc program: all theoretical lectures became compulsory to attend and we introduced a learning methodology course for all first-year students. According to our results, after the education reform most subjects became accomplishable, and students with lower levels of ability also tried to take exams. We succeeded in retaining 28% of our students. Analyzing students’ results could help administrators develop new programs in order to increase retention.
More than a million undergraduates take introductory psychology each year in North America. Numerous studies show that they soon forget the details of what they learn about psychological science but retain many misconceptions about behavior and mental processes that can misguide them in important personal, social, political, and economic matters. To confirm and elaborate on this picture, we administered a 72-item misconceptions survey before and after students took an introductory psychology course taught by one of 35 instructors at one of nine U.S. colleges and universities. Analysis of 430 pre-course responses and 471 post-course responses showed that the 10 misconceptions that were most confidently endorsed at the beginning of the course remained in the top 10 afterward, suggesting that, overall, belief in misconceptions did not change from pretest to posttest. Endorsement of misconceptions was negatively correlated with reported grade point average and, at pre-course, significantly higher for females. The scores of 90 students whose pre- and post-course responses could be matched showed a small but significant reduction in misconceptions, particularly those that introductory psychology instructors most often address. These results are consistent with other evidence that the introductory course has great potential for correcting socially significant misconceptions, but in our view, its traditional focus on overly detailed, easily forgotten content leaves instructors with too little time to exploit that potential. We offer suggestions for focusing the course on content that is more memorable as well as more likely to correct their misconceptions about psychology.
Statement of public significance : Misconceptions about human behavior and mental processes are widespread and potentially harmful. Like other forms of misinformation, they may misguide actions and decisions taken by voters, jurors, parents, teachers, consumers, journalists, filmmakers, writers, and people in many other social roles. It is important to strengthen the effectiveness of introductory psychology at combating such misconceptions in the more than 1 million students who take the course each year.
In a world fraught with Grand Challenges, there is a renewed urgency in innovating in both what and how we teach. Teaching innovations (TI) are a vital aspect of our scholarly impact. In this paper, we explore how the maturation of the field and the calls for increased rigor have influenced TI articles. First, we examined the evolution of JME’s editorial policy regarding TI. We find that two major requirements for TI articles have been gradually emphasized: a stronger grounding in the literature, and more robust evidence of effectiveness. Second, we explored how current TI articles have responded to these requirements, by analyzing the TI articles published in JME from 2014 to 2023. While some attempts to meet these new requirements were observed, our findings indicate that the literature could be more fully leveraged and that the evidence of effectiveness presented remains weak. We argue that JME should explicitly affirm its identity as a research journal, which would require that TI articles adopt a research mindset. We outline the overall characteristics of this research mindset, along with specific requirements as they apply to TI articles. Implications for the community, TI articles, and JME are discussed.
College graduates earn higher wages than noncollege graduates, but questions remain about the degree to which this wage difference is driven by learning in college or by the signal that the degree sends to employers. Based on a review of the literature, I propose that the value of a marketing degree is much less related to learning marketing than it is to the business school’s brand equity. A business school with strong brand equity can be more selective in admissions decision making, which in turn leads to increased graduate success and further builds the school’s brand equity. This brand-centric perspective resolves several persistent questions including why student evaluations of teaching are so important in business schools, why improvements in learning are underfunded, and why marketing education research is under-emphasized. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.
The increasing cases of depression and low self-esteem lead to the dysfunctioning of society. Individuals form groups and groups build society; hence, it is of outmost concern to priorities at the micro level first i.e.; the individual that eventually works on the maintenance of social harmony.Emotional Intelligence (EI) as a concept focuses on self-awareness and management, social awakens, relationship management and personality. EI helps in monitoring human emotions and understanding them differently. EI uses the conceived information to guide human behavior and thoughts Modern day issues with modern solutions, Artificial Emotional Intelligence (AEI) is a computing device that detects and analyses human emotions distinctly and help to undergo the cause of a certain mental illness. AEI is in its budding stage but with a mature intention of restoring mental health with human-robot collaboration via Emotional Intelligence. This paper intends to magnify the effectiveness of EI in the domain of mental health.
