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Respect in Close Relationships: Prototype Definition, Self-Report Assessment, and Initial Correlates

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Abstract

Researchers who study romantic relationships have mentioned respect as a factor contributing to relationship success, but little effort has been made to define respect, measure it, or discover how it relates to other relationship constructs. In Study 1 a prototype methodology was used to identify consensual features of respect. Participants in Study 2 rated the centrality of the features of respect and completed a new prototype-based respect-for-partner scale that was highly reliable and correlated in predictable ways with avoidant attachment and evaluative aspects of partner descriptions. In Study 3, the new respect scale predicted relationship satisfaction better than scales measuring liking, loving, attachment-related anxiety and avoidance, and positive and negative partner qualities. Suggestions are offered for future research on respect.

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... The term respect refers to feelings of esteem for an individual [1][2][3][4][5]. Respect has been examined in contexts such as employment [6], familial relationships [7], friendships [8], and romantic relationships [1]. ...
... The term respect refers to feelings of esteem for an individual [1][2][3][4][5]. Respect has been examined in contexts such as employment [6], familial relationships [7], friendships [8], and romantic relationships [1]. Although respect is often considered to be essential for the successful functioning of interpersonal relationships, it has received far less empirical attention than other characteristics such as commitment, intimacy, and forgiveness. ...
... There has been much discussion about how to understand respect [1]. For example, respect has sometimes been viewed as an emotion [11], but it is most often considered to be an attitude that has affective, behavioral, and cognitive components [2,3,12]. ...
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Respect has been shown to be an important aspect of romantic relationships. The current research explored whether the associations that status-based respect and inclusion-based respect had with romantic commitment would be mediated by satisfaction, investment, and the perceived quality of alternative romantic partners. Study 1 examined these associations with an undergraduate sample (N = 200), whereas Study 2 replicated the results of Study 1 using a community sample (N = 264). Study 3 (N = 187) extended these results by focusing on a specific situation in which participants felt either disrespected or respected by their romantic partners. Across these studies, status-based respect and inclusion-based respect were associated with romantic commitment. For example, status-based respect and inclusion-based respect had associations with commitment that were mediated by satisfaction in each study. The findings of the current studies indicate that people who experience disrespect in their relationships tend to be less satisfied, which, in turn, may lead to them being less committed to maintaining their relationships. In our discussion, we explore how status-based respect and inclusion-based respect can offer insights into understanding commitment to romantic relationships.
... Work in the social recognition framework by Simon et al.'s has mostly focused on demonstrating a supreme role of equality in intergroup respect experiences (e.g., Reininger et al., 2020;Simon, Grabow, & Böhme, 2015), tending to neglect variations in the extent to which other forms of recognition result in feelings of respect (e.g., Simon et al., 2016;Simon, Grabow, & Böhme, 2015; but see Schaefer et al., 2021). Last, some contextualized definitions of respect have been brought forward for different professional situations (e.g., leadership: van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2010; nursing: Koskenniemi et al., 2015) or different relationships (between romantic partners or parent and child: Frei & Shaver, 2002). But no systematic attempts have been made to integrate the insights from these approaches to social worth in different contexts. ...
... Tentative support for this idea comes from a study by Frei and Shaver (2002). Using a prototype method, the authors documented mental representations of respect of 181 U.S.-American college students vis-à-vis partners in two different relationships: romantic partners and parents. ...
... Last, we would like to point out some contexts in which social worth plays an especially important role, and which we therefore deem especially fruitful fields of application for our theoretical framework. They include close relationships between families, friends and romantic partners (see Frei & Shaver, 2002), workplace dynamics (see Tyler & Blader, 2003), and leadership and follower satisfaction (see Rudolph et al., 2021;van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2010). It can also be used to examine the social worth impact of behavior in interactions between the individual and society or between societal groups, such as policing (Meares, 2014), taxation (Kirchler et al., 2008), or vaccine mandates (Korn et al., 2020). ...
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People care a great deal about their social worth in other people's eyes, and social worth is an important factor in many social scientific theories. At the same time, social worth phenomena are scattered across diverse literatures under different conceptual labels, with little correspondence between them. In the present article, we attempt to integrate social worth research by focusing on three core questions: (1) What is the meaning of social worth in a particular interaction or relationship? (2) How do people evaluate their social worth in the eyes of their partner? and (3) How do people react when they are credited with different forms of social worth? According to the theoretical framework we propose, the particular meaning of social worth depends on a person's goals for an interaction, and we draw on interdependence theory to map how different situations afford the activation of different goals. To evaluate their social worth in a partner's eyes, a person judges whether the role they are accorded by the partner satisfies their own interaction goals. This comparison can yield an affirmation, a disconfirmation, or a violation of the person's social worth expectations. A person's reactions to these social worth experiences can be understood as attempts to regulate the situation's interdependence structure following the partner's feedback. We review social worth-related research from different research areas to show the framework's wide applicability and integrative potential. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Work in the social recognition framework by Simon and colleagues has mostly focused on demonstrating a supreme role of equality in intergroup respect experiences (e.g., Simon, Grabow, et al., 2015;Reininger et al., 2020), tending to neglect variations in the extent to which other forms of recognition result in feelings of respect (e.g., Simon, Grabow, et al., 2015;Simon et al., 2016;but see Schaefer et al., 2021). Lastly, some contextualized definitions of respect have been brought forward for different professional situations (e.g., leadership: Van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2010;nursing: Koskenniemi, 2012) or different relationships (between romantic partners or parent and child: Frei & Shaver, 2002). But no systematic attempts have been made to integrate the insights from these approaches to social worth in different contexts. ...
... Tentative support for this idea comes from a study by Frei and Shaver (2002). Using a prototype method, the authors documented mental representations of respect of 181 US-American college students vis-à-vis partners in two different relationships: romantic partners and parents. ...
... They include close relationships between families, friends and romantic partners (see Frei & Shaver 2002), workplace dynamics (see Tyler & Blader, 2003), and leadership and follower satisfaction (see Van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2010;Rudolph et al., 2021). It can also be used to examine the social worth impact of behavior in interactions between the individual and society or between societal groups, such as policing (Meares, 2014), taxation (Kirchler et al., 2008), or vaccine mandates (Korn et al., 2020). ...
