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Applying an Eliasian Approach to Organizational Analysis
Abstract
The central focus of the article is managing change in the National Health Service (NHS). In particular, it uses the implementation of general management (see the Griffiths Report, 1983) to explore the value of the process-sociological approach for understanding a number of unintended outcomes associated with this change. Elias is not a sociologist associated with the study of the NHS, or indeed the management of change, yet it is argued his approach has much to offer in exploring change in complex organizations such as the NHS. The article is organized as three sections. First, the central elements of a figurational approach are discussed and used to explore existing studies of change in the NHS. Second, the article applies a figurational approach to the study of the implementation of general management. Here the value of Elias's game models is explored in some detail. Finally, Elias's contribution to the study of complex social change is critically assessed.
... Research into sport organizations is also dominated by examination of the structural dimensions of organizational change, including, for example, the extensive volume of research conducted on Canadian national sport organizations (see Thibault & Babiak, 2005 for a summary) and by institutional theories, for example O'Brien and Slack (1999Slack ( , 2003Slack ( , 2004 in their examination of the organizational changes within the Rugby Football Union (RFU), which arose as a result of a conformity to the institutional pressures from within their external environment. The problem with such simplistic and reductionist approaches is that they reify organizations as if they have a life of their own, and in doing so, isolate the organization from the people that inhabit them (Dopson, 2001;Elias, 1978). By reinforcing a lineation change in structure, these approaches offer limited value to those practitioners who are responsible for managing change, and as relevant to this research, by the front-line staff responsible for implementing policy on the ground. ...
... Importantly, Van Krieken (1998, p. 45) argues "societies are networks of human beings in the round, not a medley of disembodied actions". Figurational sociology has grown into an influential framework within the field of sociology of sport (Malcolm & Mansfield, 2013) and increasingly, the study of organizational analysis by offering a more adequate understanding of the dynamic and processual nature of organizational change (Dopson, 2001(Dopson, , 2005Van Krieken, 2019). There are numerous accounts of figurational sociology and, thus, this article will only provide a brief overview. ...
... Four inter-related concepts have been embedded within this research to offer an alternative approach to examining organizational change by allowing the inherent dynamic and processual nature of human relationships to be more adequately analyzed. The first concept is the building block of figurational sociology, the figuration, which develops as people connect together to form relationships, or as Elias termed them, interdependencies between each other and as a collective network (Bloyce et al., 2008;Dopson, 2001;Dopson & Waddington, 1996;Elias, 1978). For SDOs, this means that they can be situated within several figurations at multiple levels and form numerous interdependencies with internal colleagues and external partners, such as club officials, to achieve their goals. ...
Research question: This article examines how sport development officers (SDOs) employed within national governing bodies of sport (NGB) managed Sport England’s top-down policy changes from 2008 to 2015. The main research question examines the experiences of SDOs as they responded to, and managed these changes at the community level.
Research methods: In-depth, semi-structured interviews gathered qualitative data from 18 employees from four NGBs, including 6 SDOs, Chief Executive Officers (CEOs), senior managers and a representative from Sport England, with responsibility for policy formulation.
Results and Findings: SDOs felt increasingly constrained in how they worked due to the intensification of a top-down and cyclical process of change, a result-orientated approach and the sporting habitus of SDOs. These factors combined to create resistance among some SDOs as the power differentials within the interdependencies formed, which contributed to the unintentional outcome of elongating the time taken to implement policy on the ground.
Implications: This article has developed more object-adequate insights into how SDOs have responded to, and managed top-down policy implementation. The article suggests recommendations for policy-makers, Sport England and NGBs, to consider the dynamic interdependencies in which employees are bound and a more rounded and processual view to policy formulation and implementation
... Although Elias' ideas have been taken up by organizational scholars and sociologists previously (Bogner, 1987;Burkitt, 1996Burkitt, , 1999Dopson, 2001Dopson, , 2005Layder, 1986;Newton, 2001Newton, , 2003Newton, , 2004Newton, , 2010Smith, 2001;Van Iterson, Mastenbroek, and Soeters, 2001;Van Iterson et al., 2002) both to support and critique them, his work is still not widely adopted in the- orizing about organizational life. In particular I will pay attention to a number of paradoxes that Elias frames to describe the stable instability of social life, and how it is possible for both order and disorder, routine and novelty to arise at the same time. ...
... As examples of work which more directly address power and figura- tions, Dopson (2001) adopts Eliasian game theory explicitly in her analy- sis of change in the National Health Service. Power figurations also inform both Stacey's work (2009,2012) and that of Mowles (2011). ...
... Even where figurational analysis has been applied to the study of organisations, the trend has been for studies that are present-orientated or based on the recent past (e.g. Dopson 2001Dopson , 2005; Dopson and Waddington 1996; Vidar Hanstead, Smith and Waddington 2008), which has tended to diminish the significance of long-term historical processes. We begin by outlining some of the core theoretical constructs from Elias's work upon which we draw. ...
... Newton 2001;van Iterson, Mastenbroek, and Soeters 2001); empirically informed study remains scant, despite some notable exceptions (e.g. Dopson 2001Dopson , 2005Dopson and Waddington 1996;Newton 2004). And while Dopson (2001) correctly points out that all figurations are socially and historically produced and reproduced webs of interdependencies, few papers tend to adopt Elias's (2000) approach of historical analysis and synthesis to the study of figurational dynamics. ...
In this paper we develop aspects of Elias's figurational approach within organisational studies by using some of the core theoretical constructs as a model to explain organisational change through an empirical investigation of the dynamics of centralisation- decentralisation processes in an Irish sports organisation. Based on historical analysis, the paper documents the expanding interdependencies, figurational dynamics and shifting power balances which led to a gradual, non-linear movement towards greater integration and centralisation within the organisation.
... Emphasizing social life as a process, Elias's (2009Elias's ( [1997) figurational sociology prioritizes figurations of humans -defined as networks of interdependent individuals in continuous transformation -as key to understanding the human condition by overcoming the 'imaginary gap between the individual and society' (Quintaneiro, 2006: 57). Figurational sociology conceives of human relations as emergent, contingent processes, fundamentally dynamic, and constantly changing (Dopson, 2001), where 'temporary stability' is the norm (Elias, 1997: 371). Elias's interest in migration was triggered by his background. ...