An obstacle accounting educators face in facilitating learning effectiveness is the perennial student studying strategy—the dreaded “cramming cycle.” We present a novel approach to help resolve this issue, based on W. Edwards Deming’s Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycle. This learning strategy is intended to reduce the need for cramming by providing a systematic approach to engage students in active learning, reflection, and continuous improvement processes. Following our implementation of this approach in undergraduate and graduate managerial accounting courses, our observations indicate the PDSA method increases student preparation for class, enhances participation during class, and boosts retention of material. We provide implementation guidelines that are easily adaptable to on-ground, online, and hybrid course delivery modes.
The personalization of curriculum plays a pivotal role in supporting students in achieving their unique learning goals. In recent years, researchers have dedicated efforts to address the challenge of personalizing curriculum through diverse techniques and approaches. However, it is crucial to acknowledge the phenomenon of student forgetting, as individuals exhibit variations in limitations, backgrounds, and goals, as evidenced by studies in the field of learning sciences. This paper introduces the complex issue of fully individualizing a curriculum while considering the impact of student forgetting, presenting a comprehensive framework to tackle this problem. Moreover, we conduct two experiments to explore this issue, aiming to assess the difficulty of identifying relevant curricula within this context and uncover behavioral patterns associated with the problem. The findings from these experiments provide valuable prescriptive recommendations for educational stakeholders seeking to implement personalized approaches. Furthermore, we demonstrate the complexity of this problem, highlighting the need for our framework as an initial decision-making tool to address this challenging endeavor.
A psychological literacy approach to teaching aims to improve students’ cultural awareness and has several benefits including the development of higher order skills.
I embedded a psychological literacy approach into a new final year module. This was achieved using group and active learning, and assessed using a scientific blog.
Student feedback highlighted several positives with this teaching approach, including the relevance of the module content to global issues, and the use of group learning as an effective way to extend knowledge.
This module demonstrates the advantages of a psychological literacy approach to education delivered through g roup and active learning .
This research examined the impact of students’ demographic background on the study process of public and private university students. The Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) consisting of 20 items was used to collect data from 217 conveniently selected participants from public and private universities. To answer the research questions, descriptive statistics, an independent sample t-test, and a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were employed. The research findings indicate that regardless of university types, students tend to use the deep approach (M = 2.685) of learning more compared to the surface approach (M = 1.928). The researchers have found statistically significant differences between study approach and gender, types of universities, fields of study, academic level, year(s) of study and ethnicity. The research results reveal that demographic background has a significant influence on students’ approaches to learning. In terms of university type, the results indicated that students at public universities preferred the deep method of learning more (M = 2.809, SD = 0.515) than students at private universities (M = 2.537, SD = 0.581).
Higher education involves multiple actors participating in collaborative, deep-learning resource integration activities. From a Service-Dominant logic perspective, students are not passive receivers of knowledge but active participants in their own learning experiences. Therefore, universities cannot create value in isolation but only provide value propositions. Educational institutions and lecturers must clearly and effectively communicate value propositions that motivate students to realize as much value as possible within the educational context. To develop and formulate value propositions, universities must understand students’ motivation to integrate resources and develop reward systems that incentivize wanted behavior, which would be deep learning in the case of education. Students learning through deep learning processes achieve deep domain-specific competencies and transferable competencies that increase their likelihood of becoming knowledgeable, skilled workers suited for the challenges of the twenty-first century and contribute to the viability of society.KeywordsDeep learningTransferable competenciesMotivationHigher educationS-D logic
The work presents the use of various computational tools to support the implementation of cooperative learning methods in Analysis and Design of Bioreactor course. This subject is offered to 3rd year students of Chemical-Bioprocess Engineering program in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. The cooperative learning method was implemented to improve student cognitive skills attainment in each of the course learning outcomes. Achievements of student cognitive skills were assessed quantitatively while the effectiveness of the cooperative learning method applied were evaluated qualitatively. Results showed that the student performance and attainment of their cognitive skills at thinking level of ‘application’ has improved at least by 30%. Reflections from students also indicated that the proposed student-centered teaching method managed to not only increase students understanding on the subject but also nurtured student's creativity and equipped the students with computational tools that are useful in the industry.