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People care a great deal about their social worth in other people’s eyes and social worth is implicated as an important factor in a host of social scientific theories. At the same time, social worth phenomena are scattered across diverse literatures under different conceptual labels, with little correspondence between them. In the present article, we attempt to integrate social worth research by focusing on three core questions: (1) What is the meaning of social worth in a particular interaction or relationship? (2) How do people evaluate their social worth in the eyes of their partner? And (3) how do people react when they are credited with different forms of social worth? According to the theoretical framework we propose, the particular meaning of social worth depends on a person’s goals for an interaction, and we draw on interdependence theory to map how different situations afford the activation of different goals. To evaluate their social worth in a partner’s eyes, a person judges whether the role they are accorded by the partner satisfies their own interaction goals. This comparison can yield an affirmation, a disconfirmation, or a violation of the person’s social worth expectations. A person’s reactions to these social worth experiences can be understood as attempts to regulate the situation’s interdependence structure following the partner’s feedback. We review social worth-related research from different research areas to show the framework’s wide applicability and integrative potential.
... We define trait (character-based) appraisal self-respect (ASR) as a disposition to perceive or appraise oneself as being a respectworthy honourable person (Kumashiro et al., 2002;Dillon, 2010). Respect is a specific type of attitude that, unlike liking, is directed towards a target (the self in the case of self-respect) when perceived to possess attributes which command recognition and proper consideration or regard, regardless of personal affinities and needs (Clucas, 2019;Dillon, 2010;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Prestwich & Lalljee, 2009). In this way, self-respect is a more specific self-evaluation than global self-esteem (Clucas, 2019), which is defined as a generalised attitude of favourableness or unfavourableness towards the self as a whole (Rosenberg et al., 1995). ...
... Empirical research supports honourable character traits as being respectworthy in the eyes of others and in one's own eyes. Research on interpersonal respect shows respect towards someone to rest on the perception of that person's honourable character traits (e.g., moral integrity, concern for others' welfare, mental toughness) (see Frei & Shaver, 2002;Prestwich & Lalljee, 2009). Similarly, research supports that one's honourable character traits, such as moral integrity and strength of character, influence one's perceived respectworthiness and respect for oneself. ...
... Subsequently, we used existing theorising and research on respect, self-respect and honour (Clucas, 2019;Cross et al., 2014;Dillon, 2010;Kristjansson, 2007;Kumashiro et al., 2002;Luchies et al., 2010;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Prestwich & Lalljee, 2009;Uskul et al., 2012), complemented by the results of the pilot study, to develop items to capture selfperception as having key respectworthy honourable character traits, notably: Adherence to morals/standards, strength of character (including moral courage) and having dignified behaviour which in combination support trait ASR (see Kristjansson, 2007). We aimed to capture self-appraisal as having honourable character merits, as opposed to recognition of inherent human worth (Dillon, 2010;Renger, 2018). ...
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Despite the widely accepted recognition of the notion of self-respect and its importance for emotional well-being, it has received scant attention in the psychological literature. We report on the development and validation of a scale to measure trait (character-based) appraisal self-respect (ASR), conceptualised as a disposition to perceive or appraise oneself as being a respectworthy honourable person. We tested the factor structure, reliability, convergent, discriminant and criterion validity of the ASR scale in samples of adult individuals (combined N = 1910 across samples). The resulting ASR scale was found to be essentially unidimensional and showed good internal and acceptable test-retest reliability. Trait ASR was correlated with (yet distinct from) theoretically related measures of global self-esteem, moral self and principledness, and was distinct from other self-esteem facets not based on honourable character traits. Importantly, it related to well-being and prosocial behaviour over-and-above self-esteem. The validation work served to consolidate the theoretical boundaries and utility of this important concept.
... Beyond this minimal consensus, there are different conceptualizations of respect, focusing either on the social motives underlying respect experiences (Huo and Binning, 2008), on the distinction between conditional and unconditional respect (Grover, 2014;Rogers and Ashforth, 2017), or on three types of recognition that have emerged from relationships in three different social spheresachievement-based esteem, equality-based respect, and need-based care (Renger and Simon, 2011;Simon, 2007;Simon and Grabow, 2014). In addition to these broad, "high-level" accounts of respect, there are attempts to understand respect in a more contextualized way, in specific situations, interactions, or relationships (see, e.g., Frei and Shaver, 2002;Van Quaquebeke and Eckloff, 2010). ...
... These respect typologies rarely assess the importance of different types of respect in different situations or for different actors (but see Simon et al., 2016;Schaefer et al., 2021). Moreover, they do not specify behavioral cues via which the different respect types are enacted by the sender and gauged by perceivers. 1 More situation-specific accounts of respect do exist for some domains, such as romantic relationships and families (Frei and Shaver, 2002), organizational leadership (Rudolph et al., 2021;Van Quaquebeke and Eckloff, 2010;Felps, 2018), or in nursing (Koskeniemi et al., 2018). These situation-specific accounts list specific behaviors and perceptions that are closely tied to the specific interaction context in those relationships. ...
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What makes people feel respected or disrespected in political discussions with contrary-minded others? In two survey studies, participants recalled a situation in which they had engaged in a discussion about a political topic. In Study 1 ( n = 126), we used qualitative methods to document a wide array of behaviors and expressions that made people feel (dis)respected in such discussions, and derived a list of nine motives that may have underlain their significance for (dis)respect judgments. Study 2 ( n = 523) used network analysis tools to explore how the satisfaction of these candidate motives is associated with felt respect. On the whole, respect was associated with the satisfaction or frustration of motives for esteem, fairness, autonomy, relatedness, and knowledge. In addition, the pattern of associations differed for participants who reported on a discussion with a stranger versus with someone they knew well, suggesting that the meaning of respect is best understood within the respective interaction context. We discuss pathways towards theoretical accounts of respect that are both broadly applicable and situationally specific.
... Beyond this minimal consensus, there are different conceptualizations of respect, focusing either on the social motives underlying respect experiences (Huo and Binning, 2008), on the distinction between conditional and unconditional respect (Grover, 2014;Rogers and Ashforth, 2017), or on three types of recognition that have emerged from relationships in three different social spheresachievement-based esteem, equality-based respect, and need-based care (Renger and Simon, 2011;Simon, 2007;Simon and Grabow, 2014). In addition to these broad, "high-level" accounts of respect, there are attempts to understand respect in a more contextualized way, in specific situations, interactions, or relationships (see, e.g., Frei and Shaver, 2002;Van Quaquebeke and Eckloff, 2010). ...