How can we better understand the puzzle of low-skilled migrants who have acquired citizenship in a European Union (EU) country, often with generous social security provision, choosing to relocate to the United Kingdom (UK)? Drawing on Elias’s figurational theory as a lens, we explore how relational interdependencies foster the mobility of low-skilled African European Citizens (AECs) from EU states to the UK. We found that AECs rely on ‘piblings networks’, loose affiliations of putative relatives, to compensate for deficits in their situated social capital, facilitating relocation. The temporary stability afforded by impermanent bonds and transient associations, in constant flux in migrant communities, does not preclude integration but paradoxically promotes it by enabling an ease of connection and disconnection. Our study elucidates how these relational networks offer AECs opportunities to achieve labour market integration, exercise self-efficacy, and realize desired futures; anchoring individuals in existing communities even when they are perpetually transforming.
... Embora a sociologia atual já tenha incorporado parte do pensamento e da forma de operar de Norbert Elias, ao que parece o campo de estudos organizacionais ainda é carente de suas contribuições, ao menos no Brasil. Mesmo em publicações internacionais no campode língua inglesa em particular -, o aporte de Elias parece ser pouco explorado 3 , podendo-se destacar, a título de ilustração, a edição especial de 2001, do periódico Organization, que traz quatro artigos sob a perspectiva de Norbert Elias: i) Newton (2001) discute a relevância e as limitações de Elias, a partir da relação entre os conceitos de poder, interdependência e subjetividade, em que indica pontos de contato com alguns campos da análise organizacional; tais como estratégia, violência e emoções nas organizações, dentre outros, bem como aponta proximidades com análises organizacionais que tenham como foco Foucault, Marx, e a teoria do ator-rede; ii) Van Iterson, Mastenbroek e Soeters (2001) demonstram a importância dos estudos dos processos de longa duração e suas implicações para as conexões com desenvolvimentos macrossocietais, como a formação do Estado, e as mudanças no nível micro, em termos de moral, comportamentos e mentalidades; iii) Dopson (2001), por sua vez, analisa as mudanças no sistema de gestão do Serviço Nacional de Saúde do Reino Unido, aplicando a abordagem processual para compreender os resultados não pretendidos e sua associação com as mudanças implementadas; e iv) Por fim, Smith (2001) discute como a humilhação opera dentro das redes e da hierarquia organizacional. ...
RESUMO Norbert Elias se inscreve numa perspectiva crítica à teoria sociológica predominante de seu tempo, notadamente o estrutural-funcionalismo. Ele recusa a compreensão de termos como “estrutura” e “função” num quadro de referência estático, que tende a assumir certo determinismo e pouca possibilidade de percepção da dinâmica social. Este artigo busca sintetizar, de forma integrada e articulada, suas principais concepções e formulações, de modo a trazer possíveis contribuições para o campo de estudos organizacionais. Neste aspecto, ressalta-se a combinação de diversas perspectivas sociológicas, conferindo-lhes uma abordagem única e peculiar, dentro da chamada sociologia dos processos ou da sociologia figuracional; em que recusa a dicotomia indivíduo/sociedade e a reificação de conceitos, articulando psicogênese e sociogênese como elementos indissociáveis para compreensão da vida social em longo prazo. Embora o autor não seja um teórico ou analista das organizações, sua teorização e seu método de análise possibilitam avanços para se compreender questões relevantes, como a dinâmica organizacional, identidade e relações de poder, bem como se pensar a organização como um figuração.
... (Elias, 1978, p. 79). As we observed in the CPAA story, a power game emerged when two figurations standing in opposition to CPAA, the angry members and the press, questioned the board and the CEO's power to impose their agenda (Dopson, 2001(Dopson, , 2005. ...
Purpose
This study aims to provide a critical assessment of developments in the field of voluntary corporate non-financial and sustainability reporting and disclosure (VRD). The assessment is grounded in the empirical material of a three-year research project on integrated reporting (IR).
Design/methodology/approach
Alvesson and Deetz’s (2021) critical management framework structures the arguments in this paper. By investigating local phenomena and the extant literature, the authors glean insights that they later critique, drawing on the empirical evidence collected during the research project. Transformative redefinitions are then proposed that point to future opportunities for research on voluntary organisational disclosures.
Findings
The authors argue that the mainstream approaches to VRD, namely, incremental information and legitimacy theories, present shortcomings in addressing why and how organisations voluntarily disclose information. First, the authors find that companies adopting the International IR Council’s (IIRC, 2021) IR framework tend to comply with the framework only in an informal, rather than a substantial way. Second, the authors find that, at times, organisations serendipitously chance upon VRD practices such as IR instead of rationally recognising the potential ability of such practices to provide useful information for decision-making by investors. Also, powerful groups in organisations may use VRD practices to establish, maintain or restore power balances in their favour.
Research limitations/implications
The paper’s limitations stem directly from its aim to be a critical reflection. Even when grounded on empirics, a reflection is mainly a subjective effort. Therefore, different researchers could come to different conclusions and offer different lessons from the two case studies.
Practical implications
The different rationales the authors found for VRD should make a case for reporting institutions to tone down any investor-centric rhetoric in favour of more substantial disclosures. The findings imply that reporting organisations should approach the different frameworks with a critical eye and read between the lines of these frameworks to determine whether the purported normative arguments are achievable practice.
Originality/value
The authors reflect on timely and relevant issues linked to recent developments in the VRD landscape. Further, the authors offer possible ways forward for critical research that may rely on different methodological choices, such as interventionist and post-structuralist research.
... For example, Elias's concept of power balance has been useful for the study of power relationships within and between organizations. Elias's conception of social change as partly unplanned process has been used in the study of organizational change, implementation of strategies and dynamics of organizational fields (Dopson, 2001). His refined conceptualization of the relationships between individuals and society furnish organization researchers with better tools to understand the relationships between agency and structure and the processes of organizational learning (Connolly & Dolan, 2012;Stacey, 2003). ...
