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Claude Bernard and the Constancy of the Internal Environment
Abstract
Claude Bernard (1813-1878) was the founder of modern experimental physiology and one of the most famous French scientists of all time. Although he is particularly remem bered today for his concept of the constancy of the internal environment, this idea had no impact in his lifetime. This article considers his achievements and some possible reasons for the delay in understanding his ideas about the internal environment. NEURO SCIENTIST 4:380-385, 1998
... Homeostasis: (Greek, homeo: same; stasis: remain in steady state). A French physiologist, Claud Bernard in 1849, proposed the existence of an intra-body mechanism (internal environment) that strengthens the ability to stabilize the physiological and psychological responsive interactions in an organism independent of environmental changes (Gross Charles G, 1998). This is a self-regulatory process which concerns with maintenance of a 'regulated stable internal physiological functionality' even if the external environment shows fluctuations. ...
ABSTRACT : The physiological dynamic steady-state is a characteristic feature of an organisms. Deviation from this steadystate reflects on the molecular, biochemical, physiological, psychological, disorders in the organism. This is inbuilt processwhich orchestrate the dynamic steady-state in an organism may it be microscopic or macroscopic. This feature helps insurviving the adverse and unfavourable conditions. Allostasis, homeostasis are heterostatsis are the endogenous processesconcerning with internal physiological functional stability in an organism. These processes play major role to carry out the lifeprocess within the limits of specific size, shape of cells, tissues, organs and symmetrical organization of a biosystem. Thispresentation briefly illustrates this self-regulated dynamic steady state and its physiological and biological implication
(PDF) DYNAMIC STEADY STATE, SENESCENCE AND IMPACT OF NANOPARTICLES. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389024753_DYNAMIC_STEADY_STATE_SENESCENCE_AND_IMPACT_OF_NANOPARTICLES [accessed Feb 15 2025].
... Changes belong to the essence of life, but simultaneously, the organism and its cells must preserve their identity. We must state that restoring the original concentration of each intracellular and extracellular ion is inevitably crucial from the point of view of maintaining health (Gross, 1998). ...
The discovery of intracellular and extracellular ion compartments and cell membrane functions opened the possibility of extending Claude Bernard's theory to the intracellular ion milieu. By contrast, many misconceptions have become dominant due to underestimating the role of ions. The intracellular ion patterns characteristic of tissues were created during the species' phylogeny and are genetically determined. The concentrations of ion components are sensed by specific tissular ion sensors and maintained at a constant level by different ion exchangers and transporters, and these are often under hormonal control. So, the intracellular ion levels are also the equipment for humoral-hormonal regulation; they are second messengers. The author points out that maintaining the constancy of carbon dioxide is especially important because CO2 is one of the most decisive
signalling molecules, among others, a mediator that connects bodily and soul functions. The pCO2 level also interacts with intracellular pH, Ca2+, H2PO4- and HPO4-- ions. Exactly said, the intracellular ion pattern, as a whole, has a primary signalling function.
Chronic stress changes the intracellular ion patterns, increasing or decreasing the pCO2 level. According to the author, chronic parasympathetic stress results in durable slight hypercapnia and an increased HCO3-/Cl- ratio, which could lead to Metabolic Syndrome. Chronic sympathetic stress results in long-lasting or repetitive hypocapnia, decreasing the HCO3-/Cl- ratio, and could induce hyperarousal mental disorders. These functional alterations could remain reversible for decades.
However, at around 50, the organism starts to get exhausted, and chronic respiratory alkalosis — induced by chronic sympathetic stress — may transform into metabolic acidosis. (Hypothesis.) This ion milieu is more stable because it requires less energy to maintain the balance. At the same time, the kidneys become reactor organs. The background of these stress-induced age-related diseases is the threatening intracellular acidosis and the organism's fighting against it. With chronic hyper- vs hypocapnia, the humoral counter-regulation cannot fulfil its function correctly and can result in (among others) salt-sensitive vs salt-resistant hypertension, respectively. Preserving the original ion pattern is essential but impossible without euventilation. We could control respiration (pCO2 level) and stress by administering H2PO4- and HPO4-- ion salts. The lifespan correlates with the Body Cell
Mass (BCM), which we should maintain as long as possible.