The incorporation of simulation into interprofessional education is an important tool to strengthen teamwork, communication skills, and student's understanding of their roles and responsibilities in an interprofessional team. This curricular resource describes a one-time, Basic Life Support interprofessional simulation experience developed for third year medical and senior nursing students that occurred throughout an academic year. Students were given a modified version of the revised Interprofessional Collaborative Competency Attainment Survey within one week following the experience. Thirty days after participation, students were sent another survey designed for reflection on their clinical experience following the interprofessional simulation. Learning objectives were met as improvements in the Communication and Roles and Responsibility domains were noted. Multiple themes emerged from the 30-day survey surrounding clinical experiences including awareness of the importance of communication and roles, the use of Situation, Background, Assessment, Recommendation, and closed-loop communication. Overall, students improved their short-term perceptions of interprofessional skills and transferred learning experiences from the simulation lab to the clinical environment after a 30-day period following a single interprofessional simulation experience.
The last twenty years have seen considerable accomplishments in the area of the assessment of student learning. I discuss some of the most significant of these achievements while also considering certain open questions that have arisen over the years and that remain in need of further analysis and resolution. Remarks are structured into three sections: Past, Present, and Future. Past chronicles the progress made toward developing a culture of assessment; Present focuses on the results of current research on student learning of interest to the assessment community; and Future considers several current issues that demand our collective attention.
Research into the relationship between education and information systems (IS) success (use, satisfaction, and impact) has produced mixed results. Such results seem counterintuitive, given the many benefits that education brings to the workplace. However, workplace research from Human Resources (HR) has similarly found that education has little direct effect on job performance. Instead, education has indirect effects on job performance through job expertise, which is what drives behavior and job performance. The present research integrated the Delone & McLean IS Success Model with the Job Performance Model, and found similar results: in a survey of 465 professionals working in business analytics (BA), user education level had no direct effect on IS success (BA tool use, satisfaction, and impact). Instead, education level had a positive effect on expertise with the BA tool, which in turn positively affected BA tool use. These results build upon those from HR, and suggest that education has an indirect effect on IS success, rather than a direct effect.
Large lectures are commonly characterized by lacking interactivity and adaptability to individual learning processes. Flipped classroom as a more active learning design has the potential to meet this challenge. For knowledge acquisition in flipped classrooms, students’ regular and timely engagement in watching pre-class videos on new topics is critical to benefit from the learning activities in the in-class sessions. However, there is limited evidence on the relationship between engagement in pre-class video watching and later achievement and particularly in knowledge retention in flipped classroom. Thus, we developed sophisticated pre-class learning videos for a large statistics lecture and set up a flipped course design. We regressed course achievement on students’ timing of watching the pre-class videos. To contrast the relation between preclass video watching and other typically discussed predictors of achievement, we controlled for prior achievement and motivation. We found that students, who watch the videos before the corresponding in-class session perform better, both in the short-term (final exam) and in the long-term (follow-up-test four months later). Our results suggest that timing rather than quantity of video watching matters in terms of academic performance and knowledge retention. The findings highlight the important role of motivational interventions aiming at encouraging students to prepare for class in time to ensure knowledge acquisition in flipped classrooms.
After decades of research in marketing and management education, what do we now know about what educational practices work best for improving actual learning? We answer this question with a qualitative systematic literature review of every contribution published in five marketing and management education journals from inception through May 2020 that provides recommendations for evidence-based best pedagogical practice. Contributions were screened to identify empirical studies that employed measures of actual learning in an appropriate experimental design and reported analyses that met certain statistical standards. Of the 4,160 articles examined, 55 studies met our criteria. Based on the studies’ results, we developed a model for understanding the teaching methods that are most effective for achieving actual learning in marketing and management education. We provide evidence-based pedagogical recommendations for faculty and recommendations for additional research in key areas and for increasing the rigor of pedagogical research.
Students often struggle to make interdisciplinary connections and cite a lack of opportunity to make such connections. To address this issue, we are developing activities aligned with the framework of three-dimensional learning that provide students with opportunities to make connections between chemistry concepts and biological phenomena. Here, we focus on an activity that asks students to incorporate the concept of entropy in explaining the biological phenomenon of osmosis across a cell membrane. This activity was administered in both introductory cell and molecular biology and second-semester general chemistry courses. We found that after completing carefully scaffolded questions within the activity, students were better able to correctly use the concept of entropy in explaining osmosis than they were before the scaffolding questions. Additionally, we found that students’ course history appeared to impact their explanations of this phenomenon in that students who had taken second-semester general chemistry ( i.e. , the semester in which entropy is discussed for these students) provided more sophisticated responses and were less likely to include scientifically inaccurate ideas than their peers who had not taken second-semester general chemistry.
There is a trend in higher education to take teaching more seriously. Concurrent with this trend is a shift in undergraduate education from an instructional paradigm where the emphasis is on delivering instruction and transferring knowledge to a learning paradigm where the emphasis is on designing, developing, and creating a powerful learning environment. With these trends comes the dilemma of how to evaluate and improve teaching effectiveness. This has contributed to the growing popularity of the teaching portfolio. This article explores the concept and usefulness of a teaching portfolio for marketing educators. By defining a teaching portfolio, describing its uses, and providing guidelines for developing a teaching portfolio, the authors hope to encourage the implementation of teaching portfolios by marketing educators.
Business schools have recently been criticized for failing to prepare students for the increasingly complex, fast-paced, and global work environments they will face as employees of organizations in the 1990s and beyond. Students must be taught both new content and new skills in order to meet the changing needs of U.S. businesses. Services marketing is a prime example of the new content that must be added to business school curricula, since services now account for more than 70% of our GNP Services marketing courses can also provide an excellent opportunity for students to practice critical new workplace skills.
The objectives of this article are to describe the changes necessary in marketing curricula to ensure that students have the appropriate skills and content to adequately meet the needs of their future employers; to provide an overview of services marketing course content; to describe the traditional and the active learning educational paradigms; to demonstrate how active learning techniques can be used to teach both content and skills in a services marketing course; and to provide specific examples of active learning exercises designed to address key content areas in services marketing.
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A sample of 210 published data sets were assembled that (a) plotted amount remembered versus time, (b) had 5 or more points, and (c) were smooth enough to fit at least 1 of the functions tested with a correlation coefficient of .90 or greater. Each was fit to 105 different 2-parameter functions. The best fits were to the logarithmic function, the power function, the exponential in the square root of time, and the hyperbola in the square root of time. It is difficult to distinguish among these 4 functions with the available data, but the same set of 4 functions fit most data sets, with autobiographical memory being the exception. Theoretical motivations for the best fitting functions are offered. The methodological problems of evaluating functions and the advantages of searching existing data for regularities before formulating theories are considered.
Comments on H. P. Bahrick's (see record
1984-30581-001) study of the long-term retention of Spanish, in which it was found that Ss stopped forgetting after 5 yrs and maintained levels of performance that were proportionate to their initial achievement. The present author suggests that this retention is due to the extensive and unique cognitive structure involved rather than to the existence of a "permastore" in which individual items are retained. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Thirty-five individuals who had learned and relearned 50 English-Spanish word pairs were tested for recall and recognition after an interval of 8 years. Two variables, the spacing between successive relearning sessions and the number of presentations required to encode individual word pairs, are excellent predictors of the likelihood of achieving permastore retention. Optimum recall occurs for words encoded in 1–2 presentations and accessed at intervals of 30 days. Both variables yield monotonic retention functions that account for a range of variation from 0% to 23% recall. These variables also have very significant effects on the recognition of unrecalled words. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