Over the past two decades, there have been attempts to apply ideas from figurational sociology founded by Norbert Elias in research of different aspects of organizational life. The central contributions are derived from his theory of the civilizing process and the principles of process sociology. While this research mostly is relevant for contemporary organization theory, many contributions tend to emphasize Elias’s relational approach to the neglect of his functionalism, which underlies the whole corpus of Elias’s works. Rediscovery of Elias’s functionalism opens up the way for a fruitful reinterpretation of the central concept of his sociology, figuration, and enables to find new ways of combining figurational sociology with more familiar approaches to organization theory, in particular, with contingency theory. This helps to identify the factor of technology in the theory of the civilizing process and place it in the context of the concepts of figurational sociology such as interdependence, power and subjectivity, which enhances the analytical strength of figurational approach to organizations. The paper discusses some applications of figurational sociology to date and points to new directions in the study of organizations with the use of the conceptual tools of figurational approach.
... 74). Furthermore, as Dopson (2001) notes, 'a figurational approach reminds us that even the most powerful groups who attempt to achieve their goals are always mediated by other groups, whether or not the participants are aware of this ' (pp. 521-522). ...
Recent studies suggest school communities accept the goods and services of external providers uncritically. Considering the pivotal role played by teachers in curriculum and policy enactment, this paper explores how and why teachers in Ireland advocate for, and engage with, the services and resources of one particular external provider, the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). This paper draws upon data generated from a purposive sample of teachers and external coaches who were involved in the provision of Gaelic games in primary schools. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with teachers and coaches, and policy documents were examined in order to gain a better understanding of the external provision provided by the GAA. The data were subsequently analysed thematically. Our findings suggest that teachers who promote Gaelic games within the core and extracurricular PE and sport programmes consider these games crucial to the development of children’s sporting and cultural identity.
... Although discussions of Elias and organization theory are often prefaced with the observation that his work has had limited impact, in fact there is now quite a rich body of process-figurational literature covering a wide variety of topics. The topics covered have included the relationships between Elias's theoretical orientation and that of Foucault in relation to organizational subjectivity (van Krieken, 1990;1996;Kieser, 1998), the comparison of Weber and Elias in relation to organizations (Breuer 1994), transformations of the NHS and the medical profession (Dopson & Waddington, 1996Dopson, 1997, the longer-term history of organizational forms, emotional management, and management discourses (Mastenbroek, 1993;1996;2002a;2002b; the Lillehammer winter Olympics, and the Sydney 2000 Olympics (Lesjo, 2000 andFrawley, 2015), shame and humiliation in organizations (Smith, 2001;, the film industry (Blair 2003), Elias' concept of 'survival units' (Kaspersen & Gabriel, 2008), a critique of governmentality approaches in relation to urban regeneration (Lever, 2011), talent management (Lever & Swailes, 2017), medical unionism in Belgium (Gourdin & Meul, 2013), gossip in organizations (Soeters & van Iterson, 2002), corporate governance (Stokvis, 2002), Elias's and Wouters' concept of informalization (van Iterson, Mastenbroek & Soeters, 2001), the wine market in China (Smith Maguire, 2017), firms' online communities ( van Iterson & Richter, 2017), corporate responsibility and unintended outcomes (Vertigans, 2017), organizational learning and complex responsive processes (Stacey 2003; and violence in organizational life (Costas & Gray, 2018). ...
This chapter outlines the main elements of Elias's broader sociological approach, organised around the top-level concepts of 'process' and 'figuration', followed by two of the more important elaborations of his theoretical approach, The Court Society and On the Process of Civilization. I then sketch the main elements of the ways in which his ideas have been taken up by organisation scholars to date, concentrating on a selection of studies drawing on Elias, and conclude with some reflections on the future directions that process-figurational theory might take in organization studies. The core line of argument is that Elias provides a range of powerful theoretical resources to transcend many of the problems usually addressed through the work of Foucault, actor-network theory, postmodernist and post-structuralist theory, especially the supposed agency/structure problem, constituting an alternative and effective analysis of organizational life that is anchored in the relational and processual strands of classical sociological theory.
... To date the application of Elias's theoretical ideas and concepts to organisation studies has been relatively limited (Connolly 2015;Connolly, Dolan, 2011, 2013, 2017Dopson 2001Dopson , 2005Dopson, Waddington 1996;Newton 1999Newton , 2001Newton , 2003Newton , 2004Newton , 2010van Iterson et alii 2002;van Iterson, Mastenbroek, Soeters 2001) and his influence marginal. This eschewing of Elias's approach is somewhat surprising given that organisational theorists have applied or co-opted the wider theoretical frames associated with sociologists such as Anthony Giddens, Pierre Bourdieu and Margaret Archer specifically in seeking to address the what is called the 'structure-agency' issue; a position we will return to in greater detail later in this article. ...
This paper provides a figurational critique of one of the most dominant theoretical frames within organisation studies-institutional theory. Despite its status as the leading theoretical lens for explaining organisational change, institutional theorists continue to struggle with the so called agency-structure issue and remain divided in how to overcome it. Our primary criticisms concern the propensity to invoke or generate dualisms, the reliance on the sociological frames which sustain this, and the failure to engage in any comprehensive way with Elias's writings on this subject.
... For example, Elias's concept of power balance has been useful for the study of power relationships within and between organizations. Elias's conception of social change as partly unplanned process has been used in the study of organizational change, implementation of strategies and dynamics of organizational fields (Dopson, 2001). His refined conceptualization of the relationships between individuals and society furnish organization researchers with better tools to understand the relationships between agency and structure and the processes of organizational learning (Connolly & Dolan, 2012;Stacey, 2003). ...
The purpose of the paper is to assess the arguments of the critique of functionalism by Anthony Giddens and Norbert Elias. After being subject to severe criticism, terminology of functionalism is still a part of the lexicon of social scientists nowadays. Functionalist reasoning and concepts of functionalism are used in sociology, political science and economics, even though often without full awareness of its theoretical implications. Recent revival of interest in the works by Elias is connected with the search for a new theoretical and methodological foundation of sociology but his views on functionalism have remained largely unexplored. For the analysis presented in this paper, main theoretical works by Giddens and major works by Elias have been used. Positions of the authors have been analysed with respect to main concepts and principles of functionalism, such as function, needs, internalization of values, consensus, equilibrium, and the notions of power and individual. The study shows that while Giddens strived to reject functionalism and the concept of social function altogether, in the figurational approach developed by Elias it is possible to use some of the concepts of functionalism without necessarily accepting its controversial tenets.
... The important task thus is to explain actions and ideas within the framework of agency (see also Newton, 2001), which he refers to as 'figurations'. As Dopson (2001) argues: ...