... IAs are low-molecular weight, non-polar, and hydrophobic in structure [34]. Claude Bernard first proposed a connection between IAs and protein function following his discovery that exposure to chloroform caused cessation of cytoplasmic movement within amoeba [35]. In 1901, Meyer and Overton published their findings that the potency of IAs was correlated with their solubility in non-polar solvents, implying that their anesthetic action results from interactions at lipophilic sites [36]. ...
The development of inhaled anesthetics (IAs) has a rich history dating back many centuries. In modern times they have played a pivotal role in anesthesia and critical care by allowing deep sedation during periods of critical illness and surgery. In addition to their sedating effects, they have many systemic effects allowing for therapy beyond surgical anesthesia. In this narrative review we chronicle the evolution of IAs, from early volatile agents such as ether to the contemporary use of halogenated hydrocarbons. This is followed by a discussion of the mechanisms of action of these agents which primarily involve the modulation of lipid membrane properties and ion channel activity. IAs’ systemic effects are also examined, including their effects on the cardiovascular, respiratory, hepatic, renal and nervous systems. We discuss of the role of IAs in treating systemic disease processes including ischemic stroke, delayed cerebral ischemia, status epilepticus, status asthmaticus, myocardial ischemia, and intensive care sedation. We conclude with a review of the practical and logistical challenges of utilizing IAs outside the operating room as well as directions for future research. This review highlights the expanding clinical utility of IAs and their evolving role in the management of a diverse range of disease processes, offering new avenues for therapeutic exploration beyond anesthesia.
... Artistas tentam representar a natureza humana e seus sofrimentos, mas de modo grupal: não podem fazê-lo, nem se interessam por isso, voltados para indivíduos enquanto estão sendo artistas; nem ajudar pessoas especificamente, em que pesem argumentações advocatícias sobre o "papel social da arte". De qualquer modo, sendo papel, trata-se de representação, e não apresentação (Flavell, 1984 (Freud, 1910 (Gross, 1998). É um aparato psíquico capaz de apreender realidades materializadas e imateriais; que funciona segundo dois princípios (do prazer-desprazer e da realidade) e três sistemas (consciente, pré-consciente e inconsciente); e que a realidade é material e psíquica: "duas formas diferentes" de uma mesma "existência", ou seja, da mesma realidade (Freud, 1900(Freud, /1953a). ...
The present study tries to isolate and describe two of the methods that all of us, human beings, have at our disposal to elaborate approximations toward material and psychic reality; and follows on focusing, specifically, W.R.Bion’s contributions to psychoanalysis. The two methods are: science and art. They were developed in the last two thousand years. Both were elaborated under different vertices, originating from the same human need, qualified by Aristotle - a physician, member of a respected Greek family of physicians - as an “urgency to know”. Both methods were equally valued by Freud, with no superiority given to none, but is is clear that he qualified psychoanalysis as a scientific activity. He reserved to art at least three auxiliary functions: inspirational; communicative and illustrative, in the form of metaphorical and metonymic analogies. A fundamental difference between science and art, as far they concern to psychoanalysis, is that the two former have a basic and primarily group function; in obverse, psychoanalysis, a heir to medicine, has a basic and primarily individual function. Namely: attention and care for the sufferings and vicissitudes that typify human nature.Science and Art also provided at least two basic tools to the psychoanalytic practice: (i) self-criticism; (ii) verbal formulations. The article describes the literary and poetic sources that inspired, illustrated and helped Bion to communicate his work, in written form, through verbal formulations.
... The skin is a key organ, serving as a chemical, physical, and immune barrier between the internal milieu and the external environment [1][2][3]. It serves as a permeability barrier to sustain terrestrial life, preventing excessive water loss, while protecting the body from various insults, from mechanical to microbial to oxidative. ...
An intact barrier function of the skin is important in maintaining skin health. The regulation of the skin barrier depends on a multitude of molecular and immunological signaling pathways. By examining the regulation of a healthy skin barrier, including maintenance of the acid mantle and appropriate levels of ceramides, dermatologists can better formulate solutions to address issues that are related to a disrupted skin barrier. Conversely, by understanding specific skin barrier disruptions that are associated with specific conditions, such as atopic dermatitis or psoriasis, the development of new compounds could target signaling pathways to provide more effective relief for patients. We aim to review key factors mediating skin barrier regulation and inflammation, including skin acidity, interleukins, nuclear factor kappa B, and sirtuin 3. Furthermore, we will discuss current and emerging treatment options for skin barrier conditions.
... As Lee explains, "the aim of physiology is to elucidate the factors that maintain homeostasis" (Lee, 2019). This triumph of 20th-century biology stems from an insight by Claude Bernard (1865) pertaining to the operational requisite for organisms to maintain the body's internal environment-or as French histologist Charles Robin coined, the "milieu de l'intérieur"-within certain functional ranges via coordinated and compensatory dynamics (Dautrebande and Haldane, 1921;Gross, 1998). Decades later, American physician and biologist Walter Cannon incorporated Ernest Starling's notion of the "wisdom of the body" (see Zajicek, 1999) with Robin and Bernard's "milieu intérieur" to formalize the principle of homeostasis as "a self-regulating process by which an organism can maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing external conditions" (Cannon, 1929). ...
Comprised of the sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, and enteric nervous system, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) provides the neural control of all parts of the body except for skeletal muscles. The ANS has the major responsibility to ensure that the physiological integrity of cells, tissues, and organs throughout the entire body is maintained (homeostasis) in the face of perturbations exerted by both the external and internal environments. Many commonly prescribed drugs, over‐the‐counter drugs, toxins, and toxicants function by altering transmission within the ANS. Autonomic dysfunction is a signature of many neurological diseases or disorders. Despite the physiological relevance of the ANS, most neuroscience textbooks offer very limited coverage of this portion of the nervous system. This review article provides both historical and current information about the anatomy, physiology, and pharmacology of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS. The ultimate aim is for this article to be a valuable resource for those interested in learning the basics of these two components of the ANS and to appreciate its importance in both health and disease. Other resources should be consulted for a thorough understanding of the third division of the ANS, the enteric nervous system. © 2016 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 6:1239‐1278, 2016.
Until the mid-seventeenth century, there were only a handful of active drugs in the entire medical pharmacopoia: opium, belladonna, foxglove, willow bark, some cathartics, and antiparasitics. All others were either placebos or nocebos; therefore, most of those who were cured did so believing in the therapeutic effect of the concoctions they consumed, but above all trusting in the experience and word of the doctor or healer who supplied them.
Even today, in the most developed population centers of the world, there is a high percentage of cancer patients who use alternative treatments, based on their belief in the testimonies of those who apply them.
The placebo effect is one of the most extensively studied and most consistently demonstrated medical phenomena throughout the history of medicine.
The doctor and his word are the first placebo that the patient encounters, but unfortunately sometimes it turns out to be a nocebo.
This essay has two goals. The first is to define the behavioristic study of natural events and to classify behavior. The second is to stress the importance of the concept of purpose.
Given any object, relatively abstracted from its surroundings for study, the behavioristic approach consists in the examination of the output of the object and of the relations of this output to the input. By output is meant any change produced in the surroundings by the object. By input, conversely, is meant any event external to the object that modifies this object in any manner.
Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772) was a famous Swedish religious thinker and mystic He also wrote extensively on brain function Many of his writings on the brain remained unpublished for 100 years or more, none had any effect on the development of neuro science Yet they contain many extraordinary insights that did not recur until late in the 19th century. He was particularly prescient about the functions of the cerebral cortex, the corpus callosum, and the pituitary gland This article reviews Swedenborg's ideas on the brain in the context of 18th century knowledge and considers where they came from and why they were ignored NEUROSCIENTIST 3 142-147, 1997
La santé d'une discipline scientifique exige, de la part du savant, une certaine inquiétude méthodologique. H. L. Marrou, De la connaissance historique.