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Don't the Girls' Get Prettier at Closing Time: A Country and Western Application to Psychology

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Abstract

Despite psychology's attempts at keeping pace with hypotheses generated by song writers, research dealing with perceived physical attraction has fallen far behind. In an attempt to close the gap, a study was conducted which confirmed Gilley's (1975) prediction that "all the girls get prettier at closing time, they all get to look like movie stars..." A reactance interpretation based on predecisional preferences validated Gilley's observation "ain't it funny, ain' t it strange, the way a man's opinions change when he starts to face that lonely night."
... The 'beer goggles' effect describes drunken attraction towards individuals we are unlikely to desire in a sober state (e.g. Jones et al., 2003;Monk et al, 2020;Pennebaker et al., 1979;). The basis of the effect is assumed to be alcohol-enhanced perceptions of physical beauty for inanimate and animate objects but particularly human faces, including our own (Bègue et al., 2013;Chen et al., 2014). ...
... More importantly, higher levels of intoxication were associated with both higher symmetry ratings for asymmetrical faces, and a poorer ability to distinguish perfectly symmetrical from natural face forms. Contrary to previous observations of the 'beer goggles' effect, however (Chen et al., 2014;Gladue and Delaney, 1990;Jones et al., 2003;Johnco et al., 2010, Lyvers et al., 2011Parker et al., 2008;Pennebaker et al, 1979), alcohol had no influence on attractiveness ratings for single faces, nor on the extent to which participants favoured perfectly symmetrical over natural face forms viewed side-by-side. ...
... Jones and Jaeger, 2019). Given the scientific evidence reviewed above, we do not deny the existence of a 'beer goggles' effect, but we suspect it is larger and therefore more easily detectable when measuring interpersonal attractiveness between 'live' individuals (Gladue and Delaney, 1990;Jones et al., 2003;Johnco et al., 2010, Lyvers et al., 2011Pennebaker et al, 1979) than from attractiveness ratings of face photographs (Chen et al., 2014;Monk et al., 2020;Parker et al., 2008). Static images conceal a range of important visual criteria for attractiveness (e.g. ...
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Background: The ‘beer goggles’ phenomenon describes sexual attraction to individuals when alcohol intoxicated whom we would not desire when sober. One possible explanation of the effect is that alcohol impairs the detection of facial asymmetry, thus lowering the drinker’s threshold for physical attraction. Aims: We therefore tested the hypotheses that higher breath alcohol drinkers would award more generous ratings of attractiveness to asymmetrical faces, and be poorer at discriminating bilateral facial asymmetry than less intoxicated counterparts. Methods: Ninety-nine male and female bar patrons rated 18 individual faces for attractiveness and symmetry. Each type of rating was given twice, once per face with an enhanced asymmetry and once again for each face in its natural form. Participants then judged which of two same-face versions (one normal, the other perfectly symmetrised) was more attractive and, in the final task, more symmetrical. Results: Alcohol had no influence on attractiveness judgements but higher blood alcohol concentrations were associated with higher symmetry ratings. Furthermore, as predicted, heavily intoxicated individuals were less able to distinguish natural from perfectly symmetrised face versions than more sober drinkers. Conclusions: Findings therefore suggest alcohol impairs face asymmetry detection, but it seems that this perceptual distortion does not contribute to the ‘beer goggles’ phenomenon.
... While the notion that "people get prettier at closing time" might seem like an urban legend, several studies support this thesis. The closing time effect, as the literature has coined it, proposes that bar patrons rate opposite-sex, but not same-sex, individuals as more attractive during closing time than during earlier times of a bar's opening hours (Johnco et al., 2010;Nida & Koon, 1983;Pennebaker et al., 1979). With the basis in Brehm's (1972) reactance theory, Pennebaker et al. (1979) proposed that time restrictions will threaten the freedom to choose a partner, which, in turn, will cause patrons to increase their attractiveness ratings of potential partners in such consumption contexts. ...
... The closing time effect, as the literature has coined it, proposes that bar patrons rate opposite-sex, but not same-sex, individuals as more attractive during closing time than during earlier times of a bar's opening hours (Johnco et al., 2010;Nida & Koon, 1983;Pennebaker et al., 1979). With the basis in Brehm's (1972) reactance theory, Pennebaker et al. (1979) proposed that time restrictions will threaten the freedom to choose a partner, which, in turn, will cause patrons to increase their attractiveness ratings of potential partners in such consumption contexts. As the threat becomes bigger when the closing time approaches, so will the magnitude of the reactance. ...
