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Syntax: A Minimalist Introduction
Abstract
This textbook provides a concise, readable introduction to contemporary work in syntactic theory, particularly to key concepts of Chomsky's minimalist programme. Andrew Radford gives a general overview of the main theoretical concepts and descriptive devices used in 1990s work. The discussion is largely based on data from a range of varieties of English (not only Modern Standard, but also Belfast English, Shakespearean English, Jamaican Creole, etc.) and does not presuppose any prior knowledge of syntax. There are exercises and a substantial glossary. This is an abridged version of Radford's major textbook Syntactic Theory and the Structure of English: A Minimalist Approach, and will be welcomed as a short introduction to current syntactic theory.
... The agreement affixes marked on the verb morphology in (1) illustrate that the inflectional ending suffixed to each finite verb does agree with its respective subject in each sentence. In this connection, Radford (1997) stresses that in Shakespearean English three present-tense inflections are found: second person singular +st, third person singular +th and +s. ...
... This syntactic movement operation allows the verb to be in a local Spec-head relation with its subject; hence its person/number/Case specifier-features can be licensed in the syntax. The preceding line of analysis is in agreement with Radford (1997) that this kind of V-movement operation of a finite non-auxiliary verb from the head V position of VP into the head I(NFL) position of IP was productive in the Early Modern English period at the time Shakespeare was writing his plays, around 1600. But this V-movement operation is no longer productive in present-day English. ...
... That is, the feature content of the subject cannot be recovered from the morpheme on the verb morphology. In this connection, Radford (1997) states that since Modern Standard English has a weak system of agreement, its agreement morphology is too impoverished to allow identification of a null pro subject. Example (8) If we ask questions like (8a and b), we will not be able to tell from the agreementless form can/may whether the subject NP is she, they, we, he, I, it, you, or whatever. ...
هدفت هذه الدراسة إلى بيان البنية التركيبية للفاعل المستتر في اللغة الإنجليزية الحديثة المبكرة، و اللغة العربية الفصحى ، و كذلك اللغة الإنجليزية الفصحى الحديثة ، و بيان وظيفة هذا الضمير في هذه اللغات. اتبعت الدراسة المنهج التحليلي (المصغر) عند تشومسكي (1995) لبيان كيف تتوافق الجملة الإسمية مع الضمير المستتر فيها، و كيف يتم التحقق من علامات الزمن للفعل في اللغة الإنجليزية الحديثة المبكرة ، و اللغة العربية الفصحى. استخدمت الدراسة تحليلا بديلا لكشف الضمير المستتر في الجملة التي فاعلها معروف في اللغة العربية الفصحى. و على هذا، فإن ضمير الفاعل المستتر ينتقل من موقعه المستتر في الجملة الفعلية إلى موقع الفاعل البنيوي و الفكري للجملة و يعمل عمل جملة الوصف بهدف بيان إمكانية حدوث ذلك.
... The syntax of question particles has received considerable attention in the syntactic analyses of the world languages in the past thirty years in generative grammar, where various analyses and treatments of different syntactic approaches have been suggested and proposed in an attempt to provide a satisfactory account of the subject under investigation [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]. In the existing literature on yes-no questions in the world languages, much work has been observed, and very less work has been conducted on question particles in Standard Arabic (SA, henceforth). ...
... In the Minimalist Program, Chomsky [4] departed from the earlier treatment of the Q-morpheme hypothesis and proposed the feature-checking approach based on 'economy principles.' Chomsky explored the abstract question affix Q (= [+wh]) and assumed its presence in the deep structure of the interrogative structure. Chomsky proposed that the complementizer C in an interrogative clause contains an abstract question affix Q, with a strong Q-feature, as demonstrated in (5 On the other hand, Chomsky indicated that as languages differ in the strength of the Q-feature, "the strong Q-feature is satisfied by a feature FQ", [4, p.289]. The abstract affix Q is strong in English and that in the process of feature checking, the Q-feature must be eliminated in the syntax 'by insertion of FQ' in its licensing domain; once FQ is checked in the domain, it erases Q by Merge or Move, by substitution or adjunction. ...
... Moreover, Radford [5,6] discussed auxiliary inversion in English yes-no questions involving an I-movement, where an auxiliary verb moves up from INFL to COMP. Radford indicated that Q must be affixed either to an interrogative complementizer or an auxiliary and noted that an interrogative COMP is strong in English and, hence, can motivate the movement of an auxiliary from INFL to COMP. ...
Unlike wh-question questions in Standard Arabic (SA), which received much attention in the past decades in different approaches within generative grammar, question particles (yes-no questions) in SA have not yet been studied thoroughly in minimalist syntax, and less attention has been paid to them. There is a need to analyze SA question articles and explore their syntactic behavior within minimalism. The reason why this topic has been selected for study is that SA question particles have not been investigated in detail yet in Chomsky’s Phase Theory; it has not been analyzed how question particles are derived and represented morpho-syntactically in a clause structure. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the morpho-syntax of SA question particles and provide satisfactory answers to the following questions: (i) Do question particles in SA undergo any syntactic movement to [Spec-CP] in the derivation of yes-no questions? If not, why?, (ii) Are question particles based-generated in [Spec-CP]?, and (iii) How can question particles be accounted for neatly in Chomsky’s Phase-based Theory? The paper adopts Chomsky’s Phase Theory to examine the interaction between the assumptions of this theory and the SA data on question particles. The study findings reveal that, unlike English, question particles in SA do not undergo any syntactic movement while deriving yes-no questions and are assumed to be base-generated in [Spec-CP]. Such question particles are not part of the verb morphology and are merely morphological affixes used as devices to mark interrogativity in the syntax; they do not carry any agreement and tense features that trigger syntactic movement to the clause-initial position.
... The analysis explored whether L2 proficiency categories related to lexical growth of metaphorically-used prepositions within different contexts or discourse domains. Relatively fixed constructions involving prepositions could be deemed to be listed in learners' mental lexicon as lexical collocations or "lexical entries" (e.g., Levin, 1993;Radford, 1988Radford, , 1997. ...
... Lexical learning: Also called lexical growth, it refers to the incorporation of lexical collocations in participants' repertoires or mental lexicons. It is assumed that relatively fixed metaphorical collocations within prepositional phrase constructions could be deemed to be listed in learners' mental lexicon as lexical units or "lexical entries" (e.g., Levin, 1993;Radford, 1988Radford, , 1997. In this study, lexical learning was deemed to be usage-based, where constructions can be learned from frequent use as whole units or tokens (e.g., Ellis, 2010Ellis, , 2015. ...
... For instance, particular sets of prepositions are required and specified by a prepositional verb (e.g., "She argued against the proposal", "She argued for the proposal", but not *"She argued on the proposal"). Given the limited number of possible co-occurrences between these types of verbs and specific prepositions, it might be easier for students to learn them as lexical collocations, and store them as "lexical entries" (e.g., Levin, 1993;Radford, 1988Radford, , 1997. In other words, if the ideal lexical entry involves the minimum amount of information provided for that entry (e.g., Levin, 1993), verbs co-occurring with specific prepositions might be listed in the lexicon as lexical collocations. ...
Learning to use prepositions in English as a second language (L2) has been widely
acknowledged to pose significant difficulties to learners, especially within metaphorical contexts. Difficulties relate to the complex distributional patterns of prepositions in discourse, namely, the variety of collocations requiring their use, as well as cross-linguistic differences both at the structural and conceptual levels. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has thus far described learner usage of metaphorical prepositions as “errors”, without placing much detailed attention upon the lexical, conceptual and contextual nuances that may impinge on their uses.
Furthermore, scarce attention to the value of learners’ semantic and conceptual patterns in preposition phrasal collocations has led to ineffective memorization-driven instruction. While it is acknowledged that prepositions are difficult for L2 learners, more or less difficulty in learning metaphorical collocations of prepositions within specific prepositional phrases has scarcely been researched, for which this study attempted to provide an initial understanding. This dissertation included a mixed methods and cross-sectional design, where instances of preposition use within two types of metaphorical constructions were explored by means of a semi-structured interview. Extents to which participants may have engaged in spatial thinking while using prepositions metaphorically were also explored through the design of a spatial priming task. The two types of metaphorical constructions focused upon in the study were prepositional phrases complementing the copula (PP-copula constructions) and prepositional phrases complementing prepositional
verbs (PP-prepV constructions). Participants included learners of English with L1 Spanish ranging from low intermediate to advanced proficiencies, as well as English native speakers as a comparison group. From a syntax and semantics perspective, both PP-copula and PP-prepV constructions were be deemed to pose difficulties to learners, but to different extents and in relation to several phenomena such as knowledge of conventionality, potential metaphorical conceptualizations, and L1 influence. The study explored patterns and changes in metaphorical preposition use across groups within the two construction types of interest, illuminating trends in
conventionality, as well as persistence and changes in metaphorical conceptualizations across proficiencies (“trajectories”). Interrelationships between L1 influence and the incorporation of L2 English patterns were identified in learners’ interlanguage collocations, and were compared across proficiencies. Additionally, potential relationships were explored between participants’ metaphorical preposition uses, and aspects of language experience collected by means of a language background questionnaire. Results suggest that metaphorical PP-prepV constructions tend to contribute more to learners’ repertoires of lexical collocations as proficiency increased compared to metaphorical PP-copula constructions. Conventionality in preposition use was observed to increase with proficiency, especially within metaphorical PP-prepV constructions. Linguistic and conceptual “trajectories” revealed that learners worked with networks of conventional and unconventional preposition collocations. Some unconventional collocations
persisted across proficiencies in reference to specific abstract notions, while others shifted toward NS lexical and conceptual conventionality when referring to other abstract notions. The study also shed light on participants’ engagement in spatial thinking while processing prepositions in metaphorical contexts. The discussion highlights lexical and conceptual networks relative to particular abstract notions, as well as L1 and L2 influence in learners’ interlanguage collocations. This study could be relevant to language teachers in offering insight into patterns and changes in L2 learners’ metaphorical preposition use within specific domains of discourse.
Findings could provide possible conceptual and lexical starting points among intermediate and advanced proficiencies in relation to specific prepositional phrase constructions, from which teachers could provide scaffolding to promote expansion of learners’ L2 lexical repertoires.
... Kipatanishi ni kiambishi kinachofungama na shina la kitenzi kuwakilisha vijenzi vya kisarufi; hali, yambwa, njeo, ngeli ya kiima na nafsi (Radford, 1997). Hivyo basi tuna vipera vitano vya vipatanishi. ...
... Vivumishi aghalabu huchukua viambishi awali vya ngeli. Kuna kategoria tatu finyu za vivumishi ambazo ni; vivumishi vya umbo, tabia na sifa (Radford, 1997). ...
Kiswahili kimekuwa muhimu sana hata kabla ya ujio wa wakoloni nchini Kenya hasa katika kuendeleza mawasiliano. Kabla ya wakoloni, Kiswahili kilitumika katika maeneo ya Pwani kuendeleza mawasiliano ya kibiashara miongoni mwa wakaazi wa Pwani na Waarabu. Biashara ilipoendelea kunoga na watu kutoka maeneo ya bara kuanza kushiriki katika biashara ya pale pwani, Kiswahili kilienea na matumizi yake yakapanuka. Licha ya kupanuka kimatumizi Kiswahili kimekubwa na changamoto nyingi, mojawapo ikiwa ni kuwepo kwa makosa ya kiisimu hasa kwa wanaojifunza Kiswahili kama lugha ya pili. Hivyo basi utafiti huu ulikusudia kubaini chanzo cha makosa ya kiisimu miongoni mwa wanafunzi hasa wanaozungumza lahaja ya Kigichugu wanapojifunza kiswahili kama lugha ya pili. Uchunguzi huu uliendelezwa nyanjani na maktabani.Nyanjani ulitekelezwa katika shule za sekondari za kutwa katika kaunti ndogo ya Gichugu zilizoteuliwa kwa kutumia mbinu ya sampuli kimaksudi. Wanafunzi walioshiriki katika shule hizi walichaguliwa kwa kutumia mbinu ya usampulishaji wa kinasibu pale ambapo walipatiwa nambari kinasibu na waliopata nambari moja hadi sita kuteuliwa. Data ya utafiti huu ilikusanywa kwa kutumia hojaji, na masimulizi na kuwasilishwa kupitia majedwali na maelezo. Matokeo ya utafiti huu yalidhihirisha kuwa wengi wa wanafunzi katika shule za upili za kutwa katika eneo la Gichugu hujifunza Kigichugu kama lugha yao ya kwanza. Isitoshe, wengi huanza kutumia Kiswahili wanapojiunga na shule. Isitoshe, utafiti huu ulidhihirisha makosa mengi ya kiisimu (yaliyovunja kanuni za nadharia ya Sintaksia Finyizi) yaliyotokana na lahaja ya Kigichugu. Vyanzo vya makosa haya ambavyo vinaegemea kwa kiasi kikubwa kwa L1 ni : uhamishaji wa mifumo ya kiisimu, tafsiri sisisi, na ujumlishaji mno
... Kanuni ya ufungami hushikilia kuwa anafora lazima ifungamane na kisabiki ili maana ieleweke Radford (1997). Tulitumia kanuni hii kutathimini makosa ya kiisimu ya wanafunzi wagichugu kwa kujikita hasa kwa anafora na visabiki vya sentensi za wanafunzi. ...
... Tulitumia kanuni hii kutathimini makosa ya kiisimu ya wanafunzi wagichugu kwa kujikita hasa kwa anafora na visabiki vya sentensi za wanafunzi. Radford (1997) alipendekeza vigezo vya ufangami ambavyo ni : ...
Binadamu wanahitaji lugha ili kuwasiliana na mojawapo ya lugha maarufu ulimwenguni ni Kiswahili. Kiswahili kimetafitiwa na wataalamu wengi ili kutafuta suluhisho la baadhi ya changamoto zinazokumba lugha hii na kuiboresha. Mojawapo ya changamoto na suala ambalo halijatafitiwa na utafiti huu ulikusudia kubaini ni makosa ya kiisimu ya wanafunzi wanaojifunza Kiswahili kama lugha ya pili : Uchunguzi kuhusiana na lahaja ya Kigichugu.Utafiti huu ulitumikiza kanuni na mihimili ya nadharia ya Sintaksia Finyizi ili kuweka wazi makosa ya kisintaksia na kisemantiki yanayofanywa na wanagenzi wa Kigichugu wanapojifunza Kiswahili kama L2. Uchunguzi huu uliendelezwa nyanjani na maktabani.Nyanjani ulitekelezwa katika shule za sekondari za kutwa katika kaunti ndogo ya Gichugu kwa sababu ndiko kuna wazungumzaji asilia wa Kigichugu. Katika utafiti huu tulipaswa kuteua shule,na wanafunzi wa kufanyia utafiti. Katika uchaguzi wa shule za kutwa za kufanyia utafiti tulitumia mbinu ya sampuli kimaksudi. Katika uteuzi wa wanafunzi tulitumia usampulishaji wa kinasibu pale ambapo tulipatia wanafunzi nambari kinasibu na kuteua waliopata nambari moja hadi sita. Data ya utafiti huu ilikusanywa kwa kutumia hojaji , insha na masimulizi . Data ya utafiti iliwasilishwa kupitia majedwali na maelezo. Matokeo ya utafiti huu yalidhihirisha makosa mengi ya kisintaksia na kisemantiki yaliyotokana na lahaja ya Kigichugu. Makosa haya ni kama vile: makosa ya wanafunzi wagichugu katika matumizi ya nomino, vitenzi, vipatanishi, vivumishi, vibainishi, vielezi, vihusishi na vishamirishi. Makosa haya yalipelekea si tu kuibuka kwa muundo wa sentensi usiokubalika(sintaksia) bali hata kuwepo kwa maana, tofauti na iliyokusudiwa na wanafunzi hawa au isiyoeleweka, hivyo basi kuwepo kwa makosa ya kisemantiki (semantiki leksika na semantiki mantiki). Makosa haya yalichanganuliwa kwa kutumia nadharia ya Sintaksia Finyizi na kudhihirisha ukiukaji wa kanuni za nadharia hii
... The forms is and are are accurate; they agree in tense and phi with those in I of the sentential subjects. 18 That spurious be plays a tense and agreement marking role is reminiscent of Radford's (1998) remark on do as an aspectual marker in Early Modern English and present-day varieties of English. Examples from Shakespeare's Macbeth and Caribbean creoles in Harris' (1986) and Rickford's (1986) studies are reproduced from Radford's (iii) and (iv),in (83) and (84) Sentence (83), according to Radford (1998), suggests two possibilities; if do is a dummy element and, doth, meaning 'does', was inserted as a last resort, doth would be meaningless; what it did was maintain a foursyllable rhyming pattern, e.g., A drum! ...
... 18 That spurious be plays a tense and agreement marking role is reminiscent of Radford's (1998) remark on do as an aspectual marker in Early Modern English and present-day varieties of English. Examples from Shakespeare's Macbeth and Caribbean creoles in Harris' (1986) and Rickford's (1986) studies are reproduced from Radford's (iii) and (iv),in (83) and (84) Sentence (83), according to Radford (1998), suggests two possibilities; if do is a dummy element and, doth, meaning 'does', was inserted as a last resort, doth would be meaningless; what it did was maintain a foursyllable rhyming pattern, e.g., A drum! A drum! Another possibility, according to him, was to assume doth as an element conveying some semantic content, such as aspect. ...
This paper is data oriented; it attempts to determine the status of be preceding bare VP and NegP complements, in data obtained from written expressions of 32 Thai EFL students. As this spurious be has not been examined intensively and its status is crucial to understanding L2 acquisition of tense and agreement, this study conducted a systematic investigation of this issue. Having employed data related to IP and CP, it claims that spurious be is restricted to IP, and is inserted into Infl, in the Do-support fashion. Spurious be is triggered by not and finiteness. Supporting evidence involves the fact that spurious be occurs in the absence of do, in conjunction with uninflected lexical main verbs. It is claimed that L2 learners are not influenced by their L1, have access to functional categories available from UG, and apply insertion of be exclusively for IP.
... RESUMO: O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar uma proposta a respeito da fonte de valoração do Caso Egativo e a existência do fenômeno de Object Shift na língua Krahô, falada no estado do Tocantins, Brasil. Para isso, foi utilizada a Teoria do Caso, da sintaxe gerativa, e o panorama contemporâneo do Programa Minimalista (Chomsky, 1999;Radford, 1997;Adger, 2003). As propostas foram pautadas em descrições dos sistemas de caso já realizadas para línguas indígenas brasileiras (Duarte, 2007;Duarte, 2022). ...
... Nos basearemos no panorama contemporâneo do programa Minimalista (Chomsky, 1999;Radford, 1997;Adger, 2003), nas descrições dos sistemas de alinhamento de línguas indígenas brasileiras (Duarte, 2007;Duarte, 2022) e nas teorias de movimento do objeto (Svenonius, 2000). Pelo fato de o sistema gramatical do Krahô se mostrar altamente dependente da categoria de Aspecto, lançamos da mão da conceituação de Comrie (1998 ...
RESUMO: O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar uma proposta a respeito da fonte de valoração do Caso Egativo e a existência do fenômeno de Object Shift na língua Krahô, falada no estado do Tocantins, Brasil. Para isso, foi utilizada a Teoria do Caso, da sintaxe gerativa, e o panorama contemporâneo do Programa Minimalista (Chomsky, 1999; Radford, 1997; Adger, 2003). As propostas foram pautadas em descrições dos sistemas de caso já realizadas para línguas indígenas brasileiras (Duarte, 2007; Duarte, 2022). O conjunto de dados utilizado conta com 68 sentenças provenientes do trabalho de Souza (1989) e organizadas em diferentes séries aspectuais (perfectivo e imperfectivo). A partir dos dados, foi descrito o sistema pronominal da língua, que parece apontar para a existência de um sistema de caso Ergativo-absolutivo para sentenças não finitas e Nominativo-acusativo em sentenças finitas. O Object Shift ocorre em sentenças bieventivas, fazendo emergir a ordem SO(V-CAUS)V.
... (Chomsky, 1995:337) Incorporated objects then will not be eligible to move to [Spec, F] even if the verb raises to F to induce equidistance, since this would violate the condition on the uniformity of chains (mentioned in Chomsky 1995:253). Radford (1997) expresses this condition as a principle: ...
... Still, it can account for the existence of idioms made up of a subject and a verb. Radford (1997) reports that elements that do not form a unitary constituent are not eligible to be idiomatized: "we don't find idioms of the form subject+verb where the verb has a complement which isn't part of the idiom" (Radford, 1997:159). Such idioms exist in Turkish, and SO order is not possible unless we dispense with the idiomatic interpretation: With the assumption that idioms are stored in the lexicon as units, it seems reasonable to assume that idioms consisting of a subject and a verb result form the lexicalization of a syntactic process, namely subject incorporation. ...
This study aims to contribute to the efforts of explaining word order variations observed in Turkish, by granting a role to the hierarchical structure for certain word order alternations, and by admitting discourse-driven ‘extra-syntactic’ mechanisms for others. It will propose a tentative extension to the framework of the Minimalist Program (as it appears in Chomsky, 1995), by adopting its basic tenets and introducing the information structure (IS) as a representation that feeds the phonological component. IS differences will be maintained to be responsible from what is frequently referred to in the literature as ‘optional’ or ‘stylistic’ movements. Extraposition and contrastive focus fronting will be argued to be IS-driven movements in Turkish. It will be maintained that the SOV-OSV alternation in the surface forms with pre-verbal focus signals a difference in the hierarchical structure, whereas other word orders in transitives can best be viewed as sharing the phrase structures, hence being discursive variants of either the SOV or the OSV construction. OSV will be analyzed as involving a grammatical movement of the object to an IPexternal Spec position. In addition, OSV will be proposed to represent the inverse voice in Turkish. The phrase structure in Turkish will be analyzed from a Minimalist perspective, and structural analyses will be given for what is referred to as
‘incorporation’ of objects and subjects in Turkish.
Keywords: Turkish, word order, phrase structure, information structure, phonological component, extraposition, contrastive fronting, topic-driven movement, Case checking, object shift, incorporation, VP-shells, scrambling, inverse voice, basic word order.
... Its motive is to cut down the syntactic derivation process to a minimum level and also develop a theory of language acquisition that maximizes the learnability of natural language grammar. (Chomsky, 1995;Radford, 1997;Marantz, 1995;Crystal, 2008;Collins, 2011;2016, etc.). According to Cook and Newson (2007), the ''Minimalist Program intends to reduce the number of operations and assumptions, making it, in the end, simpler than past theories''. ...
This study investigates polar questions in Olùkùmi, an island dialect of Yorùbá. Clauses have unique peculiarities that distinguish one clause type from another in every language. This informs why a question construction can be differentiated from any other construction type. Question construction is of various types one of which is the polar question that is the focus of this paper. A polar question is the question type that expects affirmation or rejection. Studies on Olùkùmi have paid little attention to question types. Hence, this study aims to fill this gap in language documentation by illustrating the derivation, projection, and possible responses to polar questions in Olùkùmi. This study adopts a qualitative method, and the frame technique is used for data collection to get relevant structural samples from competent native speakers in the Ugbódù community, Delta state, Nigeria. Chomsky's Minimalist Program is adopted as the theoretical framework. Findings show that Olùkùmi uses a high-low tone morph under the special intonation pattern which takes the last vocalic anchor of an affirmative construction as a polar particle. The particle surfaces sentence finally changes the status of a declarative construction to a polar construction. Also, It was discovered that polar question derivation in Olùkùmi has a limited overt particle/marker and its response could either be he ̣ he ̣ he ̣ /báà ni ''Yes/It is so'' or he ̣ he ̣ / é è ghò báà ''No/ It is not so''. This study has shown that the form and derivation pattern of the Olùkùmi polar question is different from standard Yorùbá.
... Following Chomsky's tradition, a native speaker's knowledge of his mother's tongue, technically known as grammatical competence, is the tacit knowledge which enables him to form and interpret words, phrases and sentences in his native language (Radford, 1997). Hence it is a native speaker's grammatical competence which informs him that the word pin is made up of discrete sound units, so that the initial sound /p/ can be replaced with a minimally different sound /b/ to form a different word bin. ...
... 5 Kaynaklarda içinde sözcüğü farklı ulamlar üzerinden tanımlanabilmektedir. TDK Türkçe Sözlük (2011) belirteç olarak etiketlerken Göksel ve Kearslake (2005, 2011 iyelik işaretli sondurum ilgeci (possessive-marked postposition) olarak değerlendirir. Çalışmada, ad öbeği işlevindeki yantümceler, adıllar, adlar ve ad öbeklerinden önce veya sonra tümleyici işlevinde kullanılarak öbek yapılar oluşturabilme (Radford, 1997;Evans ve Green 2006;Crystal, 2008;Radford, 2009) özelliğinden dolayı içinde sözcüğü ilgeç olarak kabul edilmektedir. 6 Vandeloise (1991) da İngilizce in ilgeci üzerine yaptığı çalışmasını, konuşma öncesi düşünme süreci ile başlayan kapsama şeması üzerine temellendirmekte ve söz konusu şemanın en erken üretilen şemalardan biri olduğunun altını çizmektedir. ...
Biçim ile anlamı tümleşik ve bağıntısal bir şemaya yerleştiren bilişsel dilbilim, çokanlamlılığı dilin doğal ve içkin bir özelliği olarak değerlendirmektedir. Böylece geleneksel görüşte dilbilgisel düzlemde incelenen işlev sözcükleri de farklı dinamikler üzerinden anlam temelli bir perspektifle araştırma konusu yapılabilmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı içinde ilgecinin çokanlamlılık görünümlerini bilişsel dilbilim paradigması çerçevesinde imge şematik dönüşümler, uzanımlar ve metaforik yapılanmalar kapsamında sahnelerarası ilişkilerle ortaya koymaktır. Betimsel bir niteliğe sahip araştırmanın veriseti, ilgecin bağlamsal görünümlerini kapsayan, Türkçe Ulusal Derlemi 3.0 derlem sorgusu aracılığıyla elde edilmiş 3500 bağımlı dizinden oluşmaktadır. Araştırma konusu ilgecin kapsama öntür uzanımıyla bağıntılı dört farklı imge şeması dönüşümüne uğradığı, bununla birlikte dört farklı periferik uzanıma sahip olduğu, ayrıca imge şemalarına metaforik yorumların da eklenmesiyle farklı anlamsal ağların elde edildiği ulaşılan önemli sonuçlar arasındadır.
... This is the crux of generativivism as opposed to traditional grammar that describes features of languages in specified individual languages in a taxonomic system. One of the most weaknesses of traditional grammar, being that hardly could generalization be made of structures and processes of natural language faculty, Radford (2004) calls it the internalized grammar (i-grammar), which subsequently manifests as a physical reality. Proponents of principles and parameters (P&P) describe the I-grammar as a mental package containing the rules of languages system. ...
This paper examines relativization in Ikwuano Igbo. The problem of word order and the selectional rule for grammaticality in the realization of semantic affinity that exist in sentence construction cannot be ignored. This study investigates the embedding features that make sentential structures to be embedded in other sentences. The relative pronouns found in Ikwuano Igbo include; “ónyé- who,whom”, “nkè- which”, “nà- that”, “mà- whether”, “kà- that”. The relative pronoun occurs as the subject of a relative clause making it to be grammatical. The theoretical framework adopted by this study is the embedding principle of “Principles and Parameters”. This theory is a brain child of Noam Chomsky. This study takes a descriptive approach of language analysis. The data for this paper is elicited utterances by adult native speakers and intuition from the researcher. The aim of this paper is to examine relativization in Ikwuano Igbo with a view to establishing the Ikwuano strategy. This paper explains the motivation for the relative pronoun strategy and its behavior in the language. This study reveals that relativization in Ikwuano Igbo remains the most productive strategy in Igbo and many other languages for grammaticality. The study shows that relativization performs an emphatic function in the grammatical structure of Ikwuano Igbo.
... However, just like the phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs, toinfinitive is a two-part word, which comprises a particle /to/ and a verb in its base form. With reference to Radford (1997) and Tjabaka (2021), an infinitive marker /to/ can be ellipted like other particles. Nevertheless, the preposition /to/, which forms part of the phrasal-prepositional verb, does not allow its complement to be ellipted. ...
The development of grammatical forms and synchronic effects has captured a considerable interest of researchers across the globe. The research of this phenomenon is done to understand how certain linguistic forms arise and interact with other forms. Literature also discloses that a number of studies has addressed grammaticalisation of prepositions, which has somehow resulted in categorial conflict. However, there is dearth of literature that deals with /to/ to distinguish between phrasal-prepositional verbs and infinitives as a way of resolving the conflict. Again, some of the L2 students confuse complementation of /to/ in the phrasal-prepositional verb look forward to with that of the infinitives. They fail to draw a line of demarcation between the two constructions. Therefore, this qualitative study seeks to explore the status of /to/ in the phrasal-prepositional verb and infinitive clauses. It also identifies the category label of /to/ and describes its complementation. The study purposively and conveniently extracted data from Scott’s (2022) compilation of both application and cover letters. Following the Minimalist Program, the study reveals that /to/ in both the phrasal-prepositional verb and infinitives have gone through the process of grammaticalisation. It is noted that in the phrasal-prepositional verb, /to/ is still a preposition while in the infinitive clauses, it has gone through the great complementation shift known as decategorisation and extension, hence variation in category labelling. The study also presents that the structures of the phrasal-prepositional verb and the infinitive clauses vary based on the theory and concepts adopted. As a result, it is concluded that due to grammaticalisation of /to/ in both phrasal-prepositional verb and infinitive, their complementation differs.
... According to Burner (2005:17), "Formal grammarians do not pay so much attention to meaning and context as they do to form and structures; they subject language to a bottom-up analysis, morphemes being the smallest language component they operate with, and the sentence the largest, and in between there are other levels such as word and clause." This is observed in the definitions of grammar given by Harmer (2001) and Radford (1997) above. Their conceptualisation of grammar does not go beyond syntax and morphology. ...
The purpose of this study was to search for classroom practices/exercises which would facilitate communicative competence in the teaching and learning of English grammar in Zambian public secondary schools. This study was informed by the Social Constructivism research paradigm. In addition, descriptive research design was employed. The population for this study included all the public secondary schools in Chongwe district, all the grade eleven teachers and learners of English language. Sample was picked purposively using criterion sampling technique. The sample involved 3 Heads of Department for Literature and Languages, 7 English language subject teachers and 15 grade 11 learners of English language. The study also included one standard educational officer. In total, the sample comprised 26 participants. Data was collected using interview guide, focus group discussion guide, classroom observation guide and document analysis. The findings were analysed thematically. Interview data revealed that both mechanical practices (Cloze exercise, transformation exercise, punctuation exercise, substitution exercise, spelling exercise, choosing a correct sentence, single word prompt) and meaningful practices (composition exercise, situational exercise, reading exercise and constructing own sentences) were used in the teaching and learning of English Grammar by the participants. Some teachers explained that they were encouraged to use meaningful practices more often. It was also indicated that both mechanical and meaningful practices are useful but both teachers and learners had put much emphasis on situational practices. They explained that situational practices/exercise enable the learner to use the language inside and outside the classroom effectively because structures are not taught in isolation but with context of the situation in which they are used. However, during classroom lesson observation, the researcher observed that in all the three lessons, teachers used mechanical practices only. Therefore, teachers need to systematically blend the two types of practices to facilitate learners' communicative competence. In view of the findings, it is recommended that teachers of English language should make sure that their classroom practices reflect all the four dimension of communicative competence (grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence). Grammatical competence will help learners master the rules while sociolinguistic competence will enable them know how to apply the rules in different social contexts. Discourse competence aspect helps in presenting ideas in an orderly manner while strategic competence helps in repairing discourses when there is communication breakdown.
... More generally, a derivation will crash if any purely formal features remain unchecked. (Radford, 1997) 5.Since the arguments for the MP and its preference for bare essentials has rendered redundant the standard X-bar conceptions of Jackendoff (1977) and Chomsky (1981), it is no longer obligatory that all phrasal projections have the same structure, instead, each kind of Head can project differently and constitute a phrase in itself. Following Ross's (1967), concept of X'-pruning, (16b) above is simplified given that both the Endocentricity Condition and the concept of Percolation, exercises scopal authority over all projected categories. ...
... A number of studies (e.g. Quirk and Greenbuam) (1977), Radford (1988), Jenkins (2003) and Radford (2003) agree that modification is a crucial syntactic relation within language structure. Radford (2003:19) argues that the linear directionality between the head and its complements determines the head (position) parameter in more recent syntactic theory. ...
... Meanwhile, NP which experienced this deterioration is called the term PRO. Considering the subcategorization of verbs, the control structure is divided into the predicate controlled by the subject and object (Radford, 1997). ...
Historically, Old Javanese (OJ) language has been considered a dialect of the past and was developed rapidly from the IX - XV centuries. At that time, it was believed to be the language of communication and instruction for state administration. Although the language has evolved over the ages, it turns out that it has inherited several others. Therefore, OJ is suitable as a material for linguistic studies, and judging from its internal structure, it has many structural variations in forming its clauses. The grammatical subject should be described in detail and properly studied. The result shows that tentatively, the grammatical subjects in OJ can have different roles. By applying linguistic principles, this approach serves as a study model.
... As noted above, words belong to classes that are distinguished on the basis of form, meaning and distribution (Croft, 1991;Radford, 1997). Thus, word classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) have characteristic formal properties, and a word is expected to look and function according to its class. ...
... A PhD thesis is no place for a comprehensive introduction to Minimalism: for such purposes, I refer the reader to textbooks such as Radford (1997Radford ( , 2004 and Boeckx (2007). I provide here only the briefest of overviews to account for some of the terminology used, and the basic concepts employed in this thesis. ...
In this thesis, I reconstruct the syntax of relative clauses in Proto-Indo-European (PIE). Syntactic reconstruction, particularly in the case of PIE, has presented a perennial challenge to Comparative Philologists. I demonstrate that Minimalist reconstruction provides a viable methodology through which we may address this challenge, integrating the specific task of reconstruction into the broader field of historical syntax. The methodology necessarily demands a discussion of Minimalist theories of relative clause structures, which I provide in relation to the synchronic analysis of ancient Indo-European (IE) languages. I then undertake a philological survey of descendants of the putative relative pronouns in PIE: *yó- and *kʷí-/*kʷó-. The debate on which (if either) of these was the “original” relative pronoun in PIE has lasted for over a century. I argue that neither form can be excluded as a relative pronoun in PIE, and that together they reflect what was a unitary functional category: the relative pronoun, *REL. Relative clauses across the ancient IE languages exhibit grammaticalised fronting of the relative pronoun, traditionally referred to as “wh-movement”. To analyse the nature of this movement, I provide a detailed reconstruction of the PIE left periphery. Because of the additional role of discourse-driven movement (Topicalisation and Focalisation) and clisis (“Wackernagel’s Law”) in the left periphery, my reconstruction has implications beyond relative clauses, shaping our understanding of the significant role pragmatics plays in the ordering of constituents in PIE, as well as the syntax-phonology interface. On the basis of all the above, I reconstruct the syntax of relative clauses in PIE. I argue that PIE had what I refer to as an “anaphoric” relative clause, that could generate a variety of surface forms, including correlatives and postnominal relatives. The “anaphoric” relative clause was adjoined to the matrix clause at the CP level, and could either precede or follow the matrix clause. I argue further that we cannot exclude embedded relative clauses from our reconstruction of PIE, but that it is possible to derive them diachronically from an earlier “anaphoric” relative clause. This thesis thus demonstrates that Minimalist reconstruction is not only a viable methodology, but a fruitful one, allowing us to establish concrete conclusions about PIE syntax.
This paper conducts a comparative analysis of the genitive case system in three Eastern-Indo-Aryan languages: Goalparia, Assamese, and Bangla. The primary objective is to investigate the morpho-syntactic properties of genitive case markers, exploring potential differences or similarities among these languages that share close genetic affiliations and exhibit readily visible features. While Assamese adopts a split-ergative case system, Bangla
and Goalparia employ a nominative-accusative case system. Our
examination focuses on declarative sentences, utilizing the Generative Approach to unveil the inherent structure and distribution of genitive case markers in these languages. The paper presents a syntactic tree illustrating the relationship between the head, D, and the specifiers, DP spec, along with
the complement, demonstrating the representation of the genitive case marker across the three languages.
Morphologically, a modal verb is nothing more than a verb since it carries time, mood and person. However, from a functionalist perspective, we observe that the content of a modal verb, like that of an adverb, affects the relation of predication. This behavior is clearly not that of a verb, but rather that of an adverb. This somewhat iconoclastic view is made possible by the functionalist model, as well as by Tesnière’s concept of transfer (translation), which posits that words cannot be reduced to morphological entities. Moreover, this conception echoes an intuition of G. Guillaume, who defines the adverb as an incidence to an incidence.
The agent in the Kurdish language, especially in modern grammar, is known as a semantic role, limiting its function to the sentence level. To contradict this view, an attempt has been made in this study to explain the agent at both morphological and syntactic levels. At the morphological level, some derivational bound morphemes play a major role in forming some nouns that carry within themselves the concept of the agent known as agent nouns. Also at the sentence level, in addition to the semantic features of the noun phrase that identify and distinguish the agent role from other roles, it is expected that the verb phrase can contribute greatly in the identification and recognition of the agent. For this purpose, Larson's theory (1988) has been employed to deconstruct the VP-shell into the main verb phrase VP and the light verb phrase (carrier of the concept of agent in the VP). The sentences are analyzed according to Chomsky's minimalist program principles. Research data is collected from the everyday speech of Bahdini dialect speakers. Results show that Larson's theory of deconstructing the VP could be considered the best and only way to analyze the agent in the Bahdini sentence; and the morpheme (ان), in addition to its agentive and causative functions, can also function as a light verb.
This paper addresses multiple classifier constructions (MCCs) in terms of internal structure and derivation. Based on a summary of the major features of MCCs, the paper proposes that MCCs are composed of DP and NumP. The combination of the two numeral-classifiers denotes a complete structure, which presents the pattern of double numeral-classifiers. DP serves as the head while NumP serves as the complement. There is no coordination but topic-comment relation between the embedded DP and NumP. The embedded DP c-commands NumP. NumP moves across the board to the specifier position of the external DP to give rise to various types of MCCs. Movement of the classifier of MCCs is triggered by numeral gapping. Based on this, it is argued that all MCCs must be of this nature in terms of the underlying structure. This contention can provide a reasonable solution to many long-standing puzzles related to MCCs.
The contributions to this volume honor Joan Bybee’s 2005 LSA Presidential address “Grammar is Usage and Usage is Grammar,” as a cumulative articulation of Professor Bybee's long and influential career in linguistics. The volume begins with a functional examination of child language acquisition of ergative languages. The next three contributions successively investigate the grammaticalization of Greek postural verbs, Spanish third person pronouns, and American Sign Language topicalization constructions. The two following papers report on usage-based phonological studies of Spanish /s/ and /d/, respectively. The book concludes with four papers that address usage-based effects concerning the grammatical status of ain’t in African American English, Spanish verbs of “becoming”, and English lexis and prefabs. This volume will be of interest to a wide audience of functional and cognitive linguistic researchers.
This study was an attempt to examine the effect of using cooperative learning strategies on learning simple present and present continuous by elementary Iraqi EFL learners. For this purpose, 60 Iraqi EFL students of the seventh grade (first grade of high school) from two intact classes were selected from among the female Iraqi high school students studying in Maysan, Iraq. They attended the pre-test of the target grammar points. Then, the treatment started and continued for 12 sessions. In the experimental group, first the teacher assigned the students into 6 groups including 4 to 6 members and asked them to do the grammar exercises cooperatively in groups while in the control group, the students did the exercises individually, on their own. The teacher of both groups was the same; so, she tried not to have any peer or group practice in the control group. The treatment lasted for about 3 months. Then, the same test of the target grammar points was administered as the post-pest and the participants’ performance on the pre-test and post-test was compared in order to see which group performed better after the treatment. The results indicated the outperformance of the experimental group who used cooperative techniques for learning simple present and present continuous over the control group. Findings offer implications for Iraqi English language teachers and material designers regarding using communicative tasks and activities like cooperative learning techniques in their classes.
Existing literature reveal that in African languages, restrictive relative clauses exhibit the
most variation in the prosody-syntax interface. This paper provides a preliminary descriptive account of how tone plays a role in structuring information within the Nkoroo relative clause, specifically restrictive relatives that contain a transitive verb. The paper posits that in Nkoroo relative clause constructions, tonal changes indicate whether the argument in the relative clause is performing the action, as in 'the woman [that Tonye saw] yawned', thus functioning as the agent, or whether the action is being performed on the argument in the relative clause, as in 'the woman [that saw Tonye] yawned'. Agent
role assignment is achieved by retaining the citation tones on the verb while raising the tone on the
relative marker, nà. Tone raising on the relative marker applies only when the verb tone is non-low.
Patient role assignment is achieved on the verb by both tone lowering and raising. The aim is to assign
a specific high-downstepped-high tonal pattern on the verb, regardless of its citation form. Data collected illustrate the tone patterns of bisyllabic verbs. The findings further reveal that bisyllabic verbs in the language form a prosodic foot and provide the domain for tonal processes to be applied on the verb and the relative marker. Whereas in languages such as English, theta role assignment is conditioned by
syntax (i.e. movement of constituents), in the Nkoroo relative clause, it is conditioned by prosody (i.e. tone).
This chapter moves the argument from metaphor to metonymy. In the previous chapter, I demonstrated that 'doing metaphor' in the sense of managing novel metaphor receptively and productively-the ability to metaphorize-involves the selection of features, the recognition of part-whole relations between signs and parts of signs. This is the essence of metonymy and is the sense I shall be using for the remainder of this book. Recognizing that metonymy is a stage, or 'sub-process', within metaphor allows us to draw the conclusion that metonymy is more fundamental as a phenomenon than metaphor, and for this reason it is appropriate that metonymy now becomes the focus of the present study. In this chapter, I develop a General Theory of Metonymy by demonstrating the significance of metonymy across a whole range of linguistic and multimodal phenomena. I show that metonymy has a far wider 'reach' than just the creation of lexical formulations used for referring; it plays a vital role at every level of the language hierarchy , from phonemes to pragmatics, as well as serving a whole variety of essential communicative functions. I argue that metonymy offers a means by which existing semiotic resources can be exploited to give salience and nuance, and that it is here we find the explanation of language's great subtlety, flexibility and fitness for purpose. METONYMY IN THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM I am defining metonymy in this chapter as the highlighting of relatedness, usually part-whole, between closely-related concepts, things and signifiers. Whether we are concerned with a physical part, eg give me a hand , a part in the sense of an attribute, eg the small screen , or a part in the sense of an effect, eg smoke standing for FIRE , they have in common that they involve 'relatedness' and it is this which distinguishes metonymy from metaphor. Definitions of metonymy and relatedness will be examined in detail in the next section; in this section I outline the vital role metonymy plays in the language system itself and in our conceptual system in general. I consider a whole range of linguistic phenomena which all have in common that, to operate, they rely on the recognition of part-whole relations. I consider the following headings in turn below: 'sense and
The previous chapter has considered metonymy as a phenomenon in conceptual-ization, in the language system and in communication. In this chapter, I look at metonymy in a number of specific contexts. I look first at the use of metonymy in giving nuance, emphasis and spin. I suggest that processing near equivalents and partial matches is the key to explaining the flexibility of linguistic communication and why language is so well suited to the social purposes to which it is put. I then look at the conspicuous role played by metonymy in personal and popular culture and recreational activities. I consider pursuits such as games, puzzles and jokes, activities which are inessential in a sense but nonetheless important in our lives, certainly when we consider them in terms of the time, money and enthusiasm invested in them. They have in common that they have at their centre the exploration of metonymic processing for its own sake. I consider the following phenomena: TV quiz shows, lookalikes, humour, formal metonymy, alternative names, in-family expressions and avoiding cooperation, and suggest that the surprising prominence of metonymy in these activities indicates an emotional acknowledgement of the importance of metonymy in many practical aspects of our lives. THE USE OF METONYMY TO GIVE NUANCE, EMPHASIS AND SPIN In the introduction to this book, I gave examples of metonymy occurring in everyday interactions which I had collected in my field notebooks during a two-day period over New Year 2010. They included a discussion about the short form of a name, the solutions to crossword clues, the etymology of the word buff , and so on. All involved the identification of part-whole relations for their success. Here, I offer some further examples, again taken from my data notebooks. These illustrate just how widespread and diverse metonymic processing is in everyday interaction. These data include conventionalized expressions, such as pay with plastic , the small screen , white-collar worker , scratch card , go for a bite , a roof over your head , fight tooth and nail , head for the door , win hearts and minds , go under the knife , slap and tickle , bums on seats , get money from the hole in the wall ; expressions , such as prick and ping 'ready meals' (the containers are 'pricked' with a Metonymy in Culture and Recreation 5
This entry offers an introduction to generative grammar, describing the key components of the framework and its historical development since its start in the 1950s. Generative grammar is concerned with language as a mental object, and it studies speakers' internal faculty of language: the ability to produce and understand an infinite number of linguistic expressions from a finite set of linguistic building blocks. At the core of this is the syntactic/computational component that puts together linguistic items via the operation Merge and produces hierarchical structures. The syntactic/computational component communicates with the two interpretive components that map the syntactic structures to the articulatory system and the system of thought/interpretation.
Even in this era of parameter-heavy statistical modeling requiring large training datasets, we believe explicit symbolic models of grammar have much to offer, especially when it comes to modeling complex syntactic phenomena using a minimal number of parameters. It is the goal of explanatory symbolic models to make explicit a minimal set of features that license phrase structure, and thus, they should be of interest to engineers seeking parameter-efficient language models. Relative clauses have been much studied and have a long history in linguistics. We contribute a feature-driven account of the formation of a variety of basic English relative clauses in the Minimalist Program framework that is precisely defined, descriptively adequate, and computationally feasible in the sense that we have not observed an exponential scaling with the number of heads in the Lexical Array. Following previous work, we assume an analysis involving a uT feature and uRel feature, possibly simultaneously valued. In this article, we show a detailed mechanical implementation of this analysis and describe the structures computed for that , which , and who/whom relatives for standard English.
The adjective that can be modified by degree words or degree adverbs is gradable adjectives. Gradable can also happen to adjectives participial, but not all of them. The adjective phrase has three main functions: attributive adjectives (modified before or after nouns), subject complement (complement subject NPs), and object complement (complement of the object of a clause. This paper focuses on identifying adjective phrase structure and its functions, exploring the categories which are modified, and determining the gradable within the adjective phrase. This paper aims to discover phrases, identify the adjective phrase, and analyze it in the tree diagram. It applied qualitative descriptive method to analyze, and documentation technique to collect the data. The data were obtained from the newspaper of ‘The Jakarta Post’ Vol. 37 No. 086 on Saturday, August 10th, 2019. The result found that pre-modifier (degree words and degree adverbs) + Adjective is the most frequent gradable adjective occurred in the texts, and then it is followed by an adjective (head), double adjectives, and pre-modifier (determiners) + adjectives.
Current linguistic theory presumes languages to be essentially similar because individuals have a genetic inclination to acquire language. Linguists strive to create a model of this abstract universal grammar that captures the core commonalities among different languages while allowing room for all the subtle differences that naturally occur in human speech. This all-encompassing theory of universal grammar would accurately distinguish between possible grammars and impossible grammars. This paper examines the main tenets of the two major generative phonology models of universal grammar: SPE’s Generative Phonology theory representing rule-based, derivational universal grammar models, and Optimality Theory as a representative of constraint-based models of universal grammar.
This study examines syntactic functions and pragmatic aspects of preposition stranding (PS) and preposition pied-piping (PP) with wh-relativizers as used in English novels. While previous studies focusing on the syntactic functions and pragmatic aspects of PS and PP with wh-relativizers selected the data from international corpora and academic research articles, this study contributes to the perspectives of English novels. The materials in this study were gathered from nine best-seller English novels (www.amazon.com). They are The Power of One (Courteney, 2007), Naked Lunch (Burroughs, 2016), Tenant of Wildfell Hall (Brontë, 2016), Middlemarch (Eliot, 2019), A Class of Kings (Martin, 2019), The Nature of Middle-Earth (Tolkien, 2021), Moby Dick (Melville, 2020), The Promise (Galgut, 2022) and Far from the Madding Crown (Hardy, 2022). Approximately 450,000 words of English novels provided 51 tokens, referring to sentences. The data analysis of PS and PP with wh-relativizers follows Radford’s (2009) generative grammar. The results in this study show that PP with wh-relativizers occurs at 92.16 percent, whilst the occurrences of PS in this study are only 7.84 percent. The syntactic functions of PP with wh-relativizers are always used as adjuncts. The higher frequency of PP with wh-relativizers in English novels is explained by markedness theory and standard English, whereas the lower frequency of PS is due to archaic form and spoken register. It is hoped that the results in this study will be useful for learners of English as a Second Language (ESL) and learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in terms of applying the use of PS and PP with wh-relativizers in writing English novels and writing English short stories accurately and appropriately.
Хэлний тухай орчин үеийн олон хэлзүйд дэвшигдэн гарч байгаа цөөнгүй үзэл баримтлал нь хэлний уламжлалт онолын чиг хандлагаас эрс ялгаатай. Тэрхүү ялгаа нь орчин үеийнх нь болохоор юуны өмнө олон саланги дүрэм (rules) эсвэл нэг талаас хэл сурах (хүүхэд хэлд орох, хоёр дахь хэлийг сурах, заах, цахим машиныг хэлжүүлэх) үйлийг нээн боловсруулах үүднээс хүмүүний нийт хэлний бүтцийн илэрхийллүүдийн сан хөмрөг (corpus)-т хандах, нөгөөтээгүүр тэдгээрийг хэлний ерийн хэрэглээний жишээ баримтаар нотлох\үгүйсгэхэд голлон анхаардагт орших бөлгөө. Энэ талын дэлхийн олон улс оронд хамгийн өргөн тархсан хоёр онолын нэг нь Н. Чомскийн Түгээмэл хэлзүй (ТХЗ) (Universal Grammar (UG), нөгөө нь М.А.К. Халлидэйн Тогтолцоот үүргийн хэлзүй (ТҮХЗ) ( Systematic Universal Grammar (SUG) болой. Харин гутгаар нь Амстердамын их сургуулийн проф. К. Хэнгевелд нарын Өгүүлэмжийн үүргийн хэлзүй (Functional Discource Grammar (FDG) бөгөөд эл хэлзүй саявтархан, 2008 онд анх хэвлэгдэн нийтийн хүртээл болсон хэдий ч богино хугацаанд судлаачдын анхаарлын төвд орсон байна. Эхний хоёр онол нь анх бие биеэс бараг хамааралгүйгээр үүсэж хөгжин төлөвшиж, эрхэмлэн тавьсан зорилгоо өөр өөрийн замаар амжилттай гүйцэлдүүлжээ. Гэхдээ тэдгээр нь бие биеэ үгүйсгэх эсвэл сөргөлдөх гэхээсээ илүүтэй нэг нь нөгөөгийнхөө дутууг нь нөхөн баяжуулсан гэж орон орны зарим судлаач үзэх болжээ. (Sadighi, Bavali (2008: 11) Гутгаар хэлзүйн үүдлийг Халлидэйн хэлзүй гэж үзэж болох хэдий ч түүнийг зохиогчид орчин цагийн олон хэлний хэв шинжийн судлалд суурилан өмнөхийг бүхий л талаар баяжуулж цахимын орчинд олон хэлийг хөрвүүлэх үйлд шинэ хандлага нээсэн тул бие даасан чиглэл буюу дэгийн үүдэл гэж үзэх болсон байна. Тиймээс энэхүү өгүүлэлд бид дээрх гурван хэлзүйн зөрүүтэй зарим талыг тогтоохын хамт, аливаад бие биеэсээ хамааралтай ханджээ гэхээр цөөнгүй асуудлыг баримтаар нотлон харуулахыг зорьсон болно.
Chomsky states that language is a mirror of the mind. From that opinion, he creates a concept which is known as competence and performance. Competence is the fluent native speaker’s knowledge of his language; meanwhile, performance is what people actually say or understand by what someone else says on a given situation. Chomsky adds that there are two structures involved in constructing a sentence namely, Deep Structure and Surface Structure. A sentence always derives from Deep Structure which exists in the mind of speakers. Then, syntactic rules will be applied to the Deep Structure. After applying the rules, Surface Structure will be obtained. The syntactic rules applied in a sentence are Movement Transformation, Deletion Transformation, and Substitution Transformation. However, the main discussion in this article is Movement Transformation. This article will elaborate some types of movement transformation in constructing English sentences.
The use of appropriate techniques to teach English is significant, especially in EFL primary high school in Bali, Indonesia where the use of English communication, both written and oral is rare. Despite of its importance, choosing the most effective technique to teach EFL primary high school students is not an easy matter. Teacher needs to determine whether the technique would be effective to be implemented in the classroom. The students have problem in writing with appropriate grammar because of the lack of English proficiency. One of the technique could be implemented is called peer corrective feedback. Since this technique enables the students to be able to evaluate their peers’ writing. This technique enhances students’ writing and reading skill. This paper is intended to explain the implementation of this technique in EFL primary high school in Bali, since this technique greatly trains students’ skill in writing and reading. This study is conducted through Classroom Action Research (CAR). To be more specific, this paper would explain about: (1) The role of peer corrective feedback in teaching EFL primary high school students; (2) the benefits of teaching EFL primary high school students by using peer corrective; (3) the result of the implementation of peer corrective feedback. This article is expected to inform and suggest English teachers the use of peer corrective feedback in teaching EFL primary high school students.
English language plays an essential part in everyday situations over the world. It is a global language that transacts with all sides of life. So, all non-native learners must study the English language. Grammatical knowledge is considered a significant component of English language learning. It is a crucial mean in constructing confidence, fluency in using English language ( Sultan, 2012 : 1). English language teachers use many techniques and strategies to gain grammatical knowledge. One of these strategies is the Game strategy. The game strategy presents entertaining drills and creates comfortable learning milieu. It invigorates stimulus among learners. This study is intended at defining the nature of game strategy that may develop learners’ grammar, specifying features of grammar that will be enhanced by employing the Game strategy and finally shedding light on the usefulness of Game strategy in improving students' grammar and defines to what extent it affects on language learning and using. Presenting a theoretical background about the game strategy which affects the learning of grammar, introducing a literary review around the game strategy, about its definitions, features, and about its prominence in English language teaching especially in teaching grammar are the procedures which were followed by the researcher to achieve the aims of this study.
The objective of this article was to analyse the types of movement transformation which is applied in Bahasa Indonesia. This article aims to collect ideas, theories, and reported empirical data within the context of scholarship in the library. The theory used in this article was taken from the theory of Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG) introduced by Noam Chomsky. This article was an attempt to highlight how Chomsky’s concept called movement transfssormation works in Bahasa Indonesia. The data were taken from some sentences in Bahasa Indonesia. In this article, the sentences were analysed by using IC analysis. IC analysis is a method of analysing sentences by dividing them into their constituent structures. The methods used in analysing sentences were bracketing and tree diagram. Some types of movement transformation that were applied in Bahasa Indonesia were Affix Hopping, Interrogative (Aux Movement), Wh-Movement, Passive Transformation, Dative Movement, Topicalization, Particle Movement, and Relative Movement.
The study and analysis of texts from a linguistic and literary viewpoint is known as stylistics. This research looked at the fundamental language devices Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie employed in The Thing Around Your Neck to communicate with her audience and the larger society. A functional approach was used, in which special attention was paid to the stylistic function, impact, and thematic importance of language elements in literary texts. Morphology, graphology, phonology, syntax, lexico-semantics, and point of view were the stylistic devices used. After using these techniques on the novel, it became clear that language is an essential component of all works of art and that a work's success depends on the writer's skill in manipulating language. Through her systematic use of language, Adichie has made adjustments that have improved understanding of her work.
The present paper concentrates on the finiteness and its relationship with the sentence structure in modals. In most of the languages, clauses have been classified into two types: finite and non-finite clauses. The decisive feature of finiteness may differ from language to language and it depends on the nature of the respective language. This paper tries to investigate the relevant feature which is responsible for finiteness, in Telugu, with respect to modals. Finiteness in Telugu is a complex phenomenon and it does not lend itself to a strait forward analysis. It is said that there are no principled grounds for establishing which feature is responsible for finiteness. In generative theory, tense and agreement play an important role to decide finiteness.
p>This paper is a linguistic theoretical study of the unique qualities of the ‘s’ morpheme. It explores the phonological, semantic and syntactic features of the ‘s’ morpheme as used in our day-to-day conversations. The aim of this study is to highlight some salient qualities of the ‘-s’ morpheme. It is a known fact that the ‘-s’ morpheme is an inflectional morpheme; however, this study attempts to highlight more facts to show that beyond its inflectional role, it plays other linguistic roles that most times, the user of the English language undermines. Moreover, these other roles are nexus, because they connect the three areas of the English language: phonology, semantics and syntax. Samples of words are derived from different secondary sources and are analyzed phonologically, semantically and syntactically. The paper concludes that the ‘-s’ morpheme application in our daily written and oral expressions is not negligible.
Cet article est une étude théorique linguistique des qualités uniques du morphème 's'. Il explore les caractéristiques phonologiques, sémantiques et syntaxiques du morphème « s » tel qu'il est utilisé dans nos conversations quotidiennes. L'objectif de cette étude est de mettre en évidence certaines qualités saillantes du morphème '-s'. C'est un fait connu que le morphème '-s'est un morphème flexionnel ; cependant, cette étude tente de mettre en évidence plus de faits pour montrer qu'au-delà de son rôle d'inflexion, il joue d'autres rôles linguistiques que la plupart du temps, l'utilisateur de la langue anglaise sape. De plus, ces autres rôles sont liés, car ils relient les trois domaines de la langue anglaise : la phonologie, la sémantique et la syntaxe. Des échantillons de mots sont dérivés de différentes sources secondaires et sont analysés phonologiquement, sémantiquement et syntaxiquement. L'article conclut que l'application du morphème '-s'dans nos expressions écrites et orales quotidiennes n'est pas négligeable.
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The knowledge about the bilingual brain is new. And it has been discovered quite recently in the twenty-first century. The studies on the brain to know about various neurological features identified a distinctive area acting as the bilingual brain. Bilingual brain means the natural neurological changes that happen in the brain when one acquires an ability to process two or more languages simultaneously. All languages find their roots in the language of thought—mentalese that would form distinctive neural circuits for representing each of the I- languages. But when looking at the structure of each language we could find the specifics and rules that govern a language are complex and complicated. So, it must be understood that if a child like Sakura at about 5 years old could speak more than 5 languages effortlessly and naturally, she must have been using some kind of complicated internal neural mechanism in the language faculty of the brain.
Some questions regarding the analysis of classifiers and classifier constructions are raised in this paper. The classifier, as a mere adjunct adjoining to the head, cannot serve as the head of the noun phrase containing it, and as a result, it cannot project as ClP or nP. Under this approach, the DP analysis and the classifier construction theory are further refined. The constituents which precede and follow the classifier are analyzed in terms of their syntactic functions, semantic relations, linear features, feature assignment and syntactic occurrence in order to represent the classifier construction with the X-bar phrase structure theory appropriately and correctly and present a universal approach to classifier constructions in various languages.
Màda, a Platoid language of West Benue-Congo sub-family, is spoken mainly in Akwanga Local Government Area of Nasarawa State. This paper is an attempt to examine the grammatical structures of noun phrase in Màda within the background of generative syntax, more specifically, the Principles and Parameters approach. It examines the order of noun dependents, word categories and other functional constituents of the NP such as demonstratives, modifiers and associative constituents. The technique employed in collecting data for this study is direct elicitation from competent speakers of the language. The major findings show that a typical NP in Màda may consist of a head noun only or a head noun with optionally occurring modifiers. All modifiers are post head items with a strictly ordered pattern. The study concludes by noting that the structural configuration of a typical NP in Màda is N + [(Poss)(Dem)(Adj)(Quant)(Num)] + [(Rel Clause)].
This pilot study examines the production of Egyptian Arabic (henceforth EA) adjunct wh-questions (e.g., when) among two EA-English bilingual Children living in Ontario, Canada and an EA monolingual child living in Cairo, Egypt. The control group consists of two first-generation adult Egyptian immigrants in Ontario, Canada. The focus of the study is on the position of wh-phrases in EA wh-adjuncts, which exhibits a surface overlap between English and EA. In typical English wh-adjuncts, and wh-arguments as well, leaving the wh-phrase where it was originally generated (wh-in-situ) is ungrammatical and the wh-phrase must occur clause-initially (fronted wh-phrase) (Radford, 2004). In EA wh-adjuncts, there are two possible positions of the wh-phrase, fronted wh-phrase and wh-in-situ (Wahba, 1984). Findings from an oral elicited production task showed that the EA monolingual child significantly preferred wh-in-situ (94.4% of the time), and a fronted wh-phrase occurred only once in his responses. In contrast, the EA-English bilingual children predominantly preferred fronting the wh-phrase (97.3% of the time). As the fronted wh-question is the only grammatical option in typical English wh-questions, this result may indicate a possible crosslinguistic influence from English, the majority language of the bilinguals’ society, into EA. Regarding the adult controls, they showed true optionality as they produced roughly around the same amount of the fronted wh-phrase and wh-in-situ, 52.8% and 47.2% respectively. The results are discussed in relation to the crosslinguistic influence hypothesis of Müller and Hulk (2001) and the developmental trajectory proposed by Shin & Miller (2021).
The present paper focuses on a descriptive method of valency-increasing devices in five South Ethio-Semitic languages (Amharic, Harari, Kɨstane, Məsqan, and Endəgaɲ). The five languages were selected for two reasons. The first reason is that conducting a valency study on all South Ethio-Semitic languages would have been impossible. With limited resources and time, it will prove difficult to cover all languages. The second reason is that, except for Amharic, these languages are known for being the least studied. Most of them even lack sufficient recording and description. So this research needs to choose the representative language in each branch. As a result, no explicit theoretical framework is followed; data analysis is guided solely by a descriptive perspective. The study’s data was gathered by consulting native speakers via elicitation. Valency has been considered as both a semantic and syntactic notion. As a semantic notion, it is used to refer to the participants in an event; as a syntactic notion, it is used to indicate the number of arguments in a construction. There are different types of transitivity classes of verbs in the South Ethio-Semitic Language, which is spoken in Ethiopia: intransitive, transitive, and ditransitive. Apart from these, there are verbs that can be used both intransitively and transitively. The facts that provide clear evidence for grammatical relations in South Ethio-Semitic languages are crucial to the study of the concept of valency-increasing devices. As is the case in many languages, South Ethio-Semitic languages possess morphosyntactic means through which the valency of verbs can be adjusted. The application of these morphosyntactic processes decreases or increases the valency of verbs. This article looks at valency-increasing devices in Causative and Applicative South Ethio-Semitic languages.
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