... These respect typologies rarely assess the importance of different types of respect in different situations or for different actors (but see Simon et al., 2016;Schaefer et al., 2021). Moreover, they do not specify behavioral cues via which the different respect types are enacted by the sender and gauged by perceivers. 1 More situation-specific accounts of respect do exist for some domains, such as romantic relationships and families (Frei and Shaver, 2002), organizational leadership (Rudolph et al., 2021;Van Quaquebeke and Eckloff, 2010;Felps, 2018), or in nursing (Koskeniemi et al., 2018). These situation-specific accounts list specific behaviors and perceptions that are closely tied to the specific interaction context in those relationships. ...
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Full-text available
What makes people feel respected or disrespected in political discussions with contrary-minded others? In two studies, participants recalled a situation in which they had engaged in a discussion about a political topic. In Study 1 (n = 126), we used qualitative methods to document a wide array of behaviors and expressions that made people feel (dis)respected in such discussions, and derived a list of nine motives that may have underlain their significance for (dis)respect judgments. Study 2 (n = 523) used network analysis tools to explore how the satisfaction of these candidate motives is associated with felt respect. On the whole, respect was associated with motives for esteem, autonomy, fairness, relatedness, knowledge and having pleasant interactions. In addition, the pattern of associations differed for participants who reported on a discussion with a stranger vs. with someone they knew well, suggesting that the meaning of respect is best understood within the respective interaction context. We discuss pathways towards theoretical accounts of respect that are both broadly applicable and situationally specific.
... From psychological and sociological points of view, respect considered as an important indicator for shaping human interpersonal relationships (Zacchilli et al., 2009). For instance, Frei and Shaver (2002) assert that respect is related to consumers' attitudes and is determined by quality of their feelings and thoughts. Thus, online brand communities, in different social media platforms, often play a significant role in creating remarkable and significant experiences with a particular brand via sending relevant messages by customers to other customers to enhance brand respect. ...
... We find that lovemark is a second-order construct, which comprises of two sub-dimensional constructs, namely, lovemark and brand respect within luxury fashion brands context over SNSs platform. This result is supported by extant literature (Albert et al., 2008;Algharabat, 2017;Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006;Giovanis & Athanasopoulou, 2018;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Roberts, 2005;Zacchilli et al., 2009), which investigated this notion over both offline as well as online contexts. ...
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This research aims to investigate the impact of social media marketing activities (SMMa) on brand loyalty directly and through mediating variables community engagement and lovemark. To propose a research model, we used the theories including lovemark theory, engagement theory and brand equity theory. As a result, this research investigates the impact of SMMa, community engagement, and lovemark on brand loyalty. Using an online survey, we collected data from 464 female participants who are following luxury fashion brands on major social networking sites including Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and Twitter. Results using PLS revealed that SMMa positively influences community engagement and lovemark. Moreover, we find positive relationships between community engagement, lovemark and brand loyalty. However, we find that SMMa has no direct influence on brand loyalty.
... Respect, according to De Lellis (2000), consists of admiration, appreciation, honour, fear, reverence, regard, and deference. According to Frei and Shaver (2002), respect encompasses a disposition and attitude toward someone based on their positive attributes. Respect, according to the authors, is an attitude that includes cognitive qualities, such as affective elements, namely happy sentiments, behavioural elements like honouring someone in various ways, and appreciating them (Hendrick et al., 2010;Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). ...
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Mahabharata is the longest epic poem and a product of ancient Hindu civilisation, written post Ramayana between 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. Scholars unanimously agree the Mahabharata is a Hindu moral treatise. However, the fundamental moral values relating to the family as depicted in the epic is very much understudied, notably the element of respect given to the elders. The mainstream interpretations of the Mahabharata text focus primarily on its spiritual element, limiting its application and relevance to wider moral living. In reality, the epic promotes family values, notably the enduring respect for older family members by the younger ones even when they treat the latter unjustly. This paper contributes to literature on morality, namely the value of respect as discussed and portrayed in Mahabharata. Respect is a universal value; however, this moral value as discussed in Mahabharata is unique and worthy to be promoted as a moral ideal because it has significant scientific and cultural implications. Therefore, the current study further seeks to identify moral values associated with family life, namely respect for the elderly. Relevant data is extracted and later analysed using Hermeneutic Approach, while Murray Bowen's Family Systems Theory is utilised to understand intra-familial relationship. Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory meanwhile is used to delineate the moral phases of important characters. Certain methods and expressions are used in the epic that reflect familial respect, namely: i) Salutatory Respect; ii) Acquiescent Respect; iii) Consultation Respect; iv) Linguistic Respect; v) Gift Respect and Reverence. Mahabharata is potentially a valuable moral resource for the younger generation and including its moral values in the educational syllabus will pave way to create generations that respect and honour its elderly and older members of society.
... Researchers seeking clarity within the term "respect" have found that closely related words, when taken as a group, characterize a partner as someone that attachment theorists refer to as a good (i.e. security-enhancing) attachment figure; this is a person on whom one can rely for protection, comfort, support, and encouragement (Frei & Shaver, 2002). ...
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Considerable research confirms that romantic relationships and their quality are one of the top priorities in the lives of individuals, especially as they enter the emerging adulthood stage. It is indisputably relevant to revisit relationship quality factors in research, even though there is generally plenty of interest in this topic across the research literature. The present study concerns the antecedents of relationship quality in a research-excluded region of Central Eastern Europe, namely Slovakia, where no similar research has been published to date, presuming the cultural specificities of Slovak youth. The study intends to approximate individuals' perceptions, not to fit them into predefined theories; thus, the research is inductive with an experiential orientation to the data. A reflexive thematic analysis of in-depth semi-structured interviews (37) or written self-moderated accounts (74) from 104 participants in a cohort of 18- to 35-year-olds resulted in the creation of four themes. These reflect the participants’ accounts of the antecedents of relational quality, which are i) external circumstances, ii) partners’ mutual attitudes and feelings, iii) the degree of sharing, and iv) individual contributions to relationship quality (personality, character traits, emotionality). Although the results can be formulated as a positive versus negative duality of oppositional influences, the degree phenomenon is strongly present. The idea that “everything in excess is bad” certainly applies.
... From the perspective of objectification theory, instrumental deliberation may violate the principle of mutual respect and entail dehumanization (Belmi & Schroeder, 2021;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Vaes et al., 2011). Moreover, this problem may be more severe with nonclose than close others. ...