... Thus, to expand on the literature, the current work investigated whether the closing time effect applies to self-rated attractiveness rather than attractiveness ratings for opposite-sex individuals. Pennebaker et al. (1979) was the first to document the closing time effect. Since then, several studies have attempted to replicate the original findings (Gladue & Delaney, 1990;Johnco et al., 2010;Madey et al., 1996;Nida & Koon, 1983;Sprecher et al., 1984). ...
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Across three studies, the present research examined beliefs and real-world responses pertaining to whether bar patrons' self-rated attractiveness would be higher later in the night. Contrary to beliefs held by lay people (Study 1A) and researchers in relevant disciplines (Study 1B), the results of a field study (Study 2) revealed that patrons perceived themselves as more attractive at later times, regardless of the amount of alcohol consumed. Relationship status moderated this time-contingent finding, which only applied to patrons who were single. However, consistent with sexual strategies theory, this interplay was further moderated by the patrons' sex. Men rated themselves as more attractive later in the night regardless of their relationship status, whereas this "pretty" pattern only held for single women. Taken together, the current work highlights the concept of time in forming consumers' evaluative judgments and adds to the literature on the closing time effect.
... Our observations concur with the evidence of a widespread variability in female preferences across the animal kingdom (Cotton et al., 2006;Rodríguez, 2020;Rosenthal & Ryan, 2022). Preferences can be opposite in different females of the same population, and even in the same female over the course of life, suggesting adaptive flexibility in preferences (Rosenthal & Ryan, 2022), with females often getting more permissive as mates become scarce, risks increase or time is short (Hedrick & Dill, 1993;Pennebaker et al., 1979;Rand et al., 1997). ...
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There is growing evidence that the female reproductive fluid (FRF) plays an important role in cryptic female choice through its differential effect on the performance of sperm from different males. In a natural spawning event, the male(s) may release ejaculate closer or further away from the spawning female. If the relative spatial proximity of competing males reflects the female pre-mating preference towards those males, then favoured males will encounter higher concentrations of FRF than unpreferred males. Despite this being a common situation in many external fertilizers, whether different concentrations of FRF can differentially influence the sperm performance of distinct male phenotypes (favoured and unfavoured by the female) remains to be elucidated. Here, we tested this hypothesis using the grass goby (Zosterisessor ophiocephalus), a fish with distinct territorial-sneaker reproductive tactics and female pre-mating preference towards territorial males, that consequently mate in an advantaged position and whose sperm experience higher concentrations of FRF. Our findings revealed a differential concentration-dependent effect of FRF over sneaker and territorial sperm motility only at low concentrations (i.e. at the distance where sneakers typically ejaculate), with increasing FRF concentrations (i.e. close to the eggs) similarly boosting the sperm performance of both sneaker and territorial males. The ability to release sperm close to the eggs is a prerogative of territorials, but FRF can likewise advantage the sperm of those sneakers that are able to get closer, allowing flexibility in the direction of female post-mating choice. Abstract The female reproductive fluid (FRF) is emerging as a key mediator of cryptic female choice. However, the importance of the specific FRF concentration encountered by the different competing ejaculates has never been evaluated in a sperm competition context. In this study, we investigate the influence of varying FRF concentrations on the sperm performance of alternative male phenotypes in the grass goby (Zosterisessor ophiocephalus), a species with distinct Territorial(T)-Sneaker(S) reproductive tactics that usually mate in different positions, and whose ejaculates consequently experience different FRF concentrations.
... Thus, men have evolved to be more sensitive to mating cues and more motivated to engage in short-term mating than women are (Haselton & Buss, 2000). Indeed, a plethora of studies have shown that men are more ready to have casual sex with strangers (Buss & Schmitt, 1993;Clark & Hatfield, 1989;Herold & Mewhinney, 1993;Oliver & Hyde, 1993), take more risk to obtain sexual gratification (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2006), overrate women's sexual interest in themselves (Grammer et al., 2000), and lower their mating standards in the context of sexual opportunities (Pennebaker et al., 1979;Szepsenwol et al., 2013; for a broad review, see Thomas, 2018). ...
