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The Attractiveness of Gender-Typed Traits at Different Relationship Levels: Androgynous Characteristics May Be Desirable after all
Abstract
Previous research and theorizing have suggested a 'fundamental paradox" in that individuals appear to be predisposed, both culturally and genetically, to be attracted to traditionally gender typed members of the other sex even though pairings between gender-typed persons are less than optimal for long-term relation-ship satisfaction. Two studies were undertaken to clarify the relationship between gender-typed traits and heterosexual attraction. Male and female subjects indicated how desirable opposite-sex targets would be for a date, a one-night sexual encounter, and/or marriage. The gender-typing of the target was manipulated such that each target was perceived as androgynous, masculine, feminine, or undifferentiated. Results indicated that both sexes perceived opposite-sex androgynous targets to be more desirable for each type of relationship. Further, for both sexes, possession of feminine/expressive characteristics was more important than possession of masculine/instrumental characteristics.
... Other studies suggest that when asked to rate the attraction of male profiles manipulated to be more feminine or masculine in personality, women are more likely to prefer the former (Desrochers, 1995, although see Schudson et al., 2018. Finally, experimental research that includes male dating material manipulated to be perceived as androgynous has indicated that for both short-and long-term relationships, women tend to be most attracted to men who possess a combination of stereotypically masculine (e.g., independent, competitive, self-confident) and feminine (e.g., understanding, helpful, warm) characteristics (Cramer et al., 1993;Green & Kenrick, 1994). Accordingly, men who are dominant and agreeable are more attractive than men who are agreeable but not dominant, and both are more attractive than men who are dominant but disagreeable (Jensen-Campbell et al., 1995). ...
Same-sex attraction, a heritable trait with a reproductive cost, lacks a comprehensive evolutionary explanation. Here we build on a hypothesis invoking antagonistic pleiotropy, which suggests that genes linked to male same-sex attraction remain in the gene pool because they have conferred some fitness advantage to heterosexual men possessing them. We posit the “desirable dad hypothesis,” which proposes that alleles linked to male non-heterosexual orientations increase traits conducive to childcare; heterosexual men possessing same-sex attracted alleles are more desirable mating partners as a function of possessing superior paternal qualities. We conducted three studies to test predictions from this hypothesis. Results were consistent with all three predictions. Study 1 (N = 1632) showed that heterosexual men with same-sex attracted relatives were more feminine than men without, as indicated by self-report measures of femininity (η² = .007), warmth (η² = .002), and nurturance (η² = .004 − .006). In Study 2 (N = 152), women rated feminine male profiles as more romantically appealing than masculine ones (d = 0.83)—but less so than profiles possessing a combination of feminine and masculine traits. In Study 3 (N = 153), women perceived feminine male profiles as depicting the best fathers and masculine profiles the worst (d = 1.56): consistent with the idea that femininity is attractive for childcare reasons. Together, these findings are consistent with the idea that sexual selection for male parental care may be involved in the evolution of male same-sex attraction.
... Bem & Lenney, 1976). Zbog svega toga, takve osobe su u istraživanjima već prepoznate kao najprikladniji partneri za ljubavne veze (Green & Kenrick, 1994). ...