97 high school seniors studied a brief history text, then either took a test on the passage, spent equivalent time reviewing the passage, or went on to an unrelated task. A retention test given 2 wks later indicated that the test condition resulted in better retention than either the review or the control conditions. The effect was further shown to be content specific (in contrast to effects typically produced by questions inserted in text) and independent of item format. Results favor a greater use of testing in instruction. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested 392 high school graduates for memory of names and portraits of classmates selected from yearbooks. The retention interval since graduation varied from 2 wks to 57 yrs. Performance was adjusted by multiple regression procedures to control the effects of various conditions on original learning and rehearsal of the material. Results show that identification and matching of names and faces remained approximately 90% correct for at least 15 yrs, even for members of very large classes. Free recall was independent of class size and recognition memory, and declined with negative acceleration by 60% during 48 yrs. This very slow forgetting process is attributed to distribution of practice and overlearning effects far more extreme than those observed in laboratory research. The decline of free recall is associated with the forgetting of the nature of the interpersonal relationship which serves as a retrieval mediator. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
University teaching has not changed significantly for hundreds and perhaps thousands of years. The many attempts to reform university teaching have often demonstrated positive effects but have then been discontinued. One explanation for the resistance of teaching to change is that instructors fail to apply the same scientific rigor to their teaching as they do to their research. Professors as scientists and intellectuals typically ask for proof when a colleague presents a scientific conclusion, yet when it comes to what constitutes good teaching, professors often accept uncontested folklore and mythology. Many of the recommendations made about teaching, furthermore, are based more on stories and promising ideas rather than conclusions from rigorous research. What is laking is the successful application of theory and research to instructional methods. This article presents cooperative learning as one example of theory validated by research applied to instructional practice.
Former students (
N = 373) of a course in cognitive psychology (CP), conducted between 1978 and 1989, completed memory tests to assess retention of CP. Memory for proper names of researchers, concepts, and conceptual relations varied with retention interval (RI), and memory performance declined over the first 36 mo of retention and then stabilized at above-chance levels for the remainder of the retention period. Memory for general facts from the course and research methods did not, however, vary with RI and remained at the same above-chance level across all RIs sampled. The recall and recognition of proper names showed a more rapid decline than the recall and recognition of concepts. Findings suggest that knowledge structures formed at acquisition mediate the very long-term retention of CP. Also, Ss with higher grades retained more knowledge than Ss with lower grades. Finally, a dissociation between memory performance and confidence ratings indicates that at the longer RIs, Ss were unaware that course material was accurately remembered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper offers a new methodological framework to guide researchers attempting to quantitatively assess how a standardized television advertisement is perceived by a pluralistic audience. Rasch (1960) measurement theory is introduced as an alternative to the more commonly employed multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach to assessing cross-cultural scalar equivalence. By analyzing a multi-cultural data set, we are able to make various inferences concerning the scalar equivalence of Schlinger's confusion scale. The methodology reveals the limits of the scale, which in all probability would not have been detected using traditional approaches. For researchers attempting to develop new scales, or even to refine existing scales, strict adherence to established guidelines of item generation together with the application of the proposed methodology should ensure better results for both theorists and practitioners.
Using analyses based on fitting item response models to data from the College Board's Advanced Placement exams in chemistry and United States history, we found that the constructed response portion of the tests yielded little information over and above that provided by the multiple-choice sections. These tests also allow examinees to select subsets of the constructed response items; we found that scoring on the basis of the selections themselves provided almost as much information as did scoring on the basis of the answers
Incl. bibl. Halpern and Hakel discuss the basic principles of teaching so as to promote long-term retention and transfer among college students. These include practice at retrieval, varying the conditions under which learning takes place, and fostering prior knowledge and experience.[ProQuest]
Are those who are familiar with scientific research on consumer behavior better able to make predictions about phenomena in this field? Predictions were made for 105 hypotheses from 20 empirical studies selected from "Journal of Consumer Research." A total of 1,736 predictions were obtained from 16 academics, 12 practitioners, and 43 high school students. The practitioners were correct on 58.2 percent of the hypotheses, the students on 56.6 percent, and the academics on 51.3 percent. No group performed better than chance. Copyright 1991 by the University of Chicago.
This study explores consumers' inference strategies in a mixed choice task involving memory,external information, and missing information on attribute values for some brands. Accessibility of relevant information was manipulated, and both instructed and uninstructed or natural inferences were studied. Instructed inference by low accessibility subjects confirmed more with prior overall evaluations of the brands, displaying evaluative consistency. Instructed inferences by high accessibility subjects tended to follow a correlational role linking missing information to other attribute information in memory, displaying probabilistic consistency. Choices conformed to inferences, and both are more variable when inferences were uninstructed. Copyright 1990 by the University of Chicago.