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Individual differences in men’s short-term mating interest are well studied, both at state and trait levels. Yet, the role of sexual arousal as a source of intra-individual variation has been neglected. This research represents the first attempt to integrate sexual arousal into the human mate plasticity literature. We argue that sexual arousal directly impacts the short-term mating motivation among men regardless of their personality, relationship status, and sociosexuality. Across four experiments, we found that heightened sexual arousal consistently increased men’s short-term mating motivation relative to participants in neutral and arousing control groups. Experiments 1 and 2 revealed that sexual arousal increased participants’ general short-term mating motivation and their preference for a short-term relationship over a long-term one. Experiment 3 replicated the findings of the first two experiments whilst also demonstrating that this effect was not moderated by personality (i.e., Dark Triad, Big Five) or relationship status. Heightened sexual arousal also led to decreased “state” long-term mating motivation. Finally, Experiment 4 showed that sexual arousal increased the participants’ preference for a short-term relationship over a long-term one, an effect that was not moderated by sociosexuality. Together, the results suggest that sexual arousal has a powerful effect on men’s short-term mating motivation, and that this effect is independent of intrasexual differences in personality, relationship status, and sociosexuality.
... Theory and research also provide indirect evidence for the idea that perceiving many available partners decreases commitment readiness. For instance, theoretical perspectives (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004;Sprecher, 1998) and supporting research (Jemmott III, Ashby, & Lindenfeld, 1989;Pennebaker et al., 1979;Stone, Shackelford, & Buss, 2007;Uecker & Regnerus, 2010) on sex ratios suggest that people who are heterosexual become less selective when there are more people of their own sex compared to the other sex and thus have fewer romantic opportunities, and become more selective when their sex is in the minority and thus have greater romantic opportunities. Similarly, economic theories (Lynn, 1991;Rosato, 2016;Schwartz & Ward, 2004) and supporting research (Haynes, 2009;Iyengar & Lepper, 2000) on scarcity suggest that people tend to desire scarce or limited options more than highly available options, and often struggle to select an option when choices are too plentiful. ...
Article
People often consider how ready they feel for a committed romantic relationship before initiating one. Although research has only begun to identify the antecedents of commitment readiness, several theoretical perspectives suggest that it should be shaped by the perceived frequency of available partners. We conducted five studies (one correlational, four experimental) that tested this idea among single people. A Pilot Study assessed participants' perceptions of available romantic partners and their commitment readiness. In the subsequent four experiments, participants read articles (Studies 1a and 1b) or created dating profiles and were presented with false feedback (Studies 2 and 3) that influenced perceptions of available partners and reported their commitment readiness. Results suggested that people were less ready to commit to a romantic relationship to the extent that they perceived they had many partners available to them. These results further understanding of factors that promote the decision to initiate a committed relationship.
... The phenomenon became known as the closing time effect. J. W. Pennebaker et al. (1978) conducted the first experiment testing this observation. Using 52 men and 51 women as subjects at three bars near a college campus, experimenters asked individuals the following question: "On a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 indicates 'not attractive,' 5 indicates 'average,' and 10 indicates 'extremely attractive, how would you rate the opposite-sex individuals here tonight?" ...
... B. Morris & Albery, 2001;Rehm et al., 2012). However, increased likelihood to engage in unprotected sexual intercourse may also be influenced by the 'beer goggles' phenomenon (Lyvers, Cholakians, Puorro, & Sundram, 2009;Maynard, Skinner, Troy, Attwood, & Munafò, 2015;Pennebaker et al., 1979) (an increase in perceived attractiveness of others when intoxicated) than alcohol-induced risk-taking per se. ...