... In doing so they pose particular challenges for organization studies, problematizing as they do more managerialist interpretations of predictability and control, and raising questions even for critical or process perspectives in organizational scholarship. Although Elias' ideas have been taken up by organizational scholars and sociologists previously (Bogner, 1987; Burkitt, 1996 Burkitt, , 1999 Dopson, 2001 Dopson, , 2005 Layder, 1986; Newton, 2001 Newton, , 2003 Newton, , 2004 Newton, , 2010 Smith, 2001; Van Iterson, Mastenbroek, and Soeters, 2001; Van Iterson et al., 2002) both to support and critique them, his work is still not widely adopted in theorizing about organizational life. In particular I will pay attention to a number of paradoxes that Elias frames to describe the stable instability of social life, and how it is possible for both order and disorder, routine and novelty to arise at the same time. ...
This chapter draws on the oeuvre of the process sociologist Norbert Elias further to extend the canon of process-oriented scholar- ship concerned with organizations and organizing. It reflects upon his aversion towards abstract ways of thinking about social change in favor of an interest in human interdependence, manifested in pro- cesses of inclusion and exclusion, cooperation and competition, sta- bility and change. The chapter considers how Elias’ articulation of dynamic social paradoxes underlying the flux and change of social life adds original insights to the process perspective. The author argues that Elias’ work goes beyond both “weak” and “strong” versions of process scholarship. The chapter goes on to discuss the implications of taking Elias’ perspective seriously in organizational research, which would involve taking an interest in informal as well as formal manifestations of human interdependence, including power, affect, and identity.
... Macro-sociological models, such as Elias's theory of the group (Elias, 1991(Elias, , 1994Elias and Scotson, 1994), as well as psychodynamic approaches (e.g., Trist, 1951, Hinshelwood andChiesa, 2002) predict that the need of all individuals to form a positive identity will be manifested collectively as tensions of inclusion/exclusion at group boundaries. Elias's theory has been shown to be readily applicable to the organisational context (e.g., Dopson, 2001;Newton, 1999Newton, , 2001Mastenbroek, 1993Mastenbroek, , 2000 and has been recently developed further by Dalal (2000), through the use of Matte-Blanco's (1975, 1988 constructs of symmetric and asymmetric logic, in ways which appear to confirm theoretically the existence of a link between group processes of inclusion/exclusion and the psychodynamic condition of the individual. Dalal's application of Elias's theory seeks to offer a coherent account of human irrationally in terms of emotional and non-emotional forms of thinking, and to offer a plausible account of the ways in which the emotional behaviour of the individual can be manifest in the social behaviour of groups. ...
A considerable amount of management literature has been devoted to finding effective means of facilitating the training and development of staff in the interests of maximising organisational performance. However, underlying much of this literature is the unstated assumption that organisations are composed of groups of individuals who will respond in predictable, logical and therefore, arguably, 'rational' ways to the introduction and working through of dynamic organisational systems. For example, Lave and Wenger's model of the Community of Practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998), which is becoming increasingly popular as a model of workplace learning, has largely been promoted for its recognition of the need to offer opportunities for skills development which allow learners to participate in authentic work practices, and to develop legitimate identities as organisational members. However, with some notable exceptions (e.g., Fox, 2000; Gherardi, and Nicolini, 2002) this model's recognition of the ubiquity of oppressive forms of social engagement has remained largely undeveloped and widely unrecognised. However, in other academic disciplines, such as counselling and psychodynamic psychology, and in economics, we find a ready acknowledgment that organisations must be assumed to mirror the irrationality of their constituent individuals. And in recent years, acknowledgement of the irrational side of organisational life, which Gerard Egan (1993) terms the 'shadow side' of the organisation, is being made increasingly in the management literature (e.g., some recent discussions related to organisational learning can be found in Andrews and Delahaye, 2000; and Blackle r and McDonald, 2000). Macro-sociological models, such as Elias's theory of the group (Elias, 1991, 1994; Elias and Scotson, 1994), as well as psychodynamic approaches (e.g., Trist, 1951, Hinshelwood and Chiesa, 2002) predict that the need of all individuals to form a positive identity will be manifested collectively as tensions of inclusion/exclusion at group boundaries. Elias's theory has been shown to be readily applicable to the organisational context (e.g., Dopson, 2001; Newton, 1999, 2001; Mastenbroek, 1993, 2000) and has been recently developed further by Dalal (2000), through the use of Matte-Blanco's (1975, 1988) constructs of symmetric and asymmetric logic, in ways which appear to confirm theoretically the existence of a link between group processes of inclusion/exclusion and the psychodynamic condition of the individual. Dalal's application of Elias's theory seeks to offer a coherent account of human irrationally in terms of emotional and non-emotional forms of thinking, and to offer a plausible account of the ways in which the emotional behaviour of the individual can be manifest in the social behaviour of groups. This paper will explore similarities between Elias theory of the group, as developed by Dalal, and Lave and Wenger's model of the Community of Practice, in seeking to show that organisations in general, and training and development systems in particular, must necessarily be characterised by the contemporaneous existence of both facilitative and oppressive social forces. If this is the case, then all training and development systems, however effective, must be regarded as characterised by both oppressive and facilitative elements. If this is the case, we should be seeking to maximise organisational capacity for accepting, recognising and responding to such oppressive social forces. The paper concludes with some suggestions as to how this might be managed.
... In doing so they pose particular challenges for organization studies, problematizing as they do more managerialist interpretations of predictability and control, and raising questions even for critical or process perspectives in organizational scholarship. Although Elias' ideas have been taken up by organizational scholars and sociologists previously (Bogner, 1987; Burkitt, 1996 Burkitt, , 1999 Dopson, 2001 Dopson, , 2005 Layder, 1986; Newton, 2001 Newton, , 2003 Newton, , 2004 Newton, , 2010 Smith, 2001; Van Iterson, Mastenbroek, and Soeters, 2001; Van Iterson et al., 2002) both to support and critique them, his work is still not widely adopted in theorizing about organizational life. In particular I will pay attention to a number of paradoxes that Elias frames to describe the stable instability of social life, and how it is possible for both order and disorder, routine and novelty to arise at the same time. ...
Orthodox theories of consultancy address power relations between the consultant and their contractors. However, they can suggest that either the consultant should manipulate those they work with 'for the good', or they should give up their power 'for the good'. This article offers an ethical critique of these points of view and argues for an alternative understanding of power and the role of the consultant. Drawing on a profoundly social understanding of the dynamic between the self and other, the author argues that consultants should engage with others in processes that privilege the exploration of similarity and difference, continuity and change in a shared discovery of the good. Drawing attention to the daily relationships between staff and their own participation, consultants can offer a different opportunity for sense making and a different and temporary form of leadership, where all participants in the process make themselves more accountable to each other.
... Although the work of Elias is not widely cited in the North American management literature, it has in recent times been often used by a number of European and Australian organization and management researchers. Organizational theorists such as Dopson (1997Dopson ( , 2001Dopson ( , 2005, Hernes (2002), Iterson (2002), Mastenbroek (2002aMastenbroek ( , 2002b, Newton (1999Newton ( , 2001Newton ( , 2004, Smith (2002), andVan Krieken (1998) have all drawn on the work of Elias to assist them in exploring organizational theory and practice. In the context of this study, a process sociological perspective assisted the researchers in highlighting how over time both planned and unplanned organizational activities shaped and influenced the strategic positioning of the Australian Open. ...
In 2005, the Australian Tennis Open (Australian Open) celebrated its 100th year as Australia's leading tennis event. Under the stewardship of the national governing body, Tennis Australia, this major event has experienced a number of organizational challenges over its history. A key challenge faced by Tennis Australia over the past three decades, has been the regular withdrawal of highly ranked tennis players from the tournament year after year. The difficulties faced by Tennis Australia in attracting all of the top men's and women's players each year to the Australian Open prompted the organizers to discuss the option of moving the event to a time more suitable for the players. In 2004, Tennis Australia outlined the possible movement of the Australian Open from the traditional starting time in January to a later start in March. However, after considerable consultation Tennis Australia decided that a move to the later period in the year was not feasible. This paper drawing on a processual analytical framework, inspired by the work of Norbert Elias and Eric Dunning, examines the organizational dynamics that developed and changed over time leading up to the final decision made by Tennis Australia. The study highlights the interconnected and interdependent power relations that were cultivated over time by those stakeholders involved in the Australian Open.
... larly persistent in the area of healthcare innovation. The argument in this case is that the disregard for interests, conflict and for the role of institutions in the circulation of innovation is especially consequential in this sector, which is by nature highly professionalized and politically charged (Dopson, 2001(Dopson, , 2005Dopson and Fitzgerald, 2005;Fitzgerald et al., 2002;Fleuren, Wiefferink and Paulussen, 2004;Greenhalgh et al., 2004aGreenhalgh et al., , 2004bSwan and Newell, 1995). Ignore these aspects, say the authors, and you are unlikely to understand the process through which medical innovations become taken for granted in the daily activity of health practitioners. ...
The paper makes a case for the use of Sociology of Translation as a way of integrating the classical rational and stepwise view of innovation, showcasing its capacity to produce accounts of innovation that are process oriented, sensitive to contextual conditions, and attentive to its political, conflictual, and institutional aspects. It does so by utilising the approach to study the establishment and mainstreaming of cardiac telecare in Northern Italy. Building on the results of a three year longitudinal study, the paper describes the process through which this innovative approach carved a space within the existing texture of medical practices by enrolling in successive waves a range of allies and support. The detailed narration brings to the fore some crucial aspects of the local processes of negotiation and struggle, and, more in general, the work and effort that goes into the making of any innovation. The paper concludes that this way of studying and narrating innovation is particularly apt at bringing back time, effort, and politics into the account of the innovation process.
In this chapter, Meier and Dopson discuss the concept of context as it relates to actors and change. Drawing on examples from the Covid-19 pandemic, they illustrate how different approaches to context assign certain phenomena to the foreground and other to the background. Thus, actors continually construct what counts as ‘context’ as they make sense of their experiences and their social worlds. This enacted character of context is relevant as methodological reflection as well as during analysis of empirical phenomena. The authors show how the construction of context becomes an essential part of research into health policy. They end the chapter by discussing methodological issues related to collaborative fieldwork and multi-level phenomena and reflect on implications for healthcare managers and leaders.
This paper explores public health policy implementation through partnership working at the local level by examining how local actors from public health, and the wider workforce make sense of and work on social inequalities in health. An ethnographic case study was used to examine policy implementation in one local strategic partnership in north-west England during a period of significant resource constraint. Semi-structured interviews were the primary method of data generation. Sensitising concepts from figurational sociology were used to develop a theoretical account of how local policy implementation directed at narrowing social inequalities in health tended to give rise to relatively fragmented and short-term services, projects and practices, which focused on lifestyle factors and behaviour change. Theorising partnership work as figurations goes some way to explaining the apparent paradox among participants who expressed a relatively detached appreciation of wider social influences, alongside emotional involvement in their work. This process of individualisation explains how local professionals tended to conceptualise health inequality and the social determinants of health as personal troubles. Individualisation meant that the social reality of working in partnerships on difficult issues was simplified. Thus, any scope for working on the social determinants of health tended to be overlooked. The extent to which this was intentional or a matter of struggling to see opportunities, or a mixture of the two, was difficult to discern. Although the policy landscape has changed, the findings give some insight into understanding how local collaborative processes reproduce local public health work underpinned by lifestyle choices.
Background and aims
The school has consistently been identified as a key setting in which to improve both health and educational outcomes for children and young people. The aims of the Government’s National Healthy School Programme imply that schools, by achieving healthy school status, can contribute to outcomes relating to health, educational attainment and social inclusion. However, there is little research on the relationship between healthy school status, school improvement and educational attainment either in terms of outcomes, or in terms of the processes through which outcomes might be reached. This research set out to explore the relationship between healthy school status and school improvement. The aims of the research project were to:
• understand the process through which the National Healthy School Standard initiated change in identified schools;
• explore the consequences of change – intended and unintended – from a variety of stakeholders’ perspectives;
• explore the relationship between identified changes and outcomes;
• reconsider the role of the National Healthy School Standard in bringing about school improvement.
Methodology
A case study approach to the research was adopted in which three primary schools at different stages of involvement with the healthy schools programme, were recruited to the study. Case studies typically use multiple methods and the following methods of data collection were used to operationalise the aims:
• semi-structured interviews with school teachers with a specific role in the implementation of the initiative in their school;
• focus groups with school children;
• non-participant observation of activities that had been introduced as a result of involvement with the healthy schools programme;
• documentary analysis of sources that had been produced as a result of the accreditation process, for example, the school audit, agendas and minutes from school council meetings;
• analysis of secondary data sources such as the latest Ofsted Inspection Report.