Early studies of response to print advertising showed a pattern of simple-power functions to describe inquiry and memorial response. Contemporary psychology has established a world of perception-based (or psychophysical) and memory-based (or mnemophysical) work that, at least in its theoretical findings of simple power functions, should have application in the world of advertising. As perceptual and memorial events, print advertising and television commercials are shown to exhibit simple power functions, within an organizational construct called cognitive orthogony. Citing several more-or-less recent studies, including the PARM study of Wells (1964), relations between recognition and recall and other orthogonies are shown to follow simple fractional power patterns of significant interest.
Business schools often assign student group projects to enhance student learning of course content and to build teamwork skills. However, the characteristics of effective collaborative learning tasks, including group goals and individual accountability, are often not found in student group projects assigned in business classes. The current research found that content learning was actually inhibited by the use of a group project. The results indicate that the students who completed a project in groups learned less of the project-related content than did students who completed a shortened version of the project individually. The characteristics of business school group projects, peer-learning projects, and group projects in the workplace are compared and contrasted. Implications for program and course design are discussed.
How should advertising be scheduled? Should an advertising schedule be concentrated in an intensive "burst," or should it be spread out over a longer period? For the same expenditure a relatively small number of consumers can be exposed to advertising many times, or a larger number can be exposed a smaller number of times. This unique study demonstrates how answers to these kinds of questions can be obtained.
Business schools often assign student group projects to enhance student learning of course content and to build teamwork skills. However, the characteristics of effective collaborative learning tasks, including group goals and individual accountability, are often not found in student group projects assigned in business classes. The current research found that content learning was actually inhibited by the use of a group project. The results indicate that the students who completed a project in groups learned less of the project-related content than did students who completed a shortened version of the project individually. The characteristics of business school group projects, peer-learning projects, and group projects in the workplace are compared and contrasted. Implications for program and course design are discussed.
Popular belief holds that much of what is taught in classrooms is forgotten shortly thereafter. However, there is evidence from numerous studies that long-term retention for knowledge taught in school is substantial. These studies are reviewed, and several variables that affect the ability to remember are discussed. The article concludes that (a) students retain much of the knowledge taught in the classroom; (b) retention decreases over time as a function of the length of the retention interval but the forgetting curves for knowledge taught in school do not decline as rapidly or asymptote as low as the curves observed in traditional laboratory studies; (c) increasing the level of original learning differentially affects retention performance; (d) both instructional content and assessment tasks affect learning and retention, with one of the most consistent effects being that recognition tasks are retained at higher levels than recall tasks; (e) most instructional strategies that promote higher levels of original learning do not result in differentially better retention (however, several exceptions are discussed); and (f) while higher ability students learn and remember more than lower ability students, there is no evidence for differential forgetting. Implications for research and teaching are discussed.
Students can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, lack initiative and responsibility for their learning. Self-regulated learning involves learning strategies and mental processes that learners deliberately engage to help themselves learn and perform better academically. The results of this study provide empirical support for the theoretical relationships among cognitive evaluation theory, achievement goal theory, and self-regulated learning strategies in the context of the classroom. Superficial learning strategies were linked to extrinsic motivation, while intrinsic motivation determined deep cognitive and metacognitive strategy usage. Perceived autonomy, perceived competence, and task mastery orientation mediated the classroom environment’s effect on intrinsic motivation. These findings suggest that active applicationoriented experience delivered by enthusiastic faculty, who provide high interaction, supportive feedback, and clear goals that emphasize learning over grades, will increase intrinsic motivation and the use of self-regulated learning strategies. Teaching guidelines and pedagogical examples for enhancing intrinsic motivation are provided.
Being a marketing educator has never been more challenging than it is today. Student expectations and institutional accountability standards are rising with regard to the quality of instruction. Research and publication pressures continue to increase as colleges and universities seek to competitively differentiate themselves in the eyes of multiple stakeholders. At a minimum, today's faculty members are expected to demonstrate effectiveness in both teaching and research. Earning tenure, promotion, and above-average merit pay requires excellence in both domains. Much has changed in the past 15 years, and an updated examination of teaching excellence is warranted. This article finds that many of the fundamentals associated with master teaching 15 years ago remain the same today: strong communication skills, use of an interactive style, and asking thought-provoking questions. One major new characteristic, use of technology, is identified and has the potential to become even more important in the future.
The state of marketing education has been discussed a great deal in the discipline. Unfortunately, very few empirical studies have examined the actual perceptions of marketing academicians. To better understand these perceptions, a study was conducted that examined the interaction of individual differences in marketing faculty and instructional style. Results propose an "instructional style typology" consisting of three distinct types of teaching approaches. In addition, the results suggest individual differences do not seem to have a major influence on method of teaching.
Many authors have suggested the use of experiential techniques, such as semistructured classroom activities, as a means of encouraging and facilitating student learning. This article reports a study that investigated the relationship between the use of multiple experiential techniques and student learning. The study found that student learning increased when multiple experiential techniques were used relative to learning that occurred when a single experiential technique was combined with a lecture format. In addition, the data suggest that the use of multiple experiential techniques also influenced the type of information students learned.
This article reports the results of a study which investigated the relationship between long-term career success in marketing and possession of a marketing and/or MBA education. Data gathered from a sample of over 1,000 marketing practitioners led the authors to conclude that for the long-run career success of marketing students, the performance of marketing educators may be highly suspect.
New conditions in higher education mean that the traditional advice on study skills now has to be extended. In addition to teaching traditional study skills, students need guidance on how to work together and learn from each other, and on using new technology. In this paper this analysis is applied to four topics central to the study skills literature: reading, note-taking, academic writing, and revising for examinations.
Almost everyone would agree that the course of forgetting is some curvilinear function of time. The purpose of the research described herein was to identify the nature of that function. Three experiments are reported, two involving human subjects and one involving pigeons. The human experiments investigated this issue using recall of words and recognition of faces, whereas the pigeon experiment employed the standard delayed matching-to-sample task. In all cases, the course of forgetting was best described by a simple power function of time relative to five other reasonable alternatives (linear, exponential, exponential-power, hyperbolic, and logarithmic). Furthermore, a reanalysis of Ebbinghaus's (1885) classic savings function showed that it, too, declines as a power function of time. These findings suggest that the form of forgetting is a relatively robust property of memory performance and that its mathematical description, perhaps only coincidentally, matches that of the psychophysical function.
Quackery is a term commonly associated with the medical profession. It is often associated with those who are proponents of alternative medicines, the benefits of which are not based on science. In this article, it is asserted that quack methodologies have been infused into the teaching of marketing. Marketing education is not indicted with being dominated by quack teachers. Rather, the article presents a number of concerns about the infusion of quack teaching methodologies that, as practiced, are proffered to contribute positively to student learning. The article offers a challenge to marketing educators to engage in more scientific assessment of teaching methods. Throughout the article, questions are presented that, it is hoped, will energize some marketing educators to rigorously examine teaching methodologies in the continuing quest to improve the quality of marketing education.
This article describes a study of teaching methodologies and their use. Using a teaching methodology classification suggested by Henke et al. (1988), this study examines the antecedents of six teaching methodologies and how extensively each method is used by marketing instructors in their principles of marketing course. Results from the study indicated that class size, importance of teaching in the annual faculty evaluation, nonteaching endeavors of the instructor, and rank of the instructor are the primary determinants of teaching style. The study also lends support to the existence of the three instructional style typologies proposed by Roach, Johnston, and Hair Jr. (1993) and builds upon their findings.
This study carefully examines two widely used methods for assessing marketing learning outcomes: multiple-choice tests and short-answer tests. Student scores on multiple-choice and short-answer portions of a midterm exam in consumer behavior were compared in terms of time to completion, reliability, and validity. The multiple-choice format was found to yield equivalent reliability and validity in a shorter amount of test-taking time. In contrast to some earlier studies, no gender effect was found: neither format differentially benefited men or women.
This paper defines Team Learning, a comprehensive, group-based instructional format originally developed to facilitate active learning in large classes, but has subsequently proven to be effective in a wide variety of instructional settings. The authors identify the structural differences in the roles that instructors and students play in a Traditional Learning vs. a Team Learning environment. Essential conditions for effective Team Learning are defined. New tools for integrating course design, classroom management, and group composition and performance evaluation are described. The past decade has produced a growing body of evidence that small group-based instructional methods can be used to promote the achievement of a wide variety of desirable educational outcomes in higher education. These include the development of higher level learning and problem solving skills (Kurfiss, 1988), enhancing the effectiveness of computer-based instruction (Light, 1990; Wojtkowski & Wojtkowski, 1987), eliminating the basis for stereotypes based on race, gender and physical handicaps (see the review by Johnson, Johnson & Maruyama, 1983) and reducing drop-out rates for accounting students (Wilson, 1982) and science majors (Tobias, 1990).
The basic theories and measurement procedures for reliability and the closely related concept of generalizability are reviewed, illustrated, and evaluated for use in marketing research. A critique is given of a subset of previous marketing research studies in which reliability estimates were used and recommendations are made for future research.
Examines the marketing problem of knowing what customers look for
in a product. Claims that for some product groups, consumers may
evaluate products and their characteristics differently from what is
expected, and that consumers may distort or bias their evaluation of
products in the marketplace. Reports on a study that suggests that
consumers may distort their evaluations of products on the basis of
beliefs about how certain product attributes should go together.
Finally, offers implications and recommendations in terms of how
marketers may address what is referred to as “systematic
distortion” of products.
Describes an attempt to identify different levels of processing of information among groups of Swedish university students who were asked to read substantial passages of prose. Ss were asked questions about the meaning of the passages and also about how they set about reading the passages, thus allowing for the examination of processes and strategies of learning and the outcomes in terms of what is understood and remembered. It was posited that learning has to be described in terms of its content. From this point differences in what is learned, rather than differences in how much is learned, are described. It was found that in each study a number of categories (levels of outcome) containing basically different conceptions of the content of the learning task could be identified. The corresponding differences in level of processing are described in terms of whether the learner is engaged in surface-level or deep-level processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study investigated the very long-term retention of a full-length novel originally studied as part of a university undergraduate course. One hundred and forty former students completed three tests designed to assess retention of Charles Dickens' Hard Times. Retention intervals ranged from 3 to 39 months. Subjects' responses when they were asked to report their most vivid and enduring memory of the novel were consistent with story grammar models which claim that components of a story which are higher in a hierarchy are remembered better than those lower in the hierarchy. A free recall test of the names and roles of the characters in the novel found that retention of both declined rapidly in the first few months following acquisition, that names were forgotten more quickly than roles, and that retention of both had stabilized above baseline before the longest retention interval. These data are interpreted in terms of a schema account of memory retention, in which retention of schematic knowledge (roles), but not non-schematic knowledge (names) can be mediated by abstract knowledge structures. The results of a fact verification test showed that memory for events of high importance in the novel was better than memory for events of low importance, consistent with models that suggest that texts and stories are represented hierarchically in memory. Confidence ratings also declined over time and showed that subjects generally assessed the accuracy of their responses correctly. The significant predictors of memory for the novel were retention interval and the mark obtained on a coursework essay on Hard Times.
Two experiments investigated the nature of savings for items forgotten from long-term memory (LTM). In Experiment 1, 20 number-noun pairs were learned to a criterion of one errorless trial. The subsequent amount of forgetting from LTM was remarkably low: 10% errors on the retention test after 1 week and 25% after 2 weeks. Items missed on the retention test either remained the same or were changed prior to relearning; same-as-previously missed items were relearned faster than changed previously missed items, implying that (a) there are savings for individual items forgotten from LTM and (b) forgetting from LTM is decremental rather than all or none. In Experiment 2, using verbs in sentences, the changed previously missed item was either a synonym, antonym, or verb unrelated to the originally learned verb. There was no relearning difference between these three conditions, suggesting that the partial forgetting residual which benefits relearning is not necessarily semantic in nature.