Thesis
Background: Up until now research investigating alcohol and risk-taking has largely overlooked influences from the social settings in which drinking usually occurs. The thesis therefore examines systematically, risk-taking as a determinant and consequence of alcohol consumption, whilst addressing the independent and combined influences of social contexts. Method: Study 1 –Participants completed online surveys measuring trait impulsivity, risk-taking propensity, and alcohol use behaviours. Study 2 – General risk-taking and computer simulated risky driving were measured before and following 0.6g/kg of alcohol or placebo administration in isolation or in natural friendship groups. Study 3 – Risk-taking was assessed in isolation or in natural friendship groups, following 0.8g/kg of alcohol or placebo consumption. Risk-taking behaviour was measured via The Shuffleboard Game, developed to examine physical risk-taking more akin to real world drinking games. Affective state was further measured both before and after beverage consumption. Study 4 –Intoxication levels, experienced alcohol-related consequences, relative injunctive norms, and risky gambling, were measured in real world alcohol and non-alcohol-related environments. Group size data were also collected. Meta-analysis – A systematic search of Web of Science, PsycINFO and PsycARTICLES, revealed 22 (k = 35) alcohol administration studies measuring risky behaviour. Results: Study 1 found both impulsivity and risk-taking predicted 8-11% of variance in hazardous and harmful alcohol use, and dependence symptoms, and 10-14% when combined. Results suggested some overlap between impulsive and risk-taking traits, yet still supported them as distinct constructs. In Study 2, those who were tested in group contexts were riskier on both general and driving-related tasks, than those in isolation. However, no effect of alcohol or interaction of intoxication and group was found on risky behaviour. Conversely, in Study 3, both alcohol and group contexts were found to independently increase risky behaviour on The Shuffleboard Game, although no interaction of beverage and context was revealed. Further, a more positive mood predicted increased risk-taking behaviour. Study 4 revealed no influence of environment (alcohol versus non-alcohol), intoxication levels or injunctive norms on risky gambling, whereas larger group size was associated with riskier lottery choice in non-alcohol-related environments only. Furthermore, injunctive norms predicted experience of risky alcohol consequences, and were riskier in alcohol-related settings. Finally, the meta-analysis found a small, yet significant effect of acute alcohol consumption on risky behaviours, and more specifically on risky driving and gambling. However, alcohol was not found to influence risk-taking on general (non-specific) risk-taking tasks. Overall conclusions: Overall it was found that social contexts consistently increase individual risky behaviour, whereas alcohol effects on risk-taking are contingent on the risk domain measured. The lack of a combined influence of intoxication and groups highlights the importance of targeting social influences and perceived injunctive norms alongside alcohol consumption to reduce risky behaviour in drinking settings. Moreover, the varied effects of alcohol across risk domains outlines important implications for future research assessing risk-taking. Finally, the thesis finds risk-taking to be a predictor of alcohol consumption behaviours therefore, identifying potential risk-factors to address when attempting to reduce problematic alcohol consumption. Original contribution: The experimental research is the first of its kind to experimentally measure both the influence of alcohol and group contexts on individual risk-taking, as opposed to a collective group decision. Further, the thesis offers new insights into the effect of alcohol consumption on risk-taking as findings suggest variations of intoxication influences across risk-domains. Finally, the thesis contributes a newly developed measure of risky behaviour which potentially demonstrates risk-taking more akin to real-world drinking.
Chapter
In this chapter, we review the literature on attractiveness by explaining the multifaceted nature of attractiveness and then focusing on physical attractiveness as it has a predominant impact on attractiveness.
Article
Darwin's theory of sexual selection fundamentally changed how we think about sex and evolution. The struggle over mating and fertilization is a powerful driver of diversification within and among species. Contemporaries dismissed Darwin's conjecture of a "taste for the beautiful" as favoring particular mates over others, but there is now overwhelming evidence for a primary role of both male and female mate choice in sexual selection. Darwin's misogyny precluded much analysis of the "taste"; an increasing focus on mate choice mechanisms before, during, and after mating reveals that these often evolve in response to selection pressures that have little to do with sexual selection on chosen traits. Where traits and preferences do coevolve, they can do so whether fitness effects on choosers are positive, neutral, or negative. The spectrum of selection on traits and preferences, and how traits and preferences respond to social effects, determine how sexual selection and mate choice influence broader-scale processes like reproductive isolation and population responses to environmental change.
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Used J. W. Brehm's (see 41:7) theory of psychological reactance to derive the hypothesis that prior to making a decision between 2 alternatives, ratings of the attractiveness of those alternatives will converge as the decision point draws nearer in time. An experiment was conducted in which the amount of time until a decision had to be made was manipulated to be either 3, 8, or 15 min. 59 female undergraduates in these conditions rated the attractiveness of the 2 alternatives immediately after learning of the amount of time until the decision. Results indicate that the difference between the ratings of the 2 alternatives was greater the more time Ss expected to elapse before a decision was required. Data were also collected from Ss who merely evaluated the 2 alternatives, not expecting to decide between them, and from Ss who had just committed themselves to 1 of the alternatives. Implications of data for competing theories of predecisional cognitive processes, and the limitations that must be placed on the reactance theory interpretation of these results, are discussed. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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