Findings
1 Understanding the role of the National Healthy School Standard in initiating change
It was evident that the National Healthy School Standard was seen as a catalyst for change within schools in three ways:
• the framework and process stimulated and enabled schools to address existing problems, such as bullying and playground behaviour, in a systematic way;
• it provided impetus to reviewing the use of existing resources, such as the way the playground was organised and used;
• it provided a rationale for developing new ways of working with children by providing ideas for enabling their participation through the creation of a school council.
2 Characteristics of the National Healthy School Standard that facilitated change
The features of the National Healthy School Standard that were viewed as facilitating schools’ involvement with the initiative were:
• the framework gave emphasis to the importance of a ‘whole school approach’ to the work, which was consistent with the way in which the three case study schools wanted to work;
• the whole school approach meant that it was possible for schools to develop consistent links between the curriculum and the wider school environment, such as in relation to developing work around citizenship;
• because the framework was based on a broad concept of health in which health and educational outcomes were seen as inter-related, this allowed the joining up of a variety of initiatives into a coherent and consistent approach to the development of policy and practice;
• the emphasis on ‘giving pupils a voice’ was seen as highly desirable in the case study schools;
• the framework was seen as providing a helpful structure to the accreditation process without being overly prescriptive, such that schools could identify their own priorities and targets;
• the case study schools thought that the values of the healthy schools programme were consistent with the schools’ values such that it was easy to engage with the initiative.
3 Understanding the impact of change on school improvement
In terms of school improvement the case study schools viewed the impact of changes they had introduced as part of the healthy schools process as operating at two inter-related levels: namely the school and the individual child. This was explained in the following ways:
• consulting with, and involving children was seen as the foundation from which better standards of behaviour and an improved school ethos would develop;
• developing and proactively implementing strong anti-bullying and behaviour management policies, together with the development of participative structures for enabling children’s involvement in the life of the school, led to improvements in the physical and social environment of the school, which helped create a setting that engaged children and was conducive to learning;
• enabling the participation of children led to changes in the quality of relationships between teachers and children;
• collectively, these changes in the physical and social environment of the schools were seen as contributing to the development of children who were predisposed to learn;
• school improvement was seen primarily in terms of creating the conditions within which children can flourish rather than in hard quantitative performance measures.
Discussion
Whilst the relatively small scale nature of this research limits its generalisability, the main value of case study research is in terms of generating rich data from which explanations can be developed. In terms of how the National Healthy School Standard might act as a vehicle for school improvement a number of points can be made:
• policies and practice are inter-related and can make a difference to the life of the school because they are the mechanisms through which values and priorities are transmitted. This may go some way towards explaining the role of the school in effecting positive health and educational outcomes, particularly for those children and young people who are most at risk of exclusion;
• given the fact that the experience of bullying is a major factor in undermining individual health and wellbeing as well as the ethos of the school, strategies to manage its occurrence, as revealed in the three case study schools, are likely to lead to beneficial outcomes;
• it is not only academic achievement that matters in terms of understanding children and young people’s trajectories into adulthood. Rather, the extent to which children have been engaged with school appears to have important ramifications for their life chances.
The findings from this study generally support the notion that the NHSS can be a vehicle for school improvement. However, there remain a number of challenges:
• it will be important to find ways of engaging those schools who are perhaps reluctant to consider the healthy schools programme as a school improvement initiative as they are likely to be the ones that have most to gain from it;
• finding more sensitive and specific ways of measuring the impact of the NHSS would be valuable. However, the impact on outcomes such as attendance and lifestyle might be seen as appropriate short term indicators.
Whilst it is likely that pressure from policy makers nationally and locally will be for ‘hard evidence’ of outcomes (usually interpreted as quantitative measures of performance) it may be of value to ensure that efforts are made to capture change at the level of the school in terms of policies and practice. Health and educational outcomes are often reached indirectly rather than directly, and revealing the role of the individual school setting – in terms of culture, ethos and structures such as a school council – in mediating outcomes is likely to be important in understanding the processes through which schools improve. Furthermore, this suggests that schools have an important role in helping children and young people overcome some of the negative dimensions of living in disadvantaged circumstances.
This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the increasing functional importance of marketing and the problems associated with the psychologically derived, or informed, literature that tends to dominate much of the academic scholarship in the area. The chapter goes on to introduce the figurational-sociological approach and the need for, and potential benefits of, such an approach to the study of marketing and markets. This is followed by an outline of where a figurational approach has been applied to date within the general nexus of marketing–organisation studies–sociology. The chapter concludes with an overview of the various contributions within the book.
From a European perspective, the number of coach dismissals in professional football seems to be increasing. However, besides this apparent ‘hire and fire’ mentality in football, few studies have aimed at examining what being a football coach entails. By combining Norbert Elias’s game models and the concept of trust in organisations, this study shows how today’s coach functions in a complex figuration and is engaged in multiple interdependencies. In times of sporting failure, this figuration tends to become more complex, as the coach is typically put under pressure internally and externally. By focusing on the relationship between a coach and his director and on how this relationship changes when performance is low, this study contributes with new insights into what it involves to be a top coach and at the same time offers potential explanations for why the frequency of dismissals seems to be increasing.
The impact of Norbert Elias's sociological writings on organization studies is still small. To date, his approach has been largely neglected by the field. In contrast, his influence on other sociological sub-disciplines is much larger, e.g. the sociology of sports, teaching, health and illness, knowledge, and of the welfare state. Arguably, his impact is strongest on general theoretical sociology. This may not come as a surprise. Although his magnum opus The Civilizing Process ([1939] 2000) provides a rich historical account of state formation and changing manners, morality, and habitus among secular upper classes in late medieval and the Ancien Régime (Old Order) France, it can best be read as primarily a critique of what Elias saw as the major flaws of contemporary sociological theorizing. This article attempts to show how Elias's ideas might open some new avenues of research for organization studies. It relies almost exclusively On The Civilizing Process, to the neglect of other important, but later works such as The Established And The Outsiders ([1965] 1994).
The past three decades have seen enormous changes in the organisation of health care. This book explores the role of knowledge production and technology on these transformations, focusing on the market (attempts to embed principles of economic rationality and efficient use of resources in the shaping and delivery of health care), the laboratory (science, experiments and 'evidence' in the management of research, practice and policy) and the forum (the application of deliberative procedures and other forms of public consultation to health care decision making).
The organization of a mega-event such as the Olympic Games is a complex task involving a multitude of individuals and stakeholder groups. In 2000, Australia's largest city, Sydney, staged the Summer Olympic Games. The agency given primary responsibility for these Games was the Sydney
Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games (SOCOG). Two additional organizations also played a central role in the management of the event: the Australian Olympic Committee and the New South Wales Government. This article explores the role played by the host national Olympic committee as a
key Olympic stakeholder in the organization of the Olympic Games. The research highlights that organization of a mega-project, such as the Olympic Games, is not only the result of recent developments but also of countless social and organizational figurations that developed over many years
prior to the winning of a bid to stage the event.
Based on a case study of the Gaelic Athletic Association in Ireland, this paper examines how bureaucratisation advanced and the specific structure it took. Drawing on Elias's concept of habitus, and the wider theoretical framework that informs it, the paper explains how an ambivalent attitude amongst the organisation's administrators towards volunteerism emerged and became deeply sedimented within the habitus of administrators. Over time, the habitus of administrators also became more self-steering. This more self-restrained habitus facilitated a capacity for greater calculation, foresight and coordination, a necessary precondition for more expansive bureaucratisation. As such, the main contribution of this paper is to expand existing theoretical explanations of bureaucratisation by connecting shifting inter- and intra-organisational interdependencies at different planes of integration with habitus change.
In this paper, the interdependent and fluid organisational networks that form to organise Olympic Games are analysed using Norbert Elias's concept of human figurations. Rather than considering organisational situations and developments in static terms, Eliasian process sociology frames the place of organisations within the broader social and historical contexts in which they operate. From an Eliasian perspective, the organisation of a mega-project, such as the Olympic Games, is not only the result of recent developments but also of countless social and organisational figurations that developed over many years prior to the winning of a bid to stage the event. In this regard, the organisation of the Olympic Games is the result of both planned and unplanned consequences of organising over which no one individual ever has total control.
This article describes the steps Shell managers took to keep their innovation innovative after the original establishment of the GameChanger system, by setting up its ‘innovation coalition’ as a network in its own right, and by reorganising its portfolio of 85 projects into a half-dozen ‘domains’. We offer evidence that designing and implementing its domain approach enhanced the productivity and symbiosis of Shell’s innovation efforts, and use ‘Actor Network Theory’ – a conceptual framework extensively used in science and technology studies – to explain how this success was achieved. Domains not only link strategy and technology; but also marry up ‘bottom-up’ and ‘top-down’ innovations and connect the shorter with the longer term. The article’s consideration of domains renders the notion of ANT analyses more accessible and relevant for long term strategy professionals, as well as making some of the specific lessons Shell derived from its experience more widely available for application elsewhere.
This paper explores the process of organizational change within the International Ski Federation (FIS) in relation to the issue of doping. More specifically, the paper examines how the FIS adopted the policy established by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) following a doping scandal in cross-country skiing during the 2001 Nordic World Ski Championship in Lahti, Finland. The qualitative case study reported here draws upon interviews with key actors and the analysis of documents and media text. The paper utilizes a figurational sociological perspective and, in particular, the concept of game models, in order to analyse the roles of different people and organizations in the figuration, and how the increasing interdependency between FIS and WADA and the resulting shift in the balance of power within FIS, led to changes in FIS policy.
This article illustrates how the figurational sociology associated with Norbert Elias provides an alternative theoretical framework for explaining the relationship between, ‘individual-organization-society’ and organizational change, and in so doing transverses what is conceived as a false dichotomy between structure and agency. Through an historical case study of the Gaelic Athletic Association in Ireland, the ‘individual-organization-society’ relationship is conceptualized as overlapping figurations and organizational change is explained as figurational dynamics—the shifting social interdependencies between the individuals and groups comprising an organization, between that organization and other organizations, between social groups on a higher level of integration and competition. In tandem with this, the article illustrates how changes in the sources of power and identity are connected with these figurational dynamics.
This article examines the anti-doping efforts undertaken since 1998 by the International Cycling Union (UCI). It does so by outlining the complex network of interdependencies in which the UCI is embedded, by analysing the potentials and constraints for exercising power and by using neo-institutional categorizations to define the change in its organizational responses to anti-doping institutionalization. The paper concludes that the UCI is an organization under siege because it is the target of multiple demands, which constrain its ability to exercise power. During the last ten years the UCI has shifted from a compromise strategy to a manipulation strategy by trying to become an anti-doping entrepreneur, for instance by introducing the Biological Passport. Implementing new measures on doping might result in additional positive tests, thus reinforcing the perception of professional cycling as a doping-infected sport. Therefore, UCI anti-doping efforts can be termed a temporary Mission Impossible.
This paper was published as Working Paper 43 by the Centre for Labour Market Studies, University of Leicester. It is available from http://www.clms.le.ac.uk/research/wpapers.lasso Metadata only entry Over the last five years in particular there has emerged growing interest in the concept of 'emotional intelligence' (henceforth EI), particularly within literature relating to occupational psychology, human resource management and training. In this paper I critically explore the rise of EI as a managerial discourse, and centrally consider the extent to which EI both signals and constitutes increasing demands for emotional labour. In addition, building on the expanding interest within the field of organisational sociology of exploring the utility of Norbert Elias's work, I analyse the ascendancy of EI as a set of ideas and practices within the context of processes of civilisation and informalisation. Through invoking the concept of informalisation, I argue that EI may invite an 'emancipation' of emotions within the workplace whilst simultaneously constituting shifting, perhaps increasing, demands for individually-nuanced affect managment and display. Similarly, I suggest that EI might facilitate greater worker 'alienation' whilst simultaneously offering the scope to expose the emotional tensions arising from alienation. Indeed, I propose that the case of EI helps to highlight the dialectical characteristics of civilising and informalisation processes.
This study investigates how the Australian Olympic Committee (AOC) was involved in the formation of the Sports Commission (SSC) within the Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games (SOCOG) and as a critical contributor to the staging of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Using a figurational sociological framework, the intended and unintended consequences of the AOC's strategic and operational involvement are explored. The case shows how important early negotiations were in the case of the Sydney Olympics, when the host governments and Olympic Organising Committees were inexperienced in Olympic negotiations and distracted by the euphoria of securing the games. This left the more knowledgeable Olympic organisation, the AOC, well placed to leverage its prior experience and extensive Olympic figurations, in order to gain a strategic advantage over the other Australian Olympic stakeholders. The research makes a contribution to Olympic studies, specifically in relation to the role of the host National Olympic Committee (NOC) in the organising of an Olympic Games. Furthermore, the research findings have management implications for the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and future host NOC's, particularly in relation to the structuring of Olympic Organising Committee governance arrangements. Yes Yes
Cette thèse porte sur le fonctionnement de deux associations de développement local très liées entre elles et présentées dans leur contexte, celui d’un village assez typique du sud de l’Égypte, la région la moins développée du pays. Cette recherche s’inscrit dans le cadre des sociologies du développement et des organisations et se distingue par la mobilisation novatrice du concept de configurations sociales introduit par Norbert Elias. À travers l’observation participante, méthodologie utilisée pour la première fois pour étudier les organisations rurales égyptiennes, et des compléments d’informations recueillis par entretiens et par fichiers quantitatifs, deux types de configurations sociales ont été examinés. Le premier porte sur les configurations sociales internes au village et aux deux associations et comprend les interrelations sociales sur les plans du territoire, des familles, de l’économie, des relations entre hommes et femmes, de la religion et de la politique locale. Le deuxième type, les configurations sociales externes, permet d’étudier les interrelations et les tensions avec les différents partenaires des deux associations qu’ils soient privés ou publics. Cette thèse contribue à la connaissance d’organisations ayant un rôle significatif dans le développement local, en particulier en montrant l’importance des jeux de pouvoir étudiés à travers les relations établies avec les autres structures locales ou avec les intervenants extérieurs et le rôle clé des responsables de ces associations, médiateurs entre les configurations internes et externes ainsi qu’entre les partenaires privés ou publics qui peuvent ainsi collaborer de manière souvent inattendue.
This report is available through the Chester Digital Repository. This project report discusses the relationship between healthy school status and school improvement using case studies of three primary schools at different stages of the involvement with the healthy schools programme. The report was commissioned and funded by the Cheshire Local Education Authority.
This paper links the ideas of Norbert Elias to the conceptualisation of power and subjectivity that has developed in British industrial and organisational (I/O) sociology. It examines the relevance of power and subjectivity to British I/O sociology and reviews theoretical positions that have influenced this field. Elias's work is examined in some detail, exploring his approach to power, agency, the self, individualisation and discourse. His work is then applied to a re-examination of the perspectives on power and subjectivity contained within labour process, Foucauldian and actor network theory. The paper attempts to show how Elias's work re-frames our understanding of power and subjectivity through a stress on interdependencies and their asymmetry, the `networked' nature of agency, and the interwoven form of human and socio-political development. It argues that Eliasian analysis maintains the critical concern with power asymmetries witnessed in labour process theory, yet avoids some of the difficulties in conceptualisation of power and subjectivity that are apparent in labour process, Foucauldian work and actor network theory. Elias's work also illustrates the need for a lengthier historical perspective than is typically observed in industrial and organisational sociology, and points to the value of studies which look beyond the context of the workplace. Finally, attention is paid to some of the limitations of Elias's work.
The core problems of sociological and philosophical theories of knowledge remain insoluble and unrelated as long as both theories start from static models. The problems can be solved, and the respective theories related to each other, without undue difficulties if the acquisition of knowledge is conceptualized as a long-term process which takes place within societies also considered as long-term processes. This approach has the added advantage of being in closer agreement with the evidence. The paper indicates what needs to be unlearned and what to be learned in order to prepare the way for such a unified theoretical framework which can serve as a guide to, and which can be in turn corrected by, empirical sociological studies of all types of knowledge, scientific and practical as well as non-scientific or ideological.
A theory of social processes has to diagnose and explain those long-term and unplanned, but yet structured and directional trends in the development of social and personality structures that constitute the infrastructure of what is commonly called „history”. The reception of such a theoretical approach is hampered by the self-image of contemporary sociology as a discipline primarily concerned with the present time and devoted to research on short-term changes and causal relationships within given social systems. This self-image results from a problematic division of intellectual labour between history and sociology, but also from sociology’s increasing involvement in social practice, i.e. bureaucratically controlled social planning. While contributing to such planning, sociologists ignore the long-term, unplanned developments which produce the conditions for the present-day practice of planning and in which all planned social development is entangled. Complementary processes of functional differentiation, of social integration, and of civilization are strands of this complex long-term development. Its dynamics requires further exploration.
The core problems of sociological and philosophical theories of knowledge remain insoluble and unrelated as long as both theories start from static models. The problems can be solved, and the respective theories related to each other, without undue difficulties if the acquisition of knowledge is conceptualized as a long-term process which takes place within societies also considered as long-term processes. This approach has the added advantage of being in closer agreement with the evidence. The paper indicates what needs to be unlearned and what to be learned in order to prepare the way for such a unified theoretical framework which can serve as a guide to, and which can be in turn corrected by, empirical sociological studies of all types of knowledge, scientific and practical as well as non-scientific or ideological.
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Medical knowledge in eighteenth century England was characterized by the growth of numerous often contradictory theoretical systems, founded upon a common underlying analogy of bodily processes. This foundation of metaphor was derived from the ancient humoural model of classical medicine, attenuated by the introduction of concepts imported from contemporary mechanical philosophy. Medical theory may be viewed as a form of social interaction between physicians—the elite of the eighteenth century profession—and their aristocratic patients. The phenomenological conceptualization of disease, the speculative and systematic character of pathology, the psychosomatic interpretation of illness and the swingeing use of heroic therapies may be ascribed to the pre-dominance of the upper class patient in the consultative relationship. Furthermore the contemporary career system constrained physicians both to establish their credentials as members of the upper class and to advertise their services by individual display. Fashion provided a form of social behaviour which reconciled these demands, but also generated a profusion of medical theories. In addition the structure of relationships between patients and practitioners, and among medical men themselves, prohibited the emergence of a scientific community dedicated to the analysis of medical problems.