Prvi cilj ovog istraživanja jeste ispitati koje psihološke karakteristike idealnog partnera vrednuju ženske i muške osobe u ranoj odrasloj dobi. Drugi cilj jeste utvrditi mogu li se potencijalne razlike u preferencijama prema osobinama idealnog partnera predvidjeti na osnovu izraženosti dimenzija afektivne vezanosti: anksioznosti i izbjegavanja. Prigodan uzorak čini 279 heteroseksualnih studenata (51.6% djevojaka), prosječnog uzrasta 20.33 godine. Ispitanici su popunili Modifikovanu skalu iskustava u bliskim odnosima (SM-ECR-R) te BSRI inventar polne uloge, koji je korišćen kao mjera poželjnih partnerskih osobina. Rezultati pokazuju da su djevojke i mladići uglavnom usaglašeni u pogledu stepena poželjnosti većine osobina idealnog partnera. Kao poželjne birane su i ekspresivne i instrumentalne osobine, s tim da je uočena snažnija preferencija prema prvim. I djevojke i mladići poželjnijim idealnim partnerima smatraju emotivno ekspresivnije osobe, s tim da djevojke svoje idealne partnere opisuju preko viših vrijednosti i na mjerama socijalne dominacije i na mjerama emotivne ekspresivnosti. Razmatranjem individualnih razlika preko dimenzija afektivnog vezivanja utvrđeno je da višu preferenciju prema socijalnoj dominaciji predviđaju niže izbjegavanje i niža anksioznost, dok višu preferenciju prema emotivnoj ekspresivnosti predviđaju niže izbjegavanje i viša anksioznost. Ovim je potvrđeno da teorija afektivnog vezivanja predstavlja koristan koncept u objašnjenju preferencija prema osobinama idealnog partnera, pri čemu je intenzitet predikcije osjetno veći u slučaju emotivne ekspresivnosti nego socijalne dominacije.
... Most of the sample showed androgynous characteristics. This data is in line with the evolutionary idea that androgynous people are more flexible to environmental tasks and that acquiring androgynous roles could be an adaptive pattern developed after evolutive pressures (Green and Kenrick, 1994;Woodhill and Samuels, 2004;Cobb et al., 2009). Heterosexual women, but not lesbian women, showed a pattern of high social pressure to conform to feminine expectations together with lower scores in the IRQ. ...
Differences in gender and sexual orientation are suggested to be linked to differences in the way individuals think and behave. The aim of the current study is to evaluate the effect of gender and sexual orientation on sexual fantasies and gender roles in heterosexual and gay and lesbian people. The sample was composed of 547 participants, 246 men (Mage = 28.85; SD = 9,27) and 301 women (Mage = 25,97; SD = 7,141). Within this sample, 61.8% of men and 79.4% of women were heterosexual, whereas 38.2% of men and 20.6% of women were gay and lesbian. Participants completed an online battery of questionnaires to assess their sexual orientation, sexual fantasies, and gender roles on three different dimensions. It was hypothesized that the heterosexual group would report more normative sexual fantasies (H1) and that women in general would report androgynous characteristics, which would be linked to a low degree of reported feminine ideal roles and high social pressure to conform to feminine social expectations (H2). The results showed that lesbian women scored slightly higher than heterosexual women on transgressive sexual fantasies and lower on emotional-romantic ones. Moreover, heterosexual women, but not lesbian women, showed a pattern of high social pressure to conform to feminine expectations together with lower scores in the IRQ. We found the same results on gay men but not for heterosexual men. The overall results suggest that sexual fantasies and gender roles are relatively independent concepts and are influenced by different mechanisms.
Two studies examined which traits males and females desire in partners at various levels of relationship development in an attempt to integrate evolutionary models (which emphasize sex differences) and social exchange models (which emphasize self-appraisals). In Study 1, male and female students specified their minimum criteria on 24 traits for a date, sexual partner, exclusive dating partner, marriage partner, and 1-night sexual liaison. They also rated themselves on the same dimensions. Sex differences were greatest for casual sexual liaisons, with men's criteria being consistently lower than women's. Men's self-ratings were generally less correlated with their criteria for a 1-night stand, as well. Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1, adding several modifications, including a measure of Ss' sex typing. Sex typing had few effects. The advantages of combining social psychological and evolutionary perspectives are discussed.
The evolutionary perspective of personality proposes certain personality characteristics appear as inherited tendencies because they increase the likelihood of the two fundamental challenges of evolution – survival and reproductive success. Sexual selection is the process by which such personality characteristics seem to evolve to promote the possibility of successful mating. For males, preferred mates tend to possess personality characteristics associated with the ability to provide reproductive success (e.g. cooperativeness) and the domestic skills necessary to care for the family in a manner that places the fewest demands on the male (e.g. frugal). For females, preferred mates tend to possess personality characteristics associated with the ability to provide care (e.g. kind and dependable) and protection (dominance and agreeableness) for offspring and extended family.