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Three studies examined whether contemplating the usefulness that non-close and close others may provide for one’s personal goals would promote or hinder interpersonal closeness. The results consistently demonstrated that such instrumental deliberation increased people’s closeness with distant others (Studies 1–3); and the effect lasted until the next day (Study 2). For close others, however, the evidence was weaker. Moreover, perceived instrumentality, as a product of such elaboration, was more strongly related to the increase in closeness with non-close than with close others. Study 3 further showed that instrumental deliberation enhanced humanness perceptions of non-close others and reduced unethical behavior towards them. We discussed the potential implications of these findings for the understanding of instrumentality, objectification and interpersonal relationships.
... Brand respect, which is rooted in emotional connections, plays a significant role in driving consumer loyalty. As a cornerstone in human relationship dynamics (Frei & Shaver, 2002), respect likely holds a similar pivotal role in consumer-brand interactions. Within branding, respect is closely associated with product reliability, leading to repeat purchases (Montoya-Restrepo et al., 2020;Shuv-Ami, 2018). ...
Article
This study explores the factors influencing satellite sport fans’ social media engagement, focusing on Japanese National Basketball Association (NBA) fans. Using the technology acceptance model and Brand Respect Scale, we analyzed the effects of perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and perceived trustworthiness on social media stickiness and investigated the mediating roles of brand trust, brand performance, brand acceptance, and brand reputation. A partial least squares structural equation modeling analysis of data from 813 Japanese NBA fans revealed that perceived usefulness and enjoyment significantly affected social media stickiness, while perceived trustworthiness indirectly influenced this stickiness through brand trust and acceptance. The study advances the theoretical understanding of social media behavior among satellite sport fans and provides practical implications for optimizing social media strategies to enhance fan engagement. Our findings offer valuable insights for sport teams and organizations seeking to strengthen their connection with geographically distant fans. In addition, this research paves the way for future studies to encompass diverse age groups, sports, and regions to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing satellite sport fans’ social media engagement.
... Individuals with a secure attachment style tend to have positive expectations of their partner and themselves and are comfortable with emotional intimacy and dependence, which can result in more satisfying and stable relationships [24]. They tend to experience satisfaction and high levels of commitment in their romantic relationships [25,26] and demonstrate superior conflict management and resolution skills in their romantic relationships as opposed to those with insecure attachment styles [27]. ...
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Early attachment dynamics, formed through interactions with primary caregivers, lay the groundwork for individuals' relational patterns and behaviors later in life. Research in developmental psychology and attachment theory suggests that the quality of early caregiving relationships significantly shapes individuals' attachment styles, influencing their ability to trust, communicate, and form intimate connections in adulthood. Also, the parenting style employed by parent shapes children's development and their subsequent romantic relationships in adulthood. Research indicates that parenting styles authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful have distinct effects on children's emotional well-being, social competence, and relationship patterns. Through a comprehensive analysis of relevant literature, this review elucidates how attachment dynamics and parenting styles serve as fundamental building blocks shaping individuals' relational patterns.
... 。Langdon (2007) (Creswell, 2003;Hanson, Creswell, Clark, Pestska, & Creswell, 2005;Onwuegbuzie & Teddlie, 2003) Shechtman, 1994;Shechtman, et al., 2002) Bentler & Bonett, 1980;Bentler, 1990 (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Hsueh, Zhou, Cohen, Hundely, & Deptula, 2005;Kumashiro, et al., 2002) (Furman, Simon, Shaffer, & Bouchey, 2002), 還 有國中生 對 戀愛及異性 較為陌生 (Furman & Wehner, 1997 ...
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Download link https://www.airitilibrary.com/Article/Detail/18181546-201311-201312020077-201312020077-47-74 The purpose of this study is to verify the effect of a romantic relationship counseling group project of teenage girls in junior high school which is oriented to encouragement of self-respect and respect for her partner by examining relational changes of group members. There are 8 main catalysts and some principles of leading the group in order to facilitate participants’ self-respect and respect. The group structure is as followed: two hours per week for a total of ten weeks, led by two female leaders, both have degrees in counseling psychology. The participants were mainly seventh and eighth graders from a boarding school. They were either in a relationship or had experienced love. Participants are matched according to their characteristics and each of matched pairs is randomly assigned to contrast or experimental groups. Eight girls in the experimental group joined the counseling group and seven girls in the contrast group were later provided. The mixed methods research design was conducted. The quantitative section, time x treatment research design was used, self-reported results of the questionnaires of the self-respect, respect for the partner, conflict coping strategy and relationship assessment from both groups were collected with a total of four testing times. The collection time started one week prior to the beginning of the group and ended eight months after the group concluded. On the qualitative section, interview logs for the experimental group were collected three months after the group ended. Thematic analysis was used as well as quantitized of the results; triangulation was used for both qualitative and quantitative results. The result shows that after participating in the project, the girls have learned the importance of “stop and think of what I want to do” and can also care about themselves as well as others then adopt multiple solutions in conflicts within friendships and romantic relationships. They consider not only their partners’ feelings but also their own feelings in love which emphasizes the obligation to care for the partner. Their schoolmates and teachers also become aware of their changes. The girls in the contrast group who interacted frequently with the girls in the experiment group also attained positive changes only in friendships but not in love. In conclusion, the counseling group project can improve girls’ self-respect and respect her partner in close relationships especially in romantic relationships.
... The significance of respect in close relationships is acknowledged by Refs. [63,60], who propose that respect is an attitude directed towards a partner in a close relationship who is deemed trustworthy, considerate, and accepting [64]. This notion underscores the importance of respect in fostering positive and healthy interpersonal connections. ...
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Increasing competition in healthcare services, it is imperative that physicians and family-care practitioners seek ways to attract and retain patients. Building relationships with existing patients is one sure way to continued patronage and increased clientele. The purpose of this paper is to examine antecedents of rapport and its influence on perceived relationships in the context of patient-physician interaction. Study using cross-sectional survey method with structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Structural Equation Modeling was used for analyzing the data collected from 326 patients residing in Karnataka, India. The finding suggests that respect, responsibility and understanding have significant influence on relational cohesion with rapport acting as mediating variable. The results add to the empirical validity of the relationship among rapport, respect & relationship, as it is required to understand studied in Indian context. The finding provides new directions for both healthcare professionals and institutions in their endeavor of building relationships with their customers (Patients) by emphasizing the need for developing ‘rapport’ as an integral part of service interaction. Future research like longitudinal and experimental studies can provide more conclusive evidence regarding the influence of service behaviour on rapport.
... Osoby przypisane do tego wymiaru cechuje szacunek dla innych, uprzejmość, skromność, łagodność, troskliwość i wyrozumiałość dla bliskich (Wiggins, 1995). W innych badaniach osoby troszczące się o innych, kochające i wykazujące zrozumienie też wykazywały bezpieczny styl przywiązania (frei, Shaver, 2002). ...
