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The Effect of Action Orientation on the Academic Performance of Undergraduate Marketing Majors
Abstract
Due to the effect of academic performance on employment opportunities and admission to graduate schools, researchers have long recognized the need for identifying factors that are linked to the academic performance of undergraduate marketing students. This research proposes a model that investigates the relationships among motivation, effort, personality, stress, and academic performance. Action-state orientation (AO-SO) is an important factor in students’ emotional exhaustion and effort. AO-SO relates to individual differences in the capacity to regulate emotions, cognitions, and behaviors to accomplish intentional actions. AO-SO consists of three dimensions: disengagement (versus preoccupation), volatility (versus persistency), and hesitation (versus initiative). Results indicate that persistency and initiative are positively related to effort, which is an important antecedent of academic performance. Also, disengagement is negatively related to emotional exhaustion.
... Further noteworthy findings by Jaramillo and Spector (2004) come from observing undergraduate marketing students. The authors also showed that interindividual differences in action control were related to achievementrelevant variables, like effort and emotional exhaustion, which are preconditions of academic performance. ...
... This means individuals that effectively implement difficult intentions without postponement perform better in school. As mentioned earlier, comparable results were found in relation to sport (Heck- hausen & Strang, 1988), education (Boekaerts, 1994;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004), and work ( Diefendorff et al., 2000). These studies emphasize that the ability to initiate actions, like starting to prepare for an exam or starting with a 3 There was no significant sex difference in AOP (M women 9.84, SD 2.20; M men 9.41, SD 2.13), t(222) 1.50, p .134 (see Figure S2d). ...
... Our results regarding AOF are congruent with those of various other studies (Boekaerts & Otten, 1993;Diefendorff, 2004;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Perry et al., 2001). However, the rationale behind this interaction is only theoretical. ...
School achievement is highly predictive of future success. Thus, variables predicting school achievement are of utmost importance. Besides cognitive abilities and personality traits, differences in volition are likely to influence the individual’s achievement. This study is the first to analyze the influence of volitional abilities in terms of action control on secondary education grading. Our results indicate that action orientation after failure (AOF) and decision-related action orientation (AOD) are associated with secondary school achievement. Furthermore, a multiple regression analysis revealed that AOF and AOD make unique contributions toward predicting final grade, beyond the effects of such prominent influencing factors as fluid intelligence, conscientiousness, and sex. Remarkably, the predictive value of conscientiousness did not prove to be unique in nature but was mediated by AOD. The same applies for sex differences in academic achievement. Our study reveals that the influence of sex on final grade was mediated by AOF and AOD. In summary, our results suggest that volition is an important predictor of achievement in secondary education. Therefore, we highly recommend including measures of volition into future studies investigating the noncognitive correlates of school achievement.
... A positive relationship exists between an achievement mastery goal orientation and intrinsic motivation (Cury et al., 2006) and this form of motivation is associated with effort. Two studies attribute increases in intrinsic-extrinsic motivations to increases in effort (Jaramillo and Spector, 2004;Tyagi, 1985). Of these studies, one found a positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and student effort (Jaramillo and Spector, 2004). ...
... Two studies attribute increases in intrinsic-extrinsic motivations to increases in effort (Jaramillo and Spector, 2004;Tyagi, 1985). Of these studies, one found a positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and student effort (Jaramillo and Spector, 2004). The other study reported that intrinsically and extrinsically motivating goals positively influence student effort with intrinsic motivation having greater influence (Tyagi, 1985 research efforts that report linkages between achievement mastery goal orientation, intrinsic motivation, and increases in effort support the following hypothesis: ...
... The increasing intrinsic motivation contributes to greater levels of effort. This reasoning is supported by research indicating that students' perceptions of autonomy are related to their motivations (i.e., intrinsic, extrinsic, or both) that are associated with effort (Jaramillo and Spector, 2004;Tyagi, 1985;Young, 2005). ...
Instructors shaping the classroom experience with a variety of innovative teaching methods may improve the quality of student effort. This study facilitates effective innovation by developing and testing a model that shows how the quality of student effort is influenced by an achievement mastery goal orientation in tandem with the student’s fulfillment of three psychological needs. Findings reveal the influence of these factors, thus highlighting their importance and suggesting that instructors give attention to each one of them when deciding to take steps to increase student effort. Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory are drawn upon to advance hypotheses that are tested as a structural equation model using data collected from students taking marketing courses. Recommendations for future research are provided.
... Path analyses showed that initiative facilitated cognitive performance through deep strategies use, and persistence facilitated cognitive performance through technical learning strategies use. Jaramillo and Spector (2004) examined the effect of action control on effort and academic performance. Action orientation (disengagement, initiative, and persistence) was measured using Diefendorff et al.'s (2000) 22-item revised Action Control Scale (R-ACS-90), which is based on Kuhl's (1994b) 36-item ACS-90. ...
... Specifically, with respect to action control, it was hypothesized that action orientation will be associated with the use of cognitive, metacognitive, and selfregulatory strategies (Hypothesis 1). Based on the studies of Bembenutty et al. (1998), Jaramillo and Spector (2004), Papantoniou (2002), and Roy et al. (2008), we hypothesized that initiative and persistence will be positively associated with the use of learning strategies (Hypothesis 1a); based on Perry et al.'s (2001) findings, we expected negative associations between disengagement and use of self-regulated learning strategies (Hypothesis 1b). ...
... for the volatility subscale. The low alphas are consistent with previous research using the original and revised English version (Diefendorff et al. 2000;Jaramillo and Spector 2004;Kuhl 1994b) as well as the original Greek version (Papantoniou 2002), in which the internal consistency indices ranged from .51 to .78. ...
This chapter presents a study that examined the relations of the cognitive facets of hope (i.e., pathways thought and agency thinking) with action control and strategy use in self-regulated learning (SRL). Specifically, it was hypothesized that the effects of hope on strategy use (i.e., cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management) and course attainment would be independent from the effects of volitional person characteristics such as action orientation that involves disengagement, initiative, and persistence. A total of 275 undergraduate students participated in the study. The Adult Dispositional Hope Scale (ADHS), the Action Control Scale (ACS-90), and the Learning Strategies Scales of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) were used. Course grades were used as measure of course attainment. The results from path analysis suggest that the two components of dispositional hope predicted the use of almost all of the learning strategies. Disengagement and initiative were found to mainly predict time and study environment management and effort regulation. Persistence and pathways thought, in their turn, made an independent contribution to the variance of course attainment, whereas metacognitive and time and study environment management strategies mediated the effects of disengagement, initiative, and agency thinking. In conclusion, the study showed that trait-like person characteristics, which are central to positive psychology, impact university students’ SRL strategy use and course attainment.
... Path analyses showed that initiative and persistence facilitate cognitive performance (on text comprehension and spatial orientation) via regulating students" learning strategy use. Jaramillo and Spector (2004) examined the effect of action control on effort and academic performance. Action orientation (disengagement, initiative and persistence) was measured using Diefendorff et al."s (2000) 22-item scale, which is based on Kuhl"s (1994b) 36-item scale. ...
... Since recent studies have generally shown that action control can be correlated to selfregulated learning strategies, we hypothesized that action orientation can be associated with the use of cognitive, metacognitive and self-regulatory strategies (Hypothesis 1). Specifically, based on the studies of Bembenutty et al. (1998), Jaramillo andSpector (2004), Papantoniou (2002), and Roy, Vezeau, and Bouffard (2008) we hypothesized that initiative and persistence can be positively associated with the learning strategy use (Hypothesis 1a), while, based on Perry et al. (2001) findings, we expected negative associations between disengagement and self-regulated learning strategies (Hypothesis 1b). ...
... for the Volatility Scale. In previous work, either on the original and revised English version (Diefendorff et al., 2000;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Kuhl, 1994b) or on the original Greek version (Papantoniou, 2002), Cronbach"s α coefficients, for the three subscales, were ranged from .51 to .78. In this study, as well as in previous studies, the internal consistency of the three subscales of the ACS-90 tend to be slightly low, probably because its estimates based on alpha are likely underestimates given that the items are dichotomous and do not meet the tauequivalence conditions (Cortina, 1993, p.101). ...
Introduction: The present study examined the effect of action control (i.e., disengagement, initiative, and persistence) and dispositional hope (i.e., pathways thought, and agency thinking) on self-regulated learning strategy use (i.e., cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management) and course achievement. Method: A total of 275 undergraduate students at School of Education participated in the study. Data were collected during a psychology course. The participants were asked to respond to the Action Control Scale (ACS-90) and the Adult Dispositional Hope Scale (ADHS). They also completed the Learning Strategies Scales of the MSLQ. Examination grades were used as the measure of course achievement. Results: The results from path analysis suggest that the two components of dispositional hope influenced the use of almost all the learning strategies. Disengagement and initiative were found to influence mainly time and study environment management and effort regulation. Persistence and pathways thought made an independent contribution to the variance of course achievement, whereas metacognition and time and study environment management mediated the effects of disengagement, initiative and agency thinking. Discussion and Conclusion: In conclusion, the main contribution of the present study is the identification of the impact that trait-like characteristics, such as action control and dispositional hope, might have on university students' self-regulated learning strategy use and course achievement.
... Path analyses showed that initiative facilitated cognitive performance through deep strategies use, and persistence facilitated cognitive performance through technical learning strategies use. Jaramillo and Spector (2004) examined the effect of action control on effort and academic performance. Action orientation (disengagement, initiative, and persistence) was measured using Diefendorff et al.'s (2000) 22-item revised Action Control Scale (R-ACS-90), which is based on Kuhl's (1994b) 36-item ACS-90. ...
... Specifically, with respect to action control, it was hypothesized that action orientation will be associated with the use of cognitive, metacognitive, and selfregulatory strategies (Hypothesis 1). Based on the studies of Bembenutty et al. (1998), Jaramillo and Spector (2004), Papantoniou (2002), and Roy et al. (2008), we hypothesized that initiative and persistence will be positively associated with the use of learning strategies (Hypothesis 1a); based on Perry et al.'s (2001) findings, we expected negative associations between disengagement and use of self-regulated learning strategies (Hypothesis 1b). ...
... for the volatility subscale. The low alphas are consistent with previous research using the original and revised English version (Diefendorff et al. 2000;Jaramillo and Spector 2004;Kuhl 1994b) as well as the original Greek version (Papantoniou 2002), in which the internal consistency indices ranged from .51 to .78. ...
... Consistent with the volitional efficiency hypothesis, various studies have observed that action-oriented people are more efficient in realizing their study intentions than stateoriented people (Boekaerts & Otten, 1993;Dahling et al., 2015;Doumen et al., 2014;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Volet, 1997). One representative study was conducted among 275 ...
... Action-oriented people, compared with state-oriented people, have further been found to display faster stress recovery and fewer adverse effects of stressors (Beckmann & Kellmann, 2004;Gröpel & Kuhl, 2009;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). Finally, action-oriented people display better mental health than state-oriented people, both on global measures Other studies have shown that action-oriented people display lower prevalence and symptom severity of depression than state-oriented people (Keller et al., 1994;Nielsen-Prohl et al., 2013). ...
... Consistent with the volitional efficiency hypothesis, various studies have observed that action-oriented people are more efficient in realizing their study intentions than stateoriented people (Boekaerts & Otten, 1993;Dahling et al., 2015;Doumen et al., 2014;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Volet, 1997). One representative study was conducted among 275 ...
... Action-oriented people, compared with state-oriented people, have further been found to display faster stress recovery and fewer adverse effects of stressors (Beckmann & Kellmann, 2004;Gröpel & Kuhl, 2009;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). Finally, action-oriented people display better mental health than state-oriented people, both on global measures Other studies have shown that action-oriented people display lower prevalence and symptom severity of depression than state-oriented people (Keller et al., 1994;Nielsen-Prohl et al., 2013). ...
People differ in how readily they enact their intentions. Some people manage to enact very difficult intentions -like writing a book or starting a business- under demanding circumstances -like extreme stress or oppressive bureaucracy. Other people struggle to enact even mundane intentions -like replying to an email or taking out the trash. These individual differences in intention enactment have been the central focus of action-theoretical research. Section 1 of this chapter traces the historical development of the action-theoretical perspective, from prescientific notions to Action Control Theory (ACT; Kuhl, 1984). Section 2 presents an update of ACT in the form of ACTψ (‘act-psi’). According to ACTψ, efficient action control requires the person to use affect regulation to coordinate the interplay of intention memory and intuitive behavior control. Chronic individual differences in affect regulation presumably underlie the personality disposition of action versus state orientation. Section 3 considers the measurement of action versus state orientation. Section 4 reviews research showing that, as compared with state-oriented people, action-oriented people: 1) Enact demanding and self-directed intentions more efficiently in real life and controlled settings; 2) Form, maintain, and update their intentions more readily; 3) Regulate own affective states more rapidly, are better shielded against stress and mental illness, and display more personal growth. Finally, section 5 considers how the action-theoretical perspective complements social-psychological approaches to intention-behavior relations.
... The aggregation of these collective behaviors, defined as action orientation, results in task completion aligned with desired goals (Diefendorff et al., 2000;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). As such, these recurrent and collective behaviors exhibited in employees' actions are indicators of supportive environments (Feldman & Orlikowski, 2011;Wilderom et al., 2012). ...
... Action Orientation. Action orientation is the ability to regulate cognitions and behaviors to complete specific business-related goals (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). Action orientation was measured using a five-item scale developed by Weinzimmer et al. (2011). ...
This research investigates the relationship between adaptability and small-and-medium enterprises (SME) performance, and the mediating role of action orientation. We highlight the importance of risk-taking on the relationship between adaptability and action orientation. Our study integrates research on dynamic capabilities and SME culture and how they translate into financial performance. We develop a moderated-mediation model of adaptability, linking perceptions of action to organizational performance. We argue these relationships are moderated by risk-taking. Our findings suggest: (a) there is a positive relationship between organizational adaptability and action; (b) action is positively related to organizational performance; (c) the indirect effect of organizational adaptability on organizational performance (via action) is stronger when employees work in a more risk-oriented environment.
... Thus, procrastination refers to the voluntary delay of activities that are needed to achieve certain goals (Ferrari, 2004;Klingsieck, 2013;Sirois & Giguère, 2018). Despite knowing that putting things off is often associated with negative outcomes, adversely affecting academic success (Blunt & Pychyl, 1998;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Schlüter et al., 2018b), as well as mental and physical health (Palfai, 2002;Palfai et al., 2002;Freund & Hennecke, 2015), we often struggle to tackle tasks directly. Successful goal achievement is highly dependent on the individuals' ability to perform self-induced modulation of neural processes, including cognitive, motivational and emotional control mechanisms (Kuhl, 1984(Kuhl, , 1994bGoschke & Bolte, 2014). ...
... Thus, individuals that classify as state oriented in decisionrelated contexts (low AOD) are more likely to procrastinate when facing a demanding task. Similar to procrastination, low AOD values are negatively associated with occupational (Diefendorff et al., 2000;Landman et al., 2016) and academic performance (Blunt & Pychyl, 1998;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Schlüter et al., 2018b). ...
Although procrastination is a widespread phenomenon with significant influence on our
personal and professional life, its genetic foundation is somewhat unknown. An important
factor that influences our ability to tackle specific goals directly instead of putting them off is our ability to initiate cognitive-, motivational- and emotional-control mechanisms, so-called metacontrol. These metacontrol mechanisms have been frequently related to dopaminergic signaling. To gain deeper insight into the genetic components of procrastination, we examined whether genetically induced differences in the dopaminergic system are associated with interindividual differences in trait-like procrastination, measured as decision-related Action control (AOD). Analyzing the data of 278 healthy adults we found a sex-dependent effect of TH genotype on AOD. Interestingly, only in women T-allele carriers showed lower AOD values and were, therefore, more likely to procrastinate. Additionally, we investigated whether
differences in the morphology and functional connectivity of the amygdala that were previously associated with AOD happen to be related to differences in the TH genotype and thus to differences in the dopaminergic system. However, there was no significant amygdala volume or connectivity difference between the TH genotype groups. Therefore, this study is the first to suggest that genetic, anatomical and functional differences affect trait-like procrastination independently.
... Duf f [22] proposed that deep learning method is a content learning way to achieve the goal by realizing and thinkingand spent longer time than others, but students usually learned the hole knowledge and keep in mind. Waugh [60] suggested that deep, surface, and strategic learning method were important in developing learning behaviors and students in the department of bussiness and management were needed to motivated, criterical thinking, and skill, thus, deep and strategic learning were predicted being ef fective learning method [17,32]. Waugh [60] proposed that learning strategy would dif ferent with level of academic selfconcept. ...
... Thus, student should focus on learning cognition and self-awareness. Most of researchers [17,32] thought deep learning strategy has positive effect on achievement. Students with deep learning strategy spent most of time on exploring and understanding course which might cause of students can not reach the learning goal. ...
The issues of academic self-concept and learning strategy had been extensively explored in the past decade. The purpose of this research is to discuss the fuzzy relationship for academic self-concept and learning strategy. We apply structural equation model to analysis the systematic relation. The results show that academic self-concept has significant difference on deep learning strategy. While academic self-concept has negative effect on surface learning strategy. Moreover, professional self-concept plays an important effect on learning strategy. Future study may consider using Fuzzy Structural Equation Model to analyzing more complex cases and samples with fuzzy data.
... Specifically, individuals low in hesitation performed better when routineness, satisfaction, or involvement was low when compared to those high in hesitation. ASO has received less attention in academic contexts, but one study found that the hesitation and volatility subscales of ASO related to academic effort (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). In the decision-making literature, ASO predicts choices after a missed attractive opportunity (Van Putten, Zeelenberg, & Van Dijk, 2009) and the tendency to hold on to failing projects after experiencing a loss in money, effort, or time (Van Putten, Zeelenberg, & Van Dijk, 2010). ...
... It may be the case that academic performance is enhanced by frequent rumination about academic obligations, although this same preoccupation may exert costs in the form of heightened stress and diminished well-being. Future research should attempt to replicate this finding and explore the implications of ASO for academic performance and adjustment in greater detail (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). ...
Action-�state orientation (ASO) describes the ability to plan, initiate, and complete intended activities. Action-oriented individuals, compared to state-oriented, are better able to focus their efforts and therefore
move toward goals. While Kuhl (1994) posits that affect mediates the relationship between personality traits like ASO and successful self-regulation, ASO scholarship rarely examines the role of affect, and no ASO studies have examined self-regulation over time. We address these limitations by examining students’ academic self-regulation over a semester. HLM analyses show that action- versus state-oriented people exhibit better academic self-regulation as expected. However, we found no support for affect as a mediator.
... Intrinsic motivations, critical thinking, and skill learning are crucial aspects in subject-oriented training courses provided for business majors. Based on the aforementioned studies, the deep and strategic approaches may cultivate student capacity for independent thinking and understanding and enhance their academic achievement (Chonko 1993;Jaramillo and Spector 2004;Rodriguez 2009). Therefore, we propose Hypotheses 5, 6, and 7: ...
... Huang (2007) investigated the relationship between self-concept and academic achievement and considered that self-regulation learning and metacognition are key factors related to academic achievement (i.e., the deep approach, including understanding, reflection, and self-reflection, is crucial for improving academic achievement). Therefore, numerous researchers have considered that the deep approach positively affects academic achievement (Chonko 1993;Jaramillo and Spector 2004). However, our study revealed that the deep approach seemingly does not have a significantly positive effect on academic achievement. ...
This study focuses on the effect of academic self-concept on the use of learning strategies conducive to academic achievement. Data from 407 national vocational college students in Taiwan were analyzed by structural equation modeling through the LISREL 8.80 version. The results of this study can be summarized as follows: (a) academic self-concept has a significant positive effect on deep, surface and strategic approaches, as well as academic achievement, (b) of all the learning strategies, strategic approach has a significant positive effect, and surface approach has a significant negative effect on academic achievement, and (c) strategic approach mediated a positive relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement. Overall, these findings suggest that higher level educators may offer positive encouragement to increase students’ learning motivation, efficiency, and self-concept and assist in the development of recognition concerning self-learning and meta-cognitive skills. These findings may help students to select the best learning approaches and improve their academic performance. Implications for the design of educational models and curricula in vocational college education are also discussed.
... Thus, the experience of positive emotions by students in the classroom environment might be advantageous for instructors as well as students in stimulating and enhancing learning behaviors. However, limited research has investigated the role of emotions in an educational setting (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004), especially with respect to how positive emotions might influence the learning environment. ...
... Emotional exhaustion is defined as the feeling of being emotionally overextended and exhausted (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Singh, Goolsby, & Rhoads, 1994). Burnout, or emotional exhaustion, occurs as a response to task-related demand stressors. ...
Research has demonstrated that the frequent experience of positive
emotions can help in fostering subjective well-being. This research
investigates how the experience of positive emotions by students in
the classroom environment can stimulate and enhance learning
behaviors. Findings indicate that the experience of positive emotions
in the classroom is positively related to student motivation
as well as behaviors that are likely to lead to academic success,
such as studying, attending class, participating in classroom discussions,
and performing additional activities outside of class to
enhance understanding. Individuals who expressed these higher
motivational levels also had more optimistic academic achievement
outlooks. Additionally, results suggest that the experience of
positive emotions is negatively related to emotional exhaustion.
Implications for hospitality and business educators are discussed.
... According to previous work either on the original and revised English version (Diefendorff et al., 2000;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Kuhl, 1994a) or on the original Greek version (Papantoniou, 2002), Cronbach"s α coefficients, for the three subscales, were ranged from .51 to .78. Thus we hypothesized that the Greek instrument would show similar range of internal consistency (Hypothesis 2). ...
... Hypothesis 2 regarded the internal consistency of the Greek version of the ACS. The results were consistent to previous work either on the original and revised English version (Diefendorff et al., 2000;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Kuhl, 1994b) or on the original Greek version (Papantoniou, 2002). In this study, as well as in previous studies, the internal consistency of the three subscales of the ACS-90 tend to be slightly low (Cronbach"s α coefficients were ranged from .54 to .69), ...
... Compared to Self-Control, the relation between AO and academic achievement has gained less attention in educational research. Investigating the effect of AO on academic achievement in undergraduate students (with a mean age of 24 years, SD = N/A), AO was positively related to effort which is considered a significant antecedent of academic achievement [44]. In students enrolled in a teacher education program (with a mean age of 20.69 years, SD = 3.15), students high in AO received better grades than their peers low in AO [45]. ...
Self-Control can be defined as the self-initiated effortful process that enables individuals to resist temptation impulses. It is relevant for conducting a healthy and successful life. For university students, Grass et al. found that Need for Cognition as the tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking, and Action Orientation as the flexible recruitment of control resources in cognitively demanding situations, predict Self-Control. Further, Action Orientation partially mediated the relation between Need for Cognition and Self-Control. In the present conceptual replication study, we investigated the relations between Self-Control, Need for Cognition, and Action Orientation in adolescence (N = 892 9th graders) as a pivotal period for the development of self-control. We replicated the findings that Need for Cognition and Action Orientation predict Self-Control and that Action Orientation partially mediates the relation between Need for Cognition and Self-Control. In addition, Action Orientation moderates the relation between Need for Cognition and Self-Control. This result implies that in more action-oriented students Need for Cognition more strongly predicted Self-Control than in less action-oriented students. Our findings strengthen theoretical assumptions that Need for Cognition and Action Orientation are important cognitive and behavioral mechanisms that contribute to the successful exertion of Self-Control.
... The result of the study is coherent with the findings of Mahenthiran and Shanthakumary (2012) who found a positive relationship between self-motivation for achievement, job performance and job satisfaction. Also, a previous study affirmed that intrinsic motivation positively influences successful learning which is similar to workplace performance (Ferreira et al., 2011;Jaramillho and Spector, 2004). ...
Purpose
Many youths are out-of-school with few having the basic sustainable skills to earn a living. Some of the engaged ones have interpersonal relationship and other problems that can sustain the successes of their business. Therefore, this study is set to investigate the relationship between affective behaviour, emotional intelligence and success of out-of-school youths in cell phone maintenance enterprise.
Design/methodology/approach
Purposive sampling technique was used to select the sample. Of the total, 350 out-of-school youths who are engaged in cell phone maintenance enterprise in computer village Ikeja, Lagos State, Nigeria, were used as a sample, but 292 samples with completely filled research instrument were used for the study. Data collected were validated through the principal component analysis and the hypothesis tested through the confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS and SPSS.
Findings
The result of the study showed that affective behaviour and social skills does not necessarily but self-motivation predicts the career success of out-of-school youths in cell phone maintenance enterprise. Self-awareness, emotional regulation, social awareness and emotional receptivity significantly influence affective behaviour towards success in their chosen career.
Practical implications
This study enhances the cell phone maintenance association or group to adopt the participation of on-the-job training of their members to help them build good relationship and self-esteem. The training will improve their emotional intelligence and further enhance the creation of a formidable emotional intelligent workplace team.
Social implications
The study affirms that the constructs of emotional intelligence are predictors of career success among out-of-school cell phone maintenance. It boosts their moral and psychological behaviours towards building good customer relationship which culminates into success in their career area. This study also motivates the out-of-school youths that success is multifaceted that involves building adequate personal and social relationship within the circle of their co-maintenance personnel and customers.
Originality/value
This study showed that success in any chosen career involves adequate training, inter- and intra-personal relationship and building adequate emotional intelligence to overcome the varying challenges that may be encountered. Also it indicated that personal development in a chosen career is essential, career successes can be built around personal goal orientation rather than building it in circle of people around. The study does not totally neglect social relationship because no man can live and succeed in isolation.
... For instance, "motive" predictors, such as self-rewarding, self-satisfaction self-actualisation, social conditions, etc. (Al-Fattal and Ayoubi, 2013;Triyanto, 2019), could unravel peculiar personal and situational factors underlying festival attendees' evaluation, in context. This is so because motives may stimulate individuals' conscious choice among many alternatives (Jaramillo and Spector, 2004). Such further studies in developing country contexts will help improve emotive communication approaches and encourage revisiting intentions of festival attendees. ...
Purpose
Paragliding festivals have become significant events in the global tourism space, attracting tourists to local and international destinations. The purpose of this study was to assess environmental attitudes and rate the performance of the paragliding festival of the Kwahu traditional area in Ghana, from the perspectives of four stakeholder groups.
Design/methodology/approach
This study was grounded on the salient stakeholder theory. A quantitative cross-sectional study, with a convenience sampling approach, collected 372 useable questionnaires from four major stakeholders/participants (i.e. Kwahu residents, Kwahu returnees, non-Kwahu Ghanaian tourists and foreigners). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyse the data.
Findings
The findings of the Games-Howell post-hoc test show no significant differences among the four stakeholder groups in the festival performance assessment. However, there is a significant statistical difference between the Kwahu residents and foreign tourists regarding environmental attitudes towards the paragliding festival.
Practical implications
Visitors' perceptions and experiences of the environmental performance could inform the planning and execution of festive events that have a direct impact on the natural environment. Policymakers at the community levels must enact environmental protocols that uphold the value propositions of the stakeholders and that of the community at large.
Originality/value
The study expands the application of the salience stakeholder model within festival tourism by highlighting under-represented stakeholder voices in a single study on paragliding festivals in a developing country context.
... Motives for choosing to major in a particular academic discipline is considered a situational factor that could drive students' desire for learning. Motives stimulate persons to engage in a particular behavior, and explain individuals' conscious choices among different alternatives (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). As nouns the difference between 'motivation' and 'motive' is that while motivation is a willingness to act, especially in behavior, 'motive' is an incentive to act; a reason for doing something (Franzese, 2013;Peters, 1960). ...
While there has been a significant amount of work involving marketing education, it is unclear as to which demographic and psychographic characteristics of marketing majors drive their behavior toward academic performance (AP). The core premise of this study is that a set of students’ demographic and psychographic characteristics underlie marketing majors’ behavior toward academic learning, and this could be explained through the lens of self-determination theory. The study relied on quantitative data gleaned through structured questionnaires, from marketing majors in higher education in a developing country context. The findings affirm that student motives, thoughts and perspectives, expectations, and ‘preparedness,’ are highly significant situational factors that explain the variation in overall marketing students’ AP. In addition, the income level of parents was significant in explaining AP. The authors envisage that the findings will help researchers to direct their studies toward experiential and emotional learning in other contexts, and thereby provide insights into other situational factors that predict marketing students’ AP. Moreover, the findings highlight key situational factors that will help educators to adapt pedagogical practices in marketing education to enhance AP, in context.
... Jakkolwiek GPA jest szeroko wykorzystywana w badaniach edukacyjnych, stanowiąc ważny predyktor wielu zjawisk i mechanizmów opisywanych w edukacji, na przykład dążenia do osiągnięć (Bacon, Novotny, 2002), motywacji (Jaramillo, Spector, 2004) i nieuczciwości akademickiej (Chapman, Davis, Toy, Wright, 2004), to nie jest ona idealną miarą osiągnięć w nauce sensu stricte. Odzwierciedla bowiem nie tylko wspomniane osiągnięcia, ale również styl oceniania prowadzącego/nauczyciela oraz zmiany w zakresie ocen szkolnych następujące z biegiem lat, niezwiązane bezpośrednio z przyrostem umiejętności (Bacon, Bean, 2006;Lei, Bassiri, Schultz, 2001;Skórska, Świst, Szaleniec, 2014). ...
Współcześnie psycholodzy skłaniają się ku postrzeganiu inteligencji zaledwie jako jednego z czynników znaczących dla osiągnieć szkolnych, nie wyczerpującego jednak puli możliwości do poszukiwania potencjalnych determinantów osiągnięć szkolnych. Myśląc o podobnych czynnikach pozazdolnościowych powiązanych z ocenami, badacze zwracali się w stronę wielu obszarów stanowiących tradycyjne przedmioty zainteresowania psychologii, w tym – cech osobowości. Na możliwość powiązania obszaru funkcjonowania osobowościowego i intelektualnego zwracają uwagę tak badania naukowe, jak i niektóre teorie inteligencji, w tym – teorie inwestycji, analizujące rozwój intelektualny aktywności przejawianej w tym obszarze z poziomu kilku grup czynników, w tym również osobowości.
... The utilization of both a localized derived student achievement measure (i.e., GPA) coupled with analysis of a nationally normed standardized test (i.e., ACT) was more holistic and appropriate as differing measures of student achievement can explain different student characteristics (Kelepolo, 2011). GPA is a more subjective multidimensional achievement measure that includes a variety of student and teacher variables such as personality and motivation (Dickinson & Adelson, 2015;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). The ACT aims to take a more objective approach by providing insight on college readiness and content knowledge (Marchetti et al., 2015). ...
The purpose of this study was to address the gap in research related to whether measures of participation (intensity and breadth) demonstrated a relationship with academic achievement for 11th grade student athletes (N=128) in a rural Midwestern high school. Anonymous athletic participation and achievement data from 2015-2017 was obtained from the school’s archive and analyzed by correlation, hierarchical regression, and one-way ANOVA. Data derived from statistical analyses demonstrated two outcomes regarding sport participation, ACT, and GPA: (a) Intensity demonstrated no statistical significance to student achievement measured by ACT, however intensity demonstrated a statistically significant relationship to cumulative GPA (p < .05), and (b) ANOVA analysis demonstrated statistically significant differences in breadth and GPA (p < .01) between one sport athletes and three sport athletes. Three sport athletes had statistically significantly higher GPAs than one sport athletes and significantly higher GPAs than two sport athletes. The research was limited to one cross-sectional heterogeneous rural high school population of participants over a three-year period. Furthermore, the study was limited to school-specific athletic participation data as school non-athletic activity and out-of-school activity participation was not available. Results from this study suggest programming and potential practice recommendations for rural school leaders. Future research on ESA sport, activity, and non-school activity participation intensity and breadth related to academic outcomes is justified.
... This requires students to have some level of action-orientation and effectively self-regulate their activities over time. It has been shown that action-oriented college students have higher grade point averages than their state-oriented counterparts (Jaramillo, F., & Spector, P. E., 2004), are likely to spend more time on their coursework (Kuhl, 2008), make more effort to achieving their goals (Strean, M.L., 2000), and engage in more extracurricular activities (Erwin, T. D., & Marcus-Mendoza, S. T., 1988). One challenge with encouraging students to become more action-oriented is that students may become affected by failure and stress (Kuhl, 2008). ...
... There is a growing body of evidence connecting action orientation to academic performance (e.g. Perry, Hladkyj, Pekrun, & Pelletier, 2001;Jaramillo & Spector, 2016;Schlüter, Fraenz, Pinnow, Voelkle, Güntürkün & Genç , 2018). For example, differential effects of action orientation after failure and decision-related action orientation were found to explain gender differences in secondary school performance (Schlüter et al., 2018). ...
This article investigates whether action orientation as a facet of self-regulation can be used to assess the differences in prerequisites for a successful teacher training in pre-service teachers. Based on the data acquired we have identified and replicated four clusters of students with diverging abilities to overcome failure and implement plans. The content validity, concurrent validity and predictive validity of the clusters were tested using satisfaction with life, academic progress and academic performance data. Based on this classification different needs for support can be inferred and implications for educational interventions can be drawn.
... Such individuals are hindered by preoccupation, hesitation, and volatility (Diefendorff, Hall, Lord and Strean, 2000;Kuhl 1992Kuhl , 1994b, whereas action-oriented individuals are driven by disengagement, initiative, and persistency (Diefendorff, Hall, Lord and Strean, 2000;Kuhl 1992Kuhl , 1994b. State-oriented people can be paralyzed by even the simplest everyday decisions and have difficulty in summoning and maintaining motivation to continue pursuing 93 a task, even if it is initiated by someone else (Jaramillo and Spector, 2004). ...
Two studies were conducted to examine the relationship between self-leadership and action-state orientations. Study 1 applied confirmatory factor analyses to data from a U.S. sample to examine the discriminant validity between the two constructs. Results indicate that self-leadership and action-state orientation are indeed two separate constructs. Study 2 advanced and tested hypotheses examining the roles of horizontal and vertical individualism in moderating the relationship between self-leadership and action-state orientation. Analyses of data from 154 Brazilian subjects provide support for the hypothesized relationship between self-leadership and action-state orientation. Furthermore, the results provide support for the role of horizontal individualism as a moderator of the self-leadership to action-state orientation relationship. The implications of the findings of this study are discussed along with directions for future research.
... PSI theory complements these models by distinguishing individual differences across several self-regulation processes and by explaining the functioning (or dis-functioning) of these processes across different situations (Cervone and Quirin, 2018). To date, PSI theory has been successfully applied and supported in a diverse set of domains, such as work engagement (Bledow et al., 2011), performance (Diefendorff, 2004), creativity , health , sports (Beckmann and Kellmann, 2004) and education (Jaramillo and Spector, 2004). More specifically, PSI explains how individual differences in action-versus state-orientation are rooted in different types of self-regulation abilities that operate differently depending on the nature of the challenge. ...
Action-orientation is portrayed as key for entrepreneurship. To understand the conditions under which action-orientation is indeed favourable for entrepreneurs, we introduce the personality-systems-interaction (PSI) theory to entrepreneurship research. PSI theory distinguishes action- versus state-orientation and explains how both dispositions influence an entrepreneur’s cognition (including goals), emotional reactions and the resulting behaviour. It provides a novel basis for understanding individual differences in persistence and progression through the venture creation process. Based on the tenets of PSI theory, we develop propositions to explain how action-oriented versus state-oriented individuals respond differently to the demands of the entrepreneurial process.
... First, since academic motivation leads to increased desire for excellence (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004), students with high motivation may be more likely to persist post-failure. ...
When students experience failure in the pursuit of a marketing degree (e.g., on a test or a course), do they persist or relent their academic efforts? Relenting can lead to long-term academic failure and severe negative consequences for students, universities, and society. Thus, identifying students prone to relenting and directing resources to help them persist is important. We address this need by leveraging prior research on the response-to-failure construct to develop and validate a new measure: the Academic Response-to-Failure Scale. Two studies validate the measure, and two additional studies show that it predicts post-failure persistence and relenting more effectively than 12 related measures. Because the scale uses students’ chronic cognitive and emotional responses to subgoal failure to predict post-failure relenting, it can be applied to design interventions that modify these responses to improve persistence. A final study tests one such intervention, showing that it improves post-failure persistence, particularly for students who otherwise tend to relent. We provide recommendations on how the Academic Response-to-Failure Scale can be used to identify vulnerable students, to design interventions that can help increase these students’ persistence, and to target those interventions and create meaningfully differentiated learning environments.
... highlighted that, many education research studies have identified important relationships between CGPA and other variables of interest. For example, CGPA is related to personality and motivation(Jaramillo & Spector, 2004), achievement striving(Bacon & Novotny, 2002), individual learning(Karakaya et al., 2001), academic achievement in Introduction toMarketing (Borde, 1998), team learning (Hite et al., 2001, and even cheating behavior(Chapman et al., 2004). ...
Secara umum, penerbitan prosiding ini bertujuan untuk memperbanyakkan khazanah ilmiah berkaitan bidang Pembangunan Sumber Manusia. Ia boleh dijadikan rujukan kepada pelbagai pihak untuk memperluaskan bacaan dan penyelidikan dalam bidang Pembangunan Sumber Manusia. Bidang ini sebenarnya merupakan pengembangan bidang ilmu Pengurusan Sumber Manusia. Dengan adanya kajian seumpama ini, dimensi bidang pengurusan semakin luas dan memerlukan staf yang kompeten dan berketrampilan bagi membangunkan dan memajukan sesebuah organisasi.
... To manage discovered commonalities and differences, a series of interviews or focus groups can provide inputs from key constituency groups concerning success factors that should be emphasized in the co-creation of learning. Faculty willing to embrace the change should be supported and rewarded (see Holland, 2016) for embracing the challenges associated with providing excellent co-creation opportunities that require discretionary effort of students willing to take initiative (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). ...
Business schools, in the face of various external pressures, are confronted with the daunting challenge of better engaging their constituents to achieve their learning mission. We call for engagement to play a unifying role in a business school’s culture. We incorporate relevant learning, marketing and change management concepts to first present conceptual tenets underlying our engagement model including co-creation of learning and students as works-in-progress. We then propose a plan for creating a culture of engagement in business schools to advance their learning mission, which broadly involves students, faculty, alumni, employers and administrators. The tactical plan is presented in four steps: assessment, redesign, implementation and evaluation of an engagement culture.
... A lack of this vital resource in emotion regulation (i.e., state orientation) is associated with numerous, stress-related impairments in psychological functioning. For example, detrimental effects of state orientation under stressful conditions have been found across many life domains that range from work behavior (Diefendorff, Hall, Lord, & Strean, 2000;Wojdylo, Baumann, & Kuhl, 2017), academic achievement (Diefendorff, 2004;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004), and health behavior (Palfai, 2002). Furthermore, the effects of action-state orientation have been shown to occur over and above of reappraisal and suppression (Koole & Jostmann, 2004), self-efficacy (Diefendorff, 2004;Wolf, Herrmann, & Brandstätter, 2017), optimism (Bossong, 2001), and self-esteem (Kazén, Baumann, & Kuhl, 2005). ...
Since the construct of action versus state orientation was introduced more than 30 years ago, this measure of individual differences in the ability to intuitively self-regulate motions has become the focus of more than 100 published studies. These studies have related action orientation to smooth psychological functioning. In contrast, state orientation is associated with a low ability to self-regulate negative emotional states intuitively and a higher risk to suffer from psychological impairments. In the present article, we investigate whether relatedness mitigates detrimental effects of state orientation. Our analysis includes relatedness on the levels of (a) culture, (b) personal values, and (c) situational cues. The findings indicate that action-state orientation matters and works similarly across non-Western (Bangladesh, India) and Western cultures (Germany, New Zealand). Merely being a member of a presumably interrelated culture does not mitigate adverse effects of state orientation. In contrast, personally valuing relatedness (i.e., benevolence) and situationally cueing relatedness (i.e., thinking about similarities with a friend) both compensate state orientation – especially in conjunction with each other.
... Action-oriented people, relative to state-oriented people, have been found to be better able to self-regulate affect (Baumann & Kuhl, 2002;Brunstein, 2001;Koole & Jostmann, 2004), maintain well-being, life satisfaction, body vitality, and health, especially under adverse conditions (Baumann, Kaschel, & Kuhl, 2005;Herrmann & Brandstätter, 2013;Schlinkert & Koole, 2017a;Wojdylo, Baumann, Kuhl, & Horstmann, 2014b). Moreover, compared to their state-oriented counterparts, action-oriented people display better psychological functioning in a wide variety of domains including work performance (Diefendorff, 2004;Wojdylo, Baumann, Fischbach, & Engeser, 2014a), athletic prowess (Beckmann & Kellmann, 2004;Heckhausen & Strang, 1988), educational achievement (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004;Schlüter et al., 2017), economic behavior (Bagozzi, Baumgartner, & Li, 1992), health behavior (Palfai, 2002;Schlinkert & Koole, 2017b), and relationship satisfaction (Backes et al., 2017). ...
Background: People differ in action versus state orientation, or the capacity for volitional action control. Prior research has shown that people who are action- rather than state-oriented are better able to perceive and satisfy own motives (e.g., affiliation, achievement, power), which translates into greater psychological well-being (Baumann, Kaschel, & Kuhl, 2005; Baumann & Quirin, 2006). However, most of the extant literature has been limited to samples from European countries or the US. To address this shortcoming, the present paper investigated the associations between action versus state orientation, psychological well-being, and anxious style of motive enactment among samples in Germany, New Zealand, and Bangladesh (combined N = 862).
Methods: To examine the consistency of our results across countries, a multi-group structural equation model (SEM) was used to examine the associations between action orientation, anxious motive enactment, and well-being. Subsequent mediation analyses
assessed whether anxious motive enactment mediated the relationship between action orientation and well-being across each of the three samples.
Results: Across all three cultural groups, action-orientation was associated with less anxious motive enactment and higher well-being. Moreover, mediation analyses revealed significant indirect paths from action orientation through less anxious motive
enactment to well-being that were similar across the three samples.
Conclusions: These findings suggest that individual differences in action versus state orientation have a similar psychological meaning across Western and non-Western cultures.
... xx, this volume). Likewise, action orientation has been linked to better education performance ( Boekaerts & Otten, 1993;Diefendorff, 2004;Jaramillo & Spector, 2004). Finally, action orientation has been associated with better health behaviors, such as Paradoxical Effects of Good Intentions 8 maintaining a healthy diet ( Fuhrman & Kuhl, 1998), less overeating ( Palfai, 2002), and less binge drinking ( Palfai, McNally, & Roy, 2002). ...
Common sense holds that people often fail to achieve their goals because they fail to keep
their goals in mind. In this chapter, however, we suggest that, for the some people, the
opposite holds, such that thinking about their goals interferes with acting upon those very
goals. This paradox comes to light when we consider individual differences in action versus
state orientation (Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994). State-oriented people tend to have lower rates of
goal achievement than action-oriented people, especially under demanding conditions. We
consider two different and contradicting explanations for these differences. According to the
goal neglect hypothesis, state-oriented people are more prone to lose sight of their goals
under demanding circumstances because their goal focus is not strong enough. Conversely,
the over-maintenance hypothesis holds that state-oriented people focus on their goals too
strongly and in a narrow linguistic format that prevents flexible action control. Although goal
neglect and over-maintenance often predict the same outcomes, we discuss recent
experiments that were able to provide a competitive test of the two mechanisms. The results
clearly support the over-maintenance hypothesis. It thus appears that, paradoxically, stateoriented
people fail to enact their goals because they focus too strongly on their goals.
... Recently scholars have begun to suppose that the very important aspect to consider is the firm's capacity to put creativity into practice and not creativity itself (Weinzimmer et al., 2011). Action orientation is defined as the ability to make decisions and implement cognitions, emotions and behaviour in order to reach specific goals (Jaramillo and Spector, 2004). Others use the concept of realized absorptive capacity, that is the ability to transform (convert) and exploit (apply) new knowledge to better firm performance (Gong et al., 2013). ...
It is common opinion that knowledge management practices and creativity are very important factors for firms facing a turbulent and dynamic environment. Knowledge and creativity in fact are a helpful support for managers that have to make decisions under uncertain and complex conditions: they are not only complementary but also synergic in the problem solving process. This paper aims to shed light on the benefits that knowledge and creativity are able to produce for organizational decision making, underlining differences and analogies between them. Only once certain aspects have been clarified it will be easier to judge the opportunity of investing in KM infrastructure or, in the case it already exists, what kind of changes are needed to improve creativity and/or decision-making speed.
... The present study sought to determine the magnitude of effect on participation in honors as measured by cumulative GPA. Cumulative GPA has been found to be related to personality and motivation (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004), achievement striving (Bacon & Bean, 2006), individual learning (Karakaya, Ainscough, & Chopoorian, 2001), academic performance (Borde, 1998), team learning (Hite, McIntyre, & Lynch, 2001), and cheating behavior (Chapman, Davis, Toy, & Wright, 2004). Furthermore, GPA has the potential to account for nearly half the variance in educational research models (Bloom, 1976). ...
The present study sought to determine the extent to which participation in a postsecondary honors program affected academic achievement. Archival data were collected on three cohorts of high-achieving students at a large public university. Propensity scores were calculated on factors predicting participation in honors and used as the covariate. The Johnson–Neyman technique was used to determine
the values of the covariate on which the groups differed. The effect of participating in honors was greater for smaller propensity scores. The findings offer a positive outcome associated with participation for students at the lower end of the propensity score continuum, providing evidence to conclude that such programs are beneficial to a subset of high-achieving students.
... The present study sought to determine the magnitude of effect on participation in honors as measured by cumulative GPA. Cumulative GPA has been found to be related to personality and motivation (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004), achievement striving (Bacon & Bean, 2006), individual learning (Karakaya, Ainscough, & Chopoorian, 2001), academic performance (Borde, 1998), team learning (Hite, McIntyre, & Lynch, 2001), and cheating behavior (Chapman, Davis, Toy, & Wright, 2004). Furthermore, GPA has the potential to account for nearly half the variance in educational research models (Bloom, 1976). ...
The present study sought to determine the extent to which participation in a postsecondary honors program affected academic achievement. Archival data were collected on three cohorts of high-achieving students at a large public university. Propensity scores were calculated on factors predicting participation in honors and used as the covariate. The Johnson–Neyman technique was used to determine
the values of the covariate on which the groups differed. The effect of participating in honors was greater for smaller propensity scores. The findings offer a positive outcome associated with participation for students at the lower end of the propensity score continuum, providing evidence to conclude that such programs are beneficial to a subset of high-achieving students.
... The ACS90 has been validated extensively in over 80 studies (see Koole et al. 2012, for a review). Throughout these studies, decisiveness has emerged as a robust predictor of how people deal with demanding conditions in controlled laboratory tasks (e.g., Koole 2006, 2007;Kazén et al. 2008) and in real-life settings such as work (Diefendorff et al. 2006;Jaramillo and Spector 2004), education (Boekaerts and Otten 1993;Diefendorff 2004), and health . ...
The dataset includes data from the two studies reported in our Over-maintenance of Intentions paper [1]. The data of study 1 was collected at the psychology lab at VU University Amsterdam in 2008 and 2013 among Dutch-speaking student samples. The data of study 2 was collected at the psychology lab at VU University Amsterdam in 2009 and 2013 among Dutch-speaking student samples. The dataset consists of the measures described in the paper. The data can be used for replication purposes, meta-analyses, and exploratory analyses. The authors also welcome collaborative research based on re-analyses of the data.
... The present study sought to determine the magnitude of effect on participation in honors as measured by cumulative GPA. Cumulative GPA has been found to be related to personality and motivation (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004), achievement striving (Bacon & Bean, 2006), individual learning (Karakaya, Ainscough, & Chopoorian, 2001), academic performance (Borde, 1998), team learning (Hite, McIntyre, & Lynch, 2001), and cheating behavior (Chapman, Davis, Toy, & Wright, 2004). Furthermore, GPA has the potential to account for nearly half the variance in educational research models (Bloom, 1976). ...
The present study sought to determine the extent to which participation in a post-secondary honors program affected academic achievement. Archival data were collected on three cohorts of high-achieving students at a large public university. Propensity scores were calculated on factors predicting participation in honors and used as the covariate. The Johnson–Neyman technique was used to determine the values of the covariate on which the groups differed. The effect of participating in honors was greater for smaller propensity scores. The findings offer a positive outcome associated with participation for students at the lower end of the propensity score continuum, providing evidence to conclude that such programs are beneficial to a subset of high-achieving students.
... Consistent with other research showing that action-oriented individuals are able to reduce negative affect in response to negative life events (Rholes, Michas, & Shroff, 1989), repeated failure inductions (Kuhl, 1981), and problems associated with life transition when entering college (Jaramillo & Spector, 2004), Kazén et al. (2005) interpreted their findings to suggest that high self-regulatory capacity enabled the highly action-oriented individuals to respond to MS with less negative or even positive evaluations of controversial symbols representing their cultural worldview. However, Kazén et al.'s (2005) research did not reveal particular regulatory mechanisms at work in their effects. ...
... A number of studies reveal that CET performance is very important for career development (e.g. Barkume, 1998;Barr and McNeilly, 2002;Jaramillo and Spector, 2004). Employers' support can bring positive signals, and thus influence the moods of employees, whereas lack of reward or support may produce a negative mood (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). ...
Based on literature review, we posit that if employers show support to their staff by endorsing their continuous education and training (CET), these employees will be more satisfied and can perform better not only in their studies but also in their jobs as well. With the employer endorsement of continuous education and training (EECET) as the dependent variable, we investigate its relationship with six independent variables, which are employees' CET performance, motivation to learn, learner satisfaction, perceived organizational support, perceived job performance and job satisfaction. By using 276 part-time postgraduate students of two major universities in Hong Kong as our samples, our research results indicate that all these independent variables are positively related to EECET. Keywords: Employer endorsement of continuous education and training, motivation to learn, learner satisfaction, perceived organizational support, perceived job performance Introduction Many low-skilled workers are forced to be tied to stagnant jobs with low pay, poor benefits and limited opportunities for career advancement (OECD, 1998). For these workers, professional knowledge and qualification obtained through continuous education and training can be regarded as a powerful tool for gaining access to the fruit of economic development created by the knowledge economy (OECD, 1998). On the other hand, despite the trend that there is a gradual rise in levels of educational attainment, even highly skilled workers are facing the need for access to continuous education and training to meet the new challenges of the ever-changing economic and technological development. In this paper, we focus on the issue of continuous education and training (CET), which is defined by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to be the structured programs of education and training adapted to the occupational and developmental needs of persons aged 15 and older who are not in the regular school or university systems (UNESCO, 1997). This definition will exclude students who are still involved in their first or initial cycle of education.
... The ACS90 has been validated extensively in over 80 studies (see Koole et al. 2012, for a review). Throughout these studies, decisiveness has emerged as a robust predictor of how people deal with demanding conditions in controlled laboratory tasks (e.g., Koole 2006, 2007;Kazén et al. 2008) and in real-life settings such as work (Diefendorff et al. 2006;Jaramillo and Spector 2004), education (Boekaerts and Otten 1993;Diefendorff 2004), and health . ...
People vary in action versus state orientation, or the ease versus difficulty by which they can form and enact goals under demanding conditions (Kuhl and Beckmann in Volition and personality: action versus state orientation, Hogrefe, Göttingen, 1994). According to the over-maintenance hypothesis, state-oriented people are prone to think about their intentions in a narrow linguistic format that prevents flexible action control. Two studies tested this hypothesis by manipulating intention focus among action- versus state-oriented participants and examining how well they performed difficult actions. Focusing strongly (rather than weakly) on the task goal led state-oriented participants to make more errors during incongruent trials of a Stroop task (Study 1) and led to greater task-switch costs in response latencies (Study 2). Action-oriented participants showed the reverse pattern, and performed difficult actions more effectively when focusing on the task goal. These findings suggest that focusing on intentions may paradoxically impair action control among state-oriented people.
... Intrinsic motivation is closely related to the pleasure and satisfaction experienced while learning and exploring, and to the individual needs of becoming competent (Deci & Ryan, 1985). These factors in turn are related to academic performance (Jaramillho & Spector, 2004). Thus, students with a higher level of intrinsic motivation are more likely to evaluate themselves as learning a great deal in the course and having more positive feelings toward this field of study as a result of taking the course, indicators that characterize overall perceived learning. ...
Motivation should be seen as a very important factor in the learning process. The motivated student has the inner strength to learn, to discover and capitalize on capabilities, to improve academic performance and to adapt to the demands of the school context. Contextual factors like the psychological sense of school membership may be also especially important to students' classroom engagement, their motivation and learning success. So with this study we intend to examine how the sense of school belonging and intrinsic motivation influences perceived learning. A structural model reveals that the negative sense of school belonging has a negative impact on intrinsic motivation and on perceived learning. In turn, intrinsic motivation positively and significantly influences perceived learning in the course.
Creativity is not just a catch phrase for the new decade—it is a way of life. While technology-driven innovation can promote efforts to produce optimal solutions, individually driven creativity is necessary to launch and drive cutting-edge, trailblazing ideas. The goal of this study is to examine relationships between creative divergent thinking (CDT) and motivation situated within course projects as antecedents to the overall course experience. The synthesis of transformational leadership, context-dependent fixation hypothesis, strength of weak ties perspective, contagious motivation, and constructivist learning frameworks form the interdisciplinary foundation for the proposed contagious motivation and creative experience model (CMCEM). The proposed marketing classroom model is tested using a structural equation model of N = 540 marketing undergraduate students. Findings indicate that CDT is an important individual characteristic that affects classroom dynamics. Importantly, when students exhibit higher levels of CDT, they perceive higher project uniqueness, higher levels of motivation, higher other student motivation, and more positive course experiences. In addition to other findings, the CMCEM emphasizes the powerful combination of CDT, individual student motivation, the contagious nature of that motivation on other students through well-structured group projects, and the importance of instructors as transformational teachers.
This research delineates the effects of salespeople’s affective brand commitment on their brand sales effort by proposing an integrated model incorporating the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability (MOA) Theory. Using survey data collected from 136 field salespeople, the authors demonstrate that affective brand commitment not only positively influences sales effort, but also mediates the effects of salespeople’s attitude, self-efficacy, and intrinsic motivation on brand sales effort. The study also identifies an interesting three-way interaction effect of affective brand commitment, self-efficacy, and intrinsic motivation on sales effort. These results provide important implications for sales managers to develop appropriate sales force recruitment, sales training, and coaching strategies in order to improve sales performance.
Acquisition of knowledge and skills through team-based case studies is a common pedagogic approach in the strategic management courses. This study explores why some student teams perform better in case study work than others. Several variables associated with team attributes and their effects on team performance were examined. Results showed that effects of the independent variables varied in relation to subjective SA (“self-assessed”) team performance and objective EA (“expert assessed”) team performance. Except for the grade/performance orientation, other independent variables, including team process effectiveness, analytic orientation, learning orientation, and advance preparation showed a positive relationship, and diversity showed a negative relationship with subjective SA performance. In contrast, only two independent variables, advance preparation, and diversity, were related to objective performance EA; the former had a positive relationship and the latter had a negative relationship.
Purpose of the Study: This study seeks to understand the unique impact of social capital on student performance. We present hypotheses that link a student’s social capital to his/her performance on individual and group tasks. In both task settings, we posit that social capital has a curvilinear relationship (inverted U-shape) with performance, such that students’ performance is enhanced as social capital increases, but may exhibit declines if students over-invest in the initiation and development of their relationships Method/Design and Sample: We surveyed undergraduate students—primarily marketing majors—enrolled in a required upper-level business course at a private, midwestern university. Using a questionnaire, we obtained roster-based, sociometric data on interpersonal ties for all 65 students enrolled in the course. Results: The results partly support an association between a student’s social capital and his/her performance. Specifically, we find evidence that the performance-enhancing effects of social capital (1) are evident in group tasks, rather than in individual tasks; and (2) may be best conceptualized as a curvilinear effect. Value to Marketing Educators: The marketing literature exhibits a growing curiosity around the role of social networks and their impact on student effectiveness in the classroom and beyond. This study raises awareness of the unique role that a student’s social capital plays in group task performance, as well as limitations on its effectiveness. © 2015, Korean Gastric Cancer Association. All rights reserved.
Previous research investigating the link between creativity and performance has been limited. A possible explanation may be that even though an organization possesses certain levels of creativity, these attributes do not impact performance directly. This study argues that a firm's ability to take action mediates the creativity-performance relationship. It draws on organizational behavior literature to first develop an action orientation measure, establish the construct validity of that measure, and hypothesize that action orientation mediates the creativity-firm performance relationship. Doing so further establishes the criterion validity of the action orientation measure in predicting firm performance.
Existing theoretical explanations about the influence of affect in the process of creating ideas (ideation) and their corresponding empirical findings are contradictory. The purpose of the present chapter is to provide new insights by providing a theoretical explanation that is able to encompass these contradictions, and to support this theoretical approach with empirical data. We draw on personality-systems-interactions (PSI) and use an experimental design to capture dynamic effects between affect and ideation. Our findings emphasize the mediating role of affect in the ideation process and the moderating role of individual action-control in the regulation of affect and respective creative behavior.
The number of students in higher education is growing at an exponential pace. At the same time, colleges and universities must continue to explore methods to increase student satisfaction as well as meet student learning needs. An ever-increasingly popular method is to offer flexible schedules. This study investigates how undergraduate student characteristics influence student selection of either intensive (compressed) or traditional semester-long course formats. The results indicate that student age and current work status have a statistically significant influence, while student major and work experience come close, but do not significantly influence these decisions. Further, student gender, ethnicity, and educational level also have no influence on these student decisions. Our research shows that intensive business courses are more attractive to young students, age 21 to 29 with no work experience, and possibly, to business majors or minors. Our study also reports that students enrolled in compressed courses are more motivated, especially maximizing their intrinsic motivation. Our results also suggest that students from intensive courses have a higher effort, competitiveness, and stronger goal focus than students enrolled in traditional course formats.
This conceptual article explores different personality assessment tools like the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) tool and the Five-Factor Model and compares them with a relatively new instrument called PerformanSe. We discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each of these instruments commonly used for personality assessment. If understanding and predicting behaviours of people is important to academic and practitioners alike, it is equally important that they understand the strengths and weaknesses of the different personality assessment tools available to them. Understanding the limitations of the tools available curbs their perfectionist impulse and encourages them to treat these tools with a critical eye. This understanding will not only prevent practitioners from taking wrong decisions in recruiting or promoting employees, but will also save them from legal disputes.
A consensus notion in sales research is that superior performance requires high levels of effort. Studying the effect of individual and situational factors on effort has significant implications for managers and academics. This study shows that supportive leadership leads to higher salesperson effort directly and through a mediating process that involves intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy. Also, results indicate that the positive effect of supportive leadership on the salesperson’s intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy is amplified when serving demanding customers. Implications for sales managers and future research opportunities are discussed.
This article presents one educator's philosophic answer to the question “Why am I teaching?” During the course of this article, principles of servant teachership are presented. In addition, some teaching approaches used by the author are presented.
Grade point average (GPA) often correlates highly with variables of interest to educational researchers and thus offers the potential to greatly increase the statistical power of their research studies. Yet this variable is often underused in marketing education research studies. The reliability and validity of the GPA are closely examined here in a research study context. These findings are combined with other published results to offer specific recommendations and examples related to how education researchers can improve their studies with the appropriate use of GPA.
This meta-analysis examined how demand and resource correlates and behavioral and attitudinal correlates were related to each of the 3 dimensions of job burnout. Both the demand and resource correlates were more strongly related to emotional exhaustion than to either depersonalization or personal accomplishment. Consistent with the conservation of resources theory of stress, emotional exhaustion was more strongly related to the demand correlates than to the resource correlates, suggesting that workers might have been sensitive to the possibility of resource loss. The 3 burnout dimensions were differentially related to turnover intentions, organizational commitment, and control coping. Implications for research and the amelioration of burnout are discussed.
Most previous studies have focused on the linear effects of role stressors and job characteristics on salespersons' behavioral (e. g., performance) and psychological (e. g., satisfaction) job outcomes. Drawing on the theoretical frameworks of Yerkes-Dodson law, activation theory, and overstimulation hypothesis, the author examines some unconventional hypotheses of curvilinear and interactional influences of role stressors (i. e., role conflict, ambiguity, and overload) and job characteristics (i. e., autonomy, feedback, task variety, and participation) on five key job outcomes of salespeople. Using data from salespeople across a range of small and large firms, the author finds that curvilinear and/or interactional influences are supported for job tension, turnover intentions, and performance but not for job satisfaction or organizational commitment. The findings specifically indicate support for the overstimulation hypothesis because the dysfunctional effects of role ambiguity tend to be amplified when autonomy, feedback, and task variety are increased. In addition, the results yield evidence of buffering effects because the adverse consequences of role conflict and overload appear to be buffered by task variety and feedback. Overall, the study highlights the inherent trade-offs for sales managers attempting to design jobs with positive job characteristics for salespersons facing high levels of role stressors. The author discusses the implications for theory and practice.
Burnout is a unique type of stress syndrome, characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished personal accomplishment. Although burnout has been shown to be potentially very costly in the helping professions, such as nursing, education, and social work, little work has been done thus far to establish its generalizability to industry. This article reviews the literature on burnout and provides a conceptual framework designed to improve the understanding of burnout. Propositions are presented that are aimed at clarifying the dynamics of burnout, including determinants of and interrelationships among the three burnout components.
Previous research and meta-analyses suggest that the influence of organizational variables on boundary role stress processes is weak and marginal. Using the emerging work in organizational practices and configurations, the authors reexamine this relationship by addressing three critical gaps: (1) conceptualizing organizational environment as a multidimensonal practices construct, (2) operationatizing the organizational environment as configurations or combinations of practices dimensions, and (3) testing for direct and moderating hypotheses. The results reveal that organizational practices matter significantly in boundary role stress processes. The findings show that procedural environments are dysfunctional because they engender higher levels of role stressors, reduce performance, and negatively affect the psychological well-being of boundary spanners. In contrast, the achievement and affective-oriented environments involve distinct trade-offs, because none is clearly superior. The authors discuss the theoretical implications for further research and provide recommendations for managerial practice.
Traditionally, students in large sections perform worse in terms of content knowledge than those in small sections. In addition, research has shown that students with different learning styles perform differently in the same classroom. This study shows that these effects may be minimized by the extensive use of multimedia technology in the classroom.
A new measure of motivation toward education has been developed in French, namely the ''Echelle de Motivation en Education'' (EME). The EME is based on the tenets of self-determination theory and is composed of seven subscales assessing three types of intrinsic motivation (intrinsic motivation to know, to accomplish things, and to experience stimulation), three types of extrinsic motivation (external, introjected, and identified regulation), and amotivation. Extensive data support the reliability and validity of the EME. The EME has been translated recently in English. Initial data provided support for the reliability (internal consistency and temporal stability) and factorial validity of the English version of the scale now termed the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS). However, the concurrent and construct validity of the AMS has not been assessed. Such was the purpose of the current study. The subjects were 217 junior-college students who completed the AMS, other motivation-related constructs, as well as variables assessing motivational determinants and consequences. The concurrent validity of the AMS was assessed by correlating its subscales with known motivational scales, while the construct validity was ascertained through a series of correlational analyses among the seven AMS subscales, as well as between these scales and other psychological constructs deemed to represent motivational antecedents and consequences. Findings provided support for the concurrent and construct validity of the AMS. Future directions concerning the use of the AMS in theoretical and applied research are proposed.
Because most previous studies on college student performance have focused on conventional learning environments in Western cultures, in this study the authors evaluated factors related to student performance in the open and distance-learning environment in Hong Kong. Using two-way cross-tabulations with chi-square testing and equality of academic performance by proposed factors, the authors examined 168 students in a distance-learning business communication course. Results show that tutorial attendance, gender, relevant academic background, previous academic achievement, and relevant learning experience were related to student performance. The results are mostly similar to those of prior studies despite differences in culture, teaching mode, and subject.
Student characteristics may affect academic performance, but little research exists on the determinants of student performance in undergraduate marketing courses. For a variety of reasons, this is an important issue to students, educators, administrators, and other constituents of institutions of higher education. Using OLS regression analysis on a sample of 349 undergraduate students of marketing in a public university, the model explains about 40% of a typical student's grade, and the results of this study show that a student's grade point average, academic origin, and employment commitments may be good predictors of student performance in this course.
Investigates the antecedents and outcomes of salesperson burnout. Prior research on burnout in personal selling is extended by including a more complete set of predictors of burnout, and by testing the conceptual model of burnout using a multi-company sample of field salespeople in an international setting. Relationships among burnout, attitudes, and behavior are predicted based on relevant literature, and are tested using survey results from 148 field salespeople in Australia. Path analysis results show that the proposed conceptual model fits the data well. Intrinsic motivation, role ambiguity, and role conflict are all significant antecedents of burnout. Job satisfaction and salesperson performance are direct outcomes of burnout, and also mediate the indirect influence of burnout on organizational commitment and intention to leave. Implications for salesforce management and future research are discussed.
To understand mechanisms that govern the productivity and quality of frontline employees (FLEs), this study (1) provides a conceptual distinction between frontline productivity and quality, (2) proposes an extended role theory-based model for mapping the influence of key antecedents and consequences of FLE productivity and quality, and (3) examines the effects of coping resources - boss support and task control - in helping employees cope with the inherent productivity-quality tension in frontline jobs. Using data from 159 customer service and 147 bill collection representatives, the author examines proposed hypotheses through multiple-group path analysis. The results indicate support for the distinction between productivity and quality. Moreover, with increasing burnout levels, FLEs are found to maintain their productivity levels while their quality deteriorates directly. Relative to boss support, task control emerges as a more powerful resource in aiding FLEs in coping with role tension. Key implications for theory and practice regarding FLE management and effectiveness are discussed.
Previous research has focused on salespeople's motivation to work harder. An important but neglected aspect of salespeople's motivation is their desire to improve the direction in which they work, termed “working smarter.” Using an attributional perspective, the author examines factors that differentially influence these two components of motivation.
This position paper argues that current knowledge of the determinants of motivation and performance in industrial selling is woefully inadequate. As a first step toward improving this situation, the authors offer a conceptual model which identifies a set of individual, interpersonal, organizational, and environmental variables that may influence a salesman's motivation and job performance. The model incorporates many constructs and research findings from industrial psychology and other disciplines, but its primary purpose is to provide a conceptual framework and some specific hypotheses to help guide future empirical research in sales management.
Previous research and meta-analyses suggest that the influence of organizational variables on boundary role stress processes is weak and marginal. Using the emerging work in organizational practices and configurations, the authors reexamine this relationship by addressing three critical gaps: (1) conceptualizing organizational environment as a multidimensional practices construct, (2) operationalizing the organizational environment as configurations or combinations of practices dimensions, and (3) testing for direct and moderating hypotheses. The results reveal that organizational practices matter significantly in boundary role stress processes. The findings show that procedural environments are dysfunctional because they engender higher levels of role stressors, reduce performance, and negatively affect the psychological well-being of boundary spanners. In contrast, the achievement and affective-oriented environments involve distinct trade-offs, because none is clearly superior. The authors discuss the theoretical implications for further research and provide recommendations for managerial practice.
The authors address a fundamental gap in understanding how sales performance and job satisfaction are determined in an investigation of the sales force of a direct-selling organization. Results indicate a direct positive effect of work-related effort on job satisfaction that is not mediated by sales performance. This is inconsistent with commonly accepted theoretical models and suggests that the perspective of work as a “terminal value” (i.e., an end in itself, rather than strictly a means to an end) has been underemphasized in models of work behavior. As such, either (1) measures of sales performance should be broadened to encompass the terminal value perspective on the psychological value of work or (2) conceptual models should be revised to reflect that narrowly defined measures of sales performance do not completely mediate the effect of effort on job satisfaction. The authors conclude with a discussion of managerial implications of these findings.
The authors examine the relationships among performance, causal attribution, and the expectancy component of sales force motivation through the measurement and manipulation of components of a proposed conceptual framework. They conducted one field survey, two laboratory experiments, and one field experiment to test hypothesized effects. The results generally support the hypotheses, indicating that causal attributions can either raise or lower expectancy, depending on certain underlying conditions. The results also suggest that salespeople's prior experience may moderate the effect of attribution on expectancy change. These findings have important implications for sales managers as coaches and trainers.
Most previous studies have focused on the linear effects of role stressors and job characteristics on salespersons’ behavioral (e.g., performance) and psychological (e.g., satisfaction) job outcomes. Drawing on the theoretical frameworks of Yerkes-Dodson law, activation theory, and overstimulation hypothesis, the author examines some unconventional hypotheses of curvilinear and interactional influences of role stressors (i.e., role conflict, ambiguity, and overload) and job characteristics (i.e., autonomy, feedback, task variety, and participation) on five key job outcomes of salespeople. Using data from salespeople across a range of small and large firms, the author finds that curvilinear and/or interactional influences are supported for job tension, turnover intentions, and performance but not for job satisfaction or organizational commitment. The findings specifically indicate support for the overstimulation hypothesis because the dysfunctional effects of role ambiguity tend to be amplified when autonomy, feedback, and task variety are increased. In addition, the results yield evidence of buffering effects because the adverse consequences of role conflict and overload appear to be buffered by task variety and feedback. Overall, the study highlights the inherent trade-offs for sales managers attempting to design jobs with positive job characteristics for salespersons facing high levels of role stressors. The author discusses the implications for theory and practice.
I love to teach and feel a call to teach. Teachers should have a passion to teach and communicate. Teachers should be fired-up, not burned out. Care and concern for the students are what motivate me and make teaching enjoyable. This is also important from a student’s perspective as knowing that you care precedes caring about what you know.
The authors examined academic task persistence, pretask expectancies, self-evaluations, and attributions of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as compared with control boys. Participants were 83 ADHD boys and 66 control boys, all normally achieving. Prior to the task, performance expectancies were assessed. After a success-failure manipulation with find-a-word puzzles, performance on subsequent trials, self-evaluations, and attributions were evaluated. Compared with controls, ADHD boys solved fewer test puzzles, quit working more often, and found fewer words on a generalization task. Consistent with these behavioral findings, research assistants rated ADHD boys as less effortful and less cooperative than control boys. Although ADHD boys did not differ significantly from controls in their posttask self-evaluations, they did differ significantly from controls in some aspects of their attributions. Attributional data indicated that ADHD boys endorsed luck as a reason for success more strongly and lack of effort as a reason for failure less strongly than controls.
The volume of literature that is available discusses the positive effects of time management, but little empirical research has been undertaken to support these claims (Macan 1994). A sample of 164 business students was used to determine the relationships between perceived control of time and academic performance as well as stress. Results showed significant relationships among the study variables providing initial support for some of the claims of time management. Study implications and direction for future research are also discussed.
This article reports on meta-analyses of the relations of self-efficacy beliefs to academic performance and persistence. Results revealed positive and statistically significant relationships between self-efficacy beliefs and academic performance and persistence outcomes across a wide variety of subjects, experimental designs, and assessment methods. The relationships were found to be heterogeneous across studies, and the variance in reported effect sizes was partially explained by certain study characteristics. Implications for further research and for intervention are discussed.
Student motivation as an academic enabler for school success is discussed. Contrary to many views, however, the authors conceive of student motivation as a multifaceted construct with different components. Accordingly, the article includes a discussion of four key components of student motivation including academic self-efficacy, attributions, intrinsic motivation, and achievement goals. Research on each of these four components is described, research relating these four components to academic achievement and other academic enablers is reviewed, and suggestions are offered for instruction and assessment.
Previous research has focused on salespeople's motivation to work harder. An important but neglected aspect of salespeople's motivation is their desire to improve the direction in which they work, termed "working smarter." Using an attributional perspective, the author examines factors that differentially influence these two components of motivation.
In an effort to clarify the literature on work exhaustion (or job burnout), I integrate causal attribution research and the burnout and exhaustion literature to develop an attributional model of work exhaustion consequences. With this model I suggest that individuals experiencing work exhaustion will not exhibit all of the job attitudes and behaviors found to correlate with exhaustion. Rather, individuals are likely to experience a subset of these, depending on their perceptions regarding the cause of exhaustion. I also discuss implications and directions for future research.
This position paper argues that current knowledge of the determinants of motivation and performance in industrial selling is woefully inadequate. As a first step toward improving this situation, the authors offer a conceptual model which identifies a set of individual, interpersonal, organizational, and environmental variables that may influence a salesman's motivation and job performance. The model incorporates many constructs and research findings from industrial psychology and other disciplines, but its primary purpose is to provide a conceptual framework and some specific hypotheses to help guide future empirical research in sales management.
The authors examine the relationships among performance, causal attribution, and the expectancy component of sales force motivation through the measurement and manipulation of components of a proposed conceptual framework. They conducted one field survey, two laboratory experiments, and one field experiment to test hypothesized effects. The results generally support the hypotheses, indicating that causal attributions can either raise or lower expectancy, depending on certain underlying conditions. The results also suggest that salespeople's prior experience may moderate the effect of attribution on expectancy change. These findings have important implications for sales managers as coaches and trainers.
Learning and performance goal orientations, two motivational orientations that guide salespeople's behavior, are related to working smart and hard. Working smart is defined as the engagement in activities that serve to develop knowledge of sales situations and utilize this knowledge in selling behavior. It is found that a learning goal orientation motivates working both smart and hard, whereas a performance goal orientation motivates only working hard. The goal orientations also are found to be alterable through supervisory feedback. Furthermore, self-efficacy, sales-people's confidence in their overall selling abilities, is found to moderate some of the relationships with the goal orientations.
This study contributes to the efforts to integrate work commitment constructs into the long-dominant expectancy theory framework of salesforce motivation and performance. Responses were gathered from 231 industrial salespeople in order to: 1) provide evidence concerning discriminant and convergent validity of two measures of work commitment and 2) distinguish expectancy and commitment constructs; and investigate the relationships between motivation, commitment, and two important outcomes—effort and performance. The results of the study indicate that conceptual and empirical differences do exist between commitment variables and expectancy-based motivation variables. Job commitment and extrinsic motivation are found to be related to salesperson effort, which in turn is related to salesperson performance.
A number of factors have been identified as important to the retention and success of minority students in American higher education. Foremost among these factors are college experience variables like academic integration and social integration. The purpose of this study was to model the relationship between college experience and academic performance for minority students enrolled in an American institution of higher learning. Using structural equation modeling techniques, a model of the college experience consistent with past research was proposed and tested. The results provide support for the proposed model. Implications of the findings for improving research and practice in the field of educational management are outlined.
The authors address a fundamental gap in understanding how sales performance and job satisfaction are determined in an investigation of the sales force of a direct-selling organization. Results indicate a direct positive effect of work-related effort on job satisfaction that is not mediated by sales performance. This is inconsistent with commonly accepted theoretical models and suggests that the perspective of work as a ''terminal value'' (i.e., an end in itself, rather than strictly a means to an end) has been underemphasized in models of work behavior. As such, either (1) measures of sales performance should be broadened to encompass the terminal value perspective on the psychological value of work or (2) conceptual models should be revised to reflect that narrowly defined measures of sales performance do not completely mediate the effect of effort on job satisfaction. The authors conclude with a discussion of managerial implications of these findings.
As team projects become ever more common in business and in the marketing classroom, an increased understanding of factors contributing to team effectiveness is necessary for instructors to assist students in realizing the potential benefits of this pedagogical tool. Drawing from a wide base of literature on team research, the authors develop an input-process-output model of team effectiveness. Using data from 85 teams from marketing classes, this model was tested. Results support the positive and direct role of cohesion as an input variable on the process variable of team work. Additional relationships are explored, and the implications of the research findings are discussed with practical suggestions for the marketing classroom.
This article discusses student management groups (SMGs) and explains how these groups help stimulate class interaction and enhance student motivation to learn. After reviewing the concepts of motivation and immediacy, the article discusses how SMGs reduce perceived student-professor distance and encourage students to become more intrinsically motivated by participating in class governance issues. Presented next are the results of three studies. The first study examines qualitative feedback gathered from students and evaluates several benefits and drawbacks associated with using SMGs. A second study uses an experimental design to test the effects of SMGs on anticipated motivation across different class types. Finally, the third study reports feedback from professors to gauge their reactions to the SMG process. Research implications and suggestions for implementing SMGs are also discussed.
The skills that develop competence in a particular area are often the same skills needed to evaluate competence in that area. When people are unable to judge their own achievement, they are in a double bind; they have neither a particular skill nor the cognitive ability to realize their own level of incompetence. If students are unaware of their poor performance on tests, they are unlikely to realize their limitations. Correspondingly, the high performers may not recognize their ability to be successful. This study tests students’ self-recognized competence by having them estimate the grade they expected to receive on a test immediately following its completion. Poorer students significantly overestimated their performance; better students underestimated their performance. Poorer students became better estimators over time, while there was no similar improvement in better students’ self-assessments.
Marketing students represent their years of undergraduate education with resumes, which along with interviews, become the process recruiters use to assess student employability. This article reviews research on resume development and presents a study that examines recruiters’ comments about the value they place on experience in and out of the classroom. Most recruiters indicate that internships, part-time jobs, and leadership positions in university organizations are better indicators of employability than classroom experiences. Recent changes in marketing/business pedagogy have led to more classes in which active learning approaches with client projects, field experiences, and skill-building activities are used. It is a concern that recruiters are unaware of, or pay little attention to, these classroom experiences where real-world knowledge and skill sare developed. Suggestions are made regarding how to include more business-relevant skill development into our classrooms and how to communicate these classroom changes to both studentsand recruiters.
Undergraduate business students were surveyed to identify their general preferences for learning and testing environments. A factor analysis of survey responses suggested three preference dimensions. Students held varying preferences for learning involving (a) discrete facts, (b) quick and easy problems, and (c) new and ambiguous situations. A preference for quick and easy problems distinguished between poor and good performers on an unstructured case. However, students' preferences did not differentiate performance on structured multiple-choice exams.
The comparative effectiveness of three pedagogical techniques (use of a chalkboard, use of an overhead projector, and use of computer-projected software) was examined. The study involved students in three financial accounting principles classes at one university. Each student was exposed to each method for one third of the semester, and all completed daily quizzes plus midterm and final exams. The results of the study provide no evidence of overall differences in student learning among the three methods. Learning, however, was found to be related to students' preferences for pedagogical method—that is, exam grades were higher when students' preferred methods were used in the classroom.
Total SAT score, average grade earned in high school, and 32 personality variables are examined via forward multiple regression analyses to identify the best combination for predicting GPA in a sample of 201 psychology students. Average grade earned in high school enters first, accounting for 19% of the variance in GPA. Self-control enters second, and SAT third; these account for 9% and 5% of the variance, respectively. No other predictors accounted for substantial portions of variance. This pattern of results converges with findings reported by other investigators using other measures of personality. It was recommended that the global trait of self-control or conscientiousness be systematically assessed and used in college admissions decisions.
The data presented here on 1993 college graduates show 92% were in the labor force and 26% in continuing education one year after graduation. Charts depict employment by major field: biological sciences, business/management, education, engineering, health care, history, humanities, math/physical sciences, psychology, public affairs, and social sciences. (SK)