The evolutionary perspective of personality proposes certain personality characteristics appear as inherited tendencies because they increase the likelihood of the two fundamental challenges of evolution – survival and reproductive success. Sexual selection is the process by which such personality characteristics seem to evolve to promote the possibility of successful mating. For males, preferred mates tend to possess personality characteristics associated with the ability to provide reproductive success (e.g. cooperativeness) and the domestic skills necessary to care for the family in a manner that places the fewest demands on the male (e.g. frugal). For females, preferred mates tend to possess personality characteristics associated with the ability to provide care (e.g. kind and dependable) and protection (dominance and agreeableness) for offspring and extended family.
Interest in exploring and explaining the psychological dimensions of masculinity and femininity has led to a deep search into evolution and culture in order to identify the stereotypical and prototypical traits assigned to men and women. From it derives the importance of biological, social, cultural, and psychological variables in the differential perception and understanding of what it means to be a male or a female. This chapter covers the bio-psycho-socio-cultural theoretical foundations that guided empirical research into the measurement of instrumental and expressive traits, identifying their structure, their evolution, their correlates, and their impact on everyday life. The method of inquiry included qualitative studies to identify the culturally appropriate manifestation of instrumental and expressive traits in Mexico; the development and psychometric validation of a multifactorial inventory; and studies of sex differences as well as the relationship of instrumental and expressive traits to other personality traits and actual behavior. Results show the normative essence of the traits; the impact of culture on the construction of what is expected from each sex; the consistency of socially desirable instrumental and expressive traits with positive and valued personality development, as well as the relation between socially undesirable traits with psychopathology; and finally, the importance of instrumental and expressive traits in the prediction of positive interpersonal behaviors (such as support) and negative behaviors (such as violence).
The theme of this chapter can be encapsulated in a little story called “Felicia Femme Falls In and Out of Love.” The story goes like this:
One warm day in June, Felicia Femme is married to Michael Manley. Felicia is very happy and very much in love. “Mike is the ideal man,” she feels. “He is strong, capable, and ambitious. He will take good care of me and will be a good provider for our children. I made the right decision when I agreed to marry him.”
Determined how individual differences in sex role orientation (assessed by the Bem Sex Role Inventory) were related to behavior of 43 male and 43 female undergraduates during an initial, unstructured interaction in mixed-sex dyads. The design contrasted 4 different dyad types: (a) the male and female were stereotypically sex typed correspondent to their gender (male ST–female ST). (b) The male was stereotypically sex typed as masculine and the female as androgynous (male ST–female A). (c) The male was androgynous and the female was sex typed as feminine (male A–female ST). (d) Both were androgynous (male A–female A). Analyses of the Ss' behavior during the 5-min interaction period and self-report data collected afterward revealed significantly less interaction and interpersonal attraction in the male ST–female ST dyads than in the other dyad types. Data are discussed in terms of S. L. Bem's (1974) conception of sex role identification and M. Snyder's (1974) conception of self-monitoring. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Surveyed 108 Australian married couples about the effect of sex roles on their marital happiness. Questionnaires included the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Measures of the sex-role orientation and happiness of each partner with the relationship permitted an evaluation of the similarity and complementarity hypotheses as well as an assessment of the general compatibility of sex-role combinations. Results provide substantial evidence for the importance of femininity in relationships; the happiness of the husband was positively related to the wife's femininity, and the happiness of the wife was positively related to the husband's femininity. Couples in which both partners were high on femininity (androgynous and feminine) were far happier than were couples in which at least one of the partners was low on this dimension. Although similarity of both masculinity and femininity between partners was associated with happiness, the complementarity hypothesis was convincingly refuted in terms of both happiness and choosing a partner. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Based on Rogerian self theory and research on sex role stereotypes, the present study examined sex-role concepts of self and others and their relationship to personal adjustment. 128 college women and men used the Bem Sex-Role Inventory to describe their concepts of real self, ideal self, ideal other sex, and belief about the other sex's ideal other. Ss' personal adjustment was measured by the Revised Bell Adjustment Inventory. The following 3 hypotheses were supported for female Ss but not for males: (a) Concepts of self and others were dissimilar and ranked least-to-most sex typed in the order predicted. (b) Perceptions of the other sex's ideal were inaccurate. (c) Sex typing was associated with poor adjustment. Contrary to prediction, sex typing in males was associated with good adjustment. Results are discussed in terms of the Rogerian theory of concept discrepancy and S. Bem's (1974) notion of androgeny. Implications for counseling with female clients are noted. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Methodological and conceptual problems in existing psychological androgyny research are illuminated by application of the 2-way ANOVA model, which views masculinity and femininity as a pair of crossed independent variables, with androgynous, male-typed, female-typed, and undifferentiated sex-role categories represented in the cells of the resultant 2-by-2 table. Foremost among previously overlooked theoretical points is that the J. T. Spence et al (see record
1975-27536-001) "high/high" and the S. L. Bem (see record
1974-27631-001) "balance" androgyny formulations represent 2 independent hypotheses, a main effects hypothesis and an interaction hypothesis. Androgyny research findings are summarized in terms of the effects and interaction predicted by these theories. There is no evidence of consistent interaction effects favoring the balanced over the sex typed. Furthermore, the consistency and strength of the masculinity effect relative to the femininity effect suggest that masculinity rather than main effects androgyny predicts psychological well-being. The data provide no support for the traditional model that masculinity is best for men and femininity best for women. (107 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Four experiments examined the relation between behavioral expressions of dominance and the heterosexual attractiveness of males and females. Predictions concerning the relation between dominance and heterosexual attraction were derived from a consideration of sex role norms and from the comparative biological literature. All four experiments indicated an interaction between dominance and sex of target. Dominance behavior increased the attractiveness of males, but had no effect on the attractiveness of females. The third study indicated that the effect did not depend on the sex of the rater or on the sex of those with whom the dominant target interacted. The fourth study showed that the effect was specific to dominance as an independent variable and did not occur for related constructs (aggressive or domineering). This study also found that manipulated dominance enhanced only a male's sexual attractiveness and not his general likability. The results were discussed in terms of potential biological and cultural causal mechanisms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
54 undergraduate subjects, designated as androgynous or stereotyped by scores on the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), rated their perception of four BSRI protocols contrived to represent androgynous and stereotyped males and females. Results supported the similarity hypothesis for attraction to protocols when similarity was defined in terms of sex role orientation as derived from the BSRI.
An attempt was made to replicate the selection of items for the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). The 20 masculine, 20 feminine, and 20 neutral items of the BSRI were rated for social desirability "in an American male" and "in an American female" by male and female judges. The BSRI item-selection criterion—each item being rated by both male and female judges as significantly more desirable in a male than in a female (masculine items) or signifi cantly more desirable in a female than in a male (feminine items)—was met by only two items: mas culine and feminine. For a considerable number of other items, differences between mean desirability ratings for a male and for a female were in a direc tion opposite to that predicted. Correlations be tween the mean ratings of male and female judges when rating items for the same sex were quite high, consistent with previous research.
Androgyny represents a combination of personality characteristics traditionally associated with men (masculine) and those associated with women (feminine). This critical review provides an overview of basic assumptions, measures, research topics, and results of research in the androgyny literature. In particular, research on developmental perspectives emphasizes the importance of focusing upon how individuals systematically maintain and modify their perceptions and experiences as men and women over the life span. The impact of client and practitioner femininity and masculinity upon the counseling process remains poorly understood. Researchers and practitioners alike should recognize the complexity of sex-role-related phenomena, including the importance of situational factors and the role of individual differences in accounting for sex role behavior and adjustment.
Meta-analytic techniques were applied to the data derived from the results of 26 studies that related mental health and sex roles (androgyny, masculinity, and femininity); the studies were selected through a computer search of
Psychological Abstracts, 1961–1980. Findings confirm a strong, positive association between masculinity and mental health. Possible reasons for this and implications for measures of mental health are discussed. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)