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The aim of the study was to answer the question whether different types of entering into interpersonal relationships are explained by different types of perfectionism and by attachment styles. The study included 169 adult people, consisting of 96 women and 73 men. The primary research tool was Wiggins’ Interpersonal Adjective Scales (IAS-R), which is a self-report method and consists of 64 items. Additionally, Plopa’s Attachment Styles Questionnaire was used to study attachment relationships and this tool consists of 24 items, as well as the Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTSP) by Smith et al. consisting of 45 items, which is currently in the adaptation process to Polish conditions. It was assumed that different types of entering into relationships are explained by different types of perfectionism and attachment styles. The research results have shown that different types of entering into interpersonal relationships are determined by different dimensions of perfectionism. Perfectionism explains 18–30% of the variation in interpersonal relationships. It has also been proven that none of the non-secure attachment styles are associated with less adaptive ways of entering into relationships.
... • Respect: Literature on interpersonal relationships suggests that people like to be valued and respected by their partners (Davis & Todd, 1982;Markman et al., 1994). Love and commitment (Fehr, 1988) when combined with respect, enhance relationship satisfaction (Frei & Shaver, 2002) and furthers well-being. ...
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Relationship is identified as a key indicator of well-being. While literature from diverse fields addresses different aspects of relationship in the context of well-being, a well-articulated conceptualization of relationship, which examines its components and dimensions, hardly exists. This study critically examines the extant literature to address this issue. It identifies 27 key components of relationship that contribute significantly to well-being. It classifies them under four dimensions and proposes a conceptual relationship model that presents interactions among the dimensions and indicates pathways through which the dimensions contribute to well-being. Limitations of this study, and future directions for research are discussed.
... In our investigation, most scales were initially created to target one's supervisor, but some were created to target multiple possible targets (e.g., communal strength, respect, responsiveness, empathy). We found empirical evidence for validity for all scales in using them to target supervisors or similar targets like instructors or physicians (Clark et al., 1998;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Reis et al., 2008;Ross et al., 2023). However, translations of scales are considered a more significant concern for the validity of the results, even when rigorous translation and back-translation methodologies are applied. ...
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Employees who perceive their supervisors to listen well enjoy multiple benefits, including enhanced well-being. However, concerns regarding the construct validity of perceived-listening measures raise doubts about such conclusions. The perception of listening quality may reflect two factors: constructive and destructive listening, which may converge with desired (e.g., humility) and undesired (e.g., rudeness) supervisor-subordinate relationship behaviors, respectively, and both may converge with relationship quality (e.g., trust). Therefore, we assessed the convergent validity of four perceived listening measures and their divergent validity with eight measures of supervisor-subordinate relationship behaviors, eight relationship-quality measures, and a criterion measure of well-being. Using data from 2,038 subordinates, we calculated the disattenuated correlations and profile similarities among these measures. The results supported convergent but not divergent validity: 58.7% (12.6%) of the correlations expected to diverge had confidence intervals with upper limits above 0.80 (0.90), and 20% of their profile-similarity indices were close to 1. To probe these correlations, we ran a factor analysis revealing good and poor relationship factors and an exploratory graph analysis identifying three clusters: positive and negative relationship behaviors and relationship quality. A post-hoc analysis indicated that relationship-quality mediates the effect of the positive and negative behaviors on well-being. The results demonstrate the challenge of differentiating the perception of listening from commonly used supervisor-subordinate relationship constructs, and cast doubts on the divergent validity of many constructs of interest in Organizational Behavior. However, using the “sibling” constructs framework may allow disentangling these highly correlated relationship constructs, conceptually and empirically.
... Disaffection means unfriendly or uncaring, a loss of association that was valued at some point in childhood; separation from affectionate relationships from parents, siblings, peers, and society, threatening future associations of care and propelling actions of disengagement that blotch initiative, capitulation, and submissiveness (Connell, 1991). For a lifelong and pleasing relationship, it is necessary to show reciprocal respect for individualism, support, a mutual approach to adjustment, and enough freedom for personal development (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Saleem et al., 2014;Segrin & Taylor, 2007). However, estrangement or distancing causes adolescents to move away from their parents. ...
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The current study aimed to develop a reliable and valid assessment scale on juvenile social alienation. Items for the measure were based on responses from 30 incarcerated juvenile delinquents obtained through semi-structured interviews, which resulted in an item pool of 40 statements. After expert validation, 23 items for the Juvenile Social Alienation Scale (JSAS) were finalized and administered to 211 juvenile delinquents, along with the Measure of Criminal Social Identity (MCSI, Boduszek et al., 2012) to assess convergent validity. Based on the principal component factor analysis three-factor solution was finalized for the scale. The three factors (subscales) were labeled as Disgruntlement, Disaffection, and Estrangement. The assessment scale had satisfactory internal consistency, and concurrent and convergent validities and could be utilized for assessment and correctional counseling services for juvenile delinquents.
... In romantic relationships where power balance is sought, respect is commonly associated with traits such as trustworthiness, love, care, and acceptance, and is generally associated with emotional warmth and reciprocity [42]. Respect is a core value in marital relationships along with commitment, intimacy, and forgiveness and typically accompanies feelings of admiration and fondness for a partner [43,44]. Although it is not defined similarly across writings and studies, empirical studies have demonstrated that respect is closely related to the level of commitment partners have to their relationship, their ability to cope with relational trauma, their overall satisfaction with the relationship, and their willingness to engage in prosocial behaviors [45,46]. ...
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While coparenting-related conceptual frameworks and empirical studies have received considerable attention in Western countries, there is far less attention on this topic in other regions. This study seeks to fill this gap by comparing coparenting dynamics between English-speaking and Chinese parents. This study begins by reviewing coparenting relationships in both Western and Chinese contexts. Study participants comprised 399 English-speaking parents living in the US and Canada and 534 Chinese parents living in Mainland China. There were several waves of participant recruitment by sending out the flyers online or utilizing the professional networks to invite eligible parents. The measurement tool CoPAFS (Coparenting across Family Structures), which has been validated in English-speaking culture, was used to compare the differences in coparenting constructs in two cultures. First, the model fit of CoPAFS within Chinese culture was examined with Cronbach Alpha values and relevant model fit indices such as Comparative Fit Index and Root Mean square Residual. As most of the statistics fell below the expected level of excellence, there is a need to locally adjust the entire model in order to better interpret Chinese parenting. The intensity of connection between each factor included in the model and the coparenting relationship as a whole was then investigated. Although most factors were endorsed similarly by Chinese and English-speaking parents, there were notable differences in their opinions regarding communication and trust. While English-speaking parents highly valued these two elements within the coparenting process, Chinese parents showed almost no attentiveness to them. In order to understand factors that may contribute to such a sharp contrast, two main variables, culture and gender, were tested. Through a series of multigroup invariance analyses assessing equivalence across groups, it was discovered that culture emerged as the more dominant determinant among the groups of participants. The implications of cross-cultural use of the CoPAFS tool and future research directions are discussed.
... The basis of respect is a broad humanistic tendency to value each person as a dignified person and this kind of respect is considered unconditional. In this paper we accept the view of Frei and Shaver, that respect is an attitude, not an emotion, and includes cognitive processes, feelings and behaviors with possible differences between these components (Frei & Shaver, 2002). According to this understanding of respect, it is possible, even when we do not accept the values and attitudes of others, to treat them as equals to ourselves. ...
Conference Paper
The term assertiveness comes from the English word "to assert" and "be assertive" (adjective), which means to defend and firmly persist in one's opinion, to be persistent, to have great self-confidence, to express one's rights and needs, and the other not to be hurt. It is one of the most important psychological qualities of a person that significantly contributes to maintaining internal balance, expressing one's own attitudes and cultivating good interpersonal relationships. In general, assertiveness is a successful combination of firmness and good behavior, which is a necessary aspect of practicing the police profession. This paper talks about assertiveness as a desirable way of communication between the police and the citizens. The studies show that assertiveness not only complies with legal procedures, but also improves communication between the police and citizens, allows citizens to feel understood and accepted, and allows police officers to perform their work efficiently and with less stress. The application of this type of communication contributes to a better resolution of conflicts and may prevent escalations.
... To complete our conceptualization of perceived listening, we distinguish it from other related constructs (Podsakoff et al., 2016). The evaluation of listening is closely related to perceptions of empathy (Kellett et al., 2006), perspectivetaking (Lui et al., 2020), no rudeness (Porath & Erez, 2007), responsiveness (Reis & Clark, 2013), respect (Frei & Shaver, 2002), and feeling understood (Reis et al., 2017). Theoretically, perceived listening differs from all of these constructs in that it is based on evaluating the other person's behavior during or after a conversation (Kriz et al., 2021a, b). ...
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The quality of listening in interpersonal contexts was hypothesized to improve a variety of work outcomes. However, research of this general hypothesis is dispersed across multiple disciplines and mostly atheoretical. We propose that perceived listening improves job performance through its effects on affect, cognition, and relationship quality. To test our theory, we conducted a registered systematic review and multiple meta-analyses, using three-level meta-analysis models, based on 664 effect sizes and 400,020 observations. Our results suggest a strong positive correlation between perceived listening and work outcomes, $$\overline{r}$$ r ¯ = .39, 95% CI = [.36, .43], $$\overline{\rho }$$ ρ ¯ = .44, with the effect on relationship quality, $$\overline{r}=$$ r ¯ = .51, being stronger than the effect on performance, $$\overline{r}=$$ r ¯ = .36. These findings partially support our theory, indicating that perceived listening may enhance job performance by improving relationship quality. However, 75% of the literature relied on self-reports raising concerns about discriminant validity. Despite this limitation, removing data solely based on self-reports still produced substantial estimates of the association between listening and work outcomes (e.g., listening and job performance, $$\overline{r}$$ r ¯ = .21, 95% CI = [.13, .29], $$\overline{\rho }$$ ρ ¯ = .23). Our meta-analyses suggest further research into (a) the relationship between listening and job knowledge, (b) measures assessing poor listening behaviors, (c) the incremental validity of listening in predicting listeners’ and speakers’ job performance, and (d) listening as a means to improve relationships at work.
... The high state of respect for specific brands influence consumer loyalty (Pawle & Cooper, 2006). Brand respect is at the heart of creating a strong reciprocal relationship to form a relationship that benefits both the brand and the consumer (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Hendrick & Hendrick, 2006). In addition, it also reviews how to measure emotions based on the thoughts included in the "love marks" theory, namely that brands today need not only to be respected but also to build loving relationships with consumers. ...
Article
Repurchasing in the future reflects the success of a business that can build customer loyalty, which happens because the company can meet the needs and expectations of consumers. The dynamics of changes in consumer behavior in choosing products encourage companies to be able to provide satisfying products. Satisfied consumers will feel a bond with the product. Purpose of the study is to examine Self-Brand Connection (SBC) as a mediating variable between customer satisfaction on repurchase intention and the role of love mark in moderating SBC for intention to repurchase. The sample used in the study was 210 and analysed quantitatively via SmartPLS3. The study found that customer satisfaction affects repurchase intentions. Customer satisfaction positively affects self-brand connection. The SBC affects repurchase intention. Love for culinary brands cannot moderate self-brand connection on repurchase intention. Brand respect can moderate SBC on repurchase intention.
... To complete our conceptualization of perceived listening, we distinguish it from other related constructs (Podsakoff et al., 2016). The evaluation of listening is closely related to perceptions of empathy (Kellett et al., 2006), perspective-taking (Lui et al., 2020), no rudeness (Porath & Erez, 2007), responsiveness (Reis & Clark, 2013), respect (Frei & Shaver, 2002), and feeling understood (Reis et al., 2017). Theoretically, perceived listening differs from all of these constructs in that it is based on evaluating the other person's behavior during or after a conversation . ...
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Kluger, A. N., Lehmann, M., Aguinis, H., Itzchakov, G., Gordoni, G., Zyberaj, J., & Bakaç, C. (in press). A meta-analytic systematic review and theory of perceived listening and job outcomes (performance, relationship quality, affect, and cognition). Journal of Business and Psychology. Abstract The quality of listening in interpersonal contexts was hypothesized to improve variety of work outcomes. However, research of this general hypothesis is dispersed across multiple disciplines and mostly atheoretical. We propose that perceived listening improves job performance through its effects on affect, cognition, and relationship quality. To test our theory, we conducted a registered systematic review and multiple meta-analyses, using a three-level meta-analysis models, based on 664 effect sizes and 400,020 observations. Our results suggest a strong positive correlation between perceived listening and work outcomes, ¯r = .39, 95%CI = [.36, .43], ρ ̅ = .44, with the effect on relationship quality, ¯r= .51, being stronger than the effect on performance, ¯r= .36. These findings partially support our theory, indicating that perceived listening may enhance job performance by improving relationship quality. However, 75% of the literature relied on self-reports raising concerns about divergent validity. Despite this limitation, removing data solely based on self-reports still produced substantial estimates of the association between listening and work outcomes (e.g., listening and job performance, ¯r = .21, 95%CI = [.13, .29], ρ ̅ = .23). Our meta-analyses highlight the need for further research into the relationship between listening and job knowledge, measures assessing poor listening behaviors, and the importance of considering listening as a potential predictor of listeners’ and speakers’ job performance, and a means to improve relationships at work.
... Respect is important in friendships, and thus it comes as no surprise that it is mentioned on the list of things that people desire to receive from their love partners (Gottmann, 1999). Respect is vital for long-term romantic relationships as it is relevant for intimacy and relationship satisfaction and was found to be positively correlated with self-disclosure, passion, and altruism (Hendrick & Hendrick, 2006;Frei & Shaver, 2002). When people feel that they are not respected within a relationship, they react badly, and it may also lead to the relationship ending. ...
Chapter
Our love relationships define us as individuals and shape our personal growth across the lifespan in all developmental domains (i.e. cognitive, emotional, physical, social, personality). Love relations evolve across the later stages of life as the individuals within a couple change. In this chapter, I will focus on romantic relationships and their impact on individual development in midlife and older age. First, I will discuss definitions of love and marital satisfaction, theories that explain love and what instruments were developed to measure love and fulfilled romantic relations. Second, I will examine what middle-aged and older people think about love and relationships and what are the positive and negative characteristics of romantic relationships in midlife and older age. In this context, I will discuss the potentials and pitfalls of the empty nest syndrome, grey divorces and bereavement. Third, I will analyse the relation between romantic relationships and personal development in all life domains. Finally, I will reflect on how positive psychology principles and developmental resources can be applied to help middle-aged and older individuals to achieve their desired relationships as well as foster their developmental potential.
... родительских отношениях, в психологии групп, в психологии лидерства, в психологии конфликтов. В части исследований понятие «уважение» используется без какого-либо описания [Fiske et al., 1999], в других исследованиях понятие описывается, но его определение не дается [Frei, Shaver, 2002;Morrison, 2006]. В части работ определения уважения предлагаются, но отсутствует какая-либо эмпирическая проверка предложенного определения [Janoff-Bulman, Werther, 2008;van Quaquebeke et al., 2007]. ...
Article
Анализируется семантика понятий «уважение» и «уважение к родителям», сравниваются семантические профили данных понятий у старших подростков и взрослых. Приведен теоретический обзор представлений об уважении, показана недостаточная проработанность данного понятия и актуальность обращения к исследованию уважения к родителям. Представлены результаты эмпирического исследования семантики понятий «уважение» и «уважение к родителям» (N = 384), приводится сравнение результатов выборки подростков в возрасте от 14 до 18 лет (n = 164) и взрослых в возрасте от 22 до 70 лет (n = 220). Исследование проводилось с помощью методики «семантический дифференциал» (использованы 22 биполярные шкалы) и разработанной нами шкалы семантики понятия «уважение», содержащей 26 высказываний о возможных дефинициях и смысловой нагрузке понятия «уважение». Обработка результатов исследования проведена с помощью пакета SPSS Statistics, использованы следующие процедуры: описательные статистики, критерий знаковых рангов Уилкоксона, непараметрический критерий U Манна–Уитни, одновыборочный критерий Колмогорова–Смирнова, корреляция Спирмена, критерий адекватности выборки Кайзера–Мейера–Олкина, критерий сферичности Барлетта, факторный анализ (метод – анализ главных компонент, вращение – Варимакс, нормализация Кайзера). Выделены семантические универсалии понятий «уважение» и «уважение к родителям». Описаны различия в восприятии данных понятий подростками и взрослыми. По результатам исследования делаются выводы о более позитивном и согласованном отношении респондентов к понятию «уважение к родителям» по сравнению с понятием «уважение»; об отличии представлений подростков и взрослых о данных понятиях. Также в работе проанализированы представления старших подростков и взрослых о том, что является условиями становления уважения к родителям и содержанием данного понятия. Результаты факторного анализа позволили сделать вывод о том, что уважение к родителям трактуется как чувство уважения к родителям или предписанное уважительное поведение.
... There is accumulating evidence that secure people's positive working models of others contribute to expressions of respect, admiration, and gratitude toward a romantic partner (e.g., Beck & Clark, 2010;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Mikulincer et al., 2006). In a diary study, Mikulincer et al. (2006) explored these issues in the context of marital relationships and found that attachment security predicted higher levels of daily gratitude toward a spouse across 21 consecutive days. ...
Chapter
How can we get the most out of our close relationships? Research in the area of personal relationships continues to grow, but most prior work has emphasized how to overcome negative aspects. This volume demonstrates that a good relationship is more than simply the absence of a bad relationship, and that establishing and maintaining optimal relationships entails enacting a set of processes that are distinct from merely avoiding negative or harmful behaviors. Drawing on recent relationship science to explore issues such as intimacy, attachment, passion, sacrifice, and compassionate goals, the essays in this volume emphasize the positive features that allow relationships to flourish. In doing so, they integrate several theoretical perspectives, concepts, and mechanisms that produce optimal relationships. The volume also includes a section on intensive and abbreviated interventions that have been empirically validated to be effective in promoting the positive features of close relationships.
... Subsequent studies (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Owen et al., 2012) have found that people with more attachment insecurities are less likely to perceive appreciation and respect from romantic partners, which contribute to a lack of relational success. Furthermore, insecure attachment prevents romantic partners from forming, consolidating, and maintaining lasting and satisfying relationships (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). ...
Article
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Studies to identify the association between individuals’ attachment patterns and their marital attitudes are insufficient and necessitate more empirical study. The current study aimed to investigate the impact of attachment styles on attitudes toward marriage and the mediating role of emotional intimacy among 182 participants at a southeastern university in the United States. Differences in perceptions of the degree of emotional intimacy among securely, avoidantly, and anxiously/ambivalently attached participants were explored to analyze the mediation effect of emotional intimacy between attachment styles and marital attitudes. The research findings revealed that secure, anxious/ambivalent, and avoidant individuals tended to have different attitudes toward marriage. Their marital attitudes were mediated by the emotional intimacy levels associated with their attachment styles. Implications for educators, researchers, and practitioners are discussed.
... Powtórzenie powyższych badań na odpowiednio dużej próbie osób heteroseksualnych może pomóc w ostatecznej weryfikacji hipotezy o związku kompulsyjności seksualnej z satysfakcją seksualną i ogólną satysfakcją z relacji.1.4.4. Czynniki wpływające na kształtowanie się przywiązaniaChoć wiele już powiedziano, o skutkach rozwinięcia się bezpiecznego stylu przywiązania u dorosłych -takich jak większa satysfakcja i zaangażowanie w związki romantyczne w stosunku do osób z pozabezpiecznymi stylami przywiązania(Frei, Shaver;2002), mniejsza konfliktowość relacji(Campbell, Simpson, Boldry, Kashy, 2005) i większy opór przed rozpadem związku i rozwodem(Davila, Bradburry, 2001), można wyróżnić stosunkowo niewiele badań na temat czynników środowiskowych wpływających na utworzenie się bezpiecznych i pozabezpiecznych styli przywiązania, ze względu na koszt i czas ich trwania (Booth-LaForce, Rosiman, Owen, Fraley, Holland, 2013).W dotychczasowych badaniach nad tym zagadnieniem, ustalono, że bardziej prawdopodobnym jest rozwinięcie się bezpiecznej odpowiedzi na "obcą sytuację"(Ainsworth, 1978) u niemowląt posiadających wrażliwych i responsywnych opiekunów od najwcześniejszego etapu życia. Psychologowie społeczni kładą nacisk nie tylko na różnicę w jakości bliskich relacji z opiekunem jako czynnik różnicujący dla wytworzenia się różnych stylów przywiązania, ale także doświadczenia interpersonalne45:6608055667 ...
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Hypersexuality is a disorder characterized by repetitive sexual experiences and fantasies, associated with a sense of loss of control, distress, and adverse effects on an individual’s bio-psycho-social functioning (Kafka, 2001). Hypersexual behavior most often includes masturbation (autoeroticism), entering into sexual relations with strangers (promiscuity, paid sex) or using the Internet and virtual reality for sexual purposes (cybersex) (Habrat et al. 2012). The primary aim of this study is to determine if a statistical relationship exists between attachment styles in close relationships and hypersexuality. A secondary aim of this study is to bring to light previously unknown factors which also affect the development of hypersexual disorder. This work assumes that hypersexual individuals are characterized by a more insecure attachment style and lack of personality integration compared to the non-hypersexual group. To validate that assumption, the attachment style variable was examined using the Experiences in Close Relationships - Relationship Structures scale (Fraley et al. 2011), and its Polish adaptation (Marszał, 2015). This work compares the attachment styles of healthy and hypersexual people. This work also explores potential cultural differences in the developed attachment styles by comparing relevant data from Polish and US American study participants. The influence of the borderline personality disorder on the intensity of reported hypersexuality symptoms was also examined. A statistical comparison between a group of hypersexual individuals and a control group indicates that hypersexual people are characterized by a more insecure attachment style on two fronts. First, that hypersexual individuals demonstrate higher avoidance of closeness and fear of abandonment scores in relationship with their mothers, compared to control group. Second, that hypersexual individuals demonstrate a stronger avoidance of closeness in relationship with their fathers when compared to individuals from control group. A statistical analysis is presented that indicates a weak positive correlation between avoiding closeness and fear of abandonment in maternal relationships with the total hypersexuality score as well as all its subscales. The analysis also shows a weak positive correlation between avoiding closeness in the relationship with the partner and total hypersexuality score, as well as two subscales of hypersexuality: accompanying factors, and negative impact on the mood. The study demonstrates that borderline personality disorder is a key factor in explaining hypersexuality as it allows to explain 52% of the variance of this disorder. Sztobryn, Adrian (2018). Hypersexuality and attachment styles in men. Master's thesis under the supervision of prof. dr. hab. Lidia Cierpiałkowska. Poznań, Institute of Psychology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 113 pp., 130 bibl. items, 8 attachments. Keywords: hypersexuality, attachment styles, sex addiction, compulsive sexual behaviors, borderline personality disorder
... Whereas security-enhancing interactions with available and responsive attachment figures promote a positive view of others, emotionally painful, frustrating interactions with unavailable or rejecting attachment figures contribute to negative views of others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). Indeed, numerous studies have found that attachment anxiety and avoidance scales are associated with lower esteem for others (e.g., Luke, Maio, & Carnelley, 2004), more doubts about others' trustworthiness (e.g., Hofstra, van Oudenhoven, & Buunk, 2005), and less respect for relationship partners (e.g., Frei & Shaver, 2002). Moreover, attachment insecurities are associated with lower ratings of relationship partners' responsiveness, dependability, authenticity, and faithfulness (e.g., Beck, Pietromonaco, DeVito, Powers, & Boyle, 2014) and more negative expectations concerning a partner's behavior (e.g., Rowe & Carnelley, 2003; see also Reis et al., this volume). ...
... given to particular people based on status, qualities, or achievements (Darwall, 1977 [Appraisal/Recognition Respect]; Janoff-Bulman & Werther, 2008 [Categorical/Contingent Respect]; Kellenberger, 1995 [Respect for all humanity vs for ability or achievements]). Researchers define respect as a value (Ingersoll-Dayton & Saengtienchai, 1999), as a moral principal (Browne, 1993), behavior (Grover, 2014), emotion (Fischer & Li, 2007;Kövecses, 1990), or attitude (Frei & Shaver, 2002). Most of the definitions in the literature are deductive and formulated according to accumulated and conceptualized knowledge and insights. ...
Article
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Respect is a common social concept, yet how lay people define it has not been thoroughly investigated. This study used a grounded theory approach, using in-depth interviews, to conceptualize respect according to lay knowledge. 40 participants from two cultures in the Middle East-20 Jewish Israelis and 20 Palestinians-reported how they define respect (Kavod in Hebrew and Ihtiram in Arabic). The findings define respect as a complex, multidimensional concept. Based on the findings, a respect pyramid model was developed, which includes four dimensions: avoiding disrespect, deserved/ normative respect, conditional respect, and considerate respect. Each dimension indicates an increase in aspects that make the respect less conditional and more intrinsic, while requiring higher sensitivity and greater effort. The implications of the respect pyramid for relationships and the cultural differences regarding definitions of respect are discussed.
Chapter
The chapter discusses a variety of psychological factors that influence attraction. The chapter describes love as a psychological attraction, focusing on the qualities, intensity, and strength of emotions. Affectionate, passionate, obsessive, para-social, and romantic attraction are several types of psychological attractions defined here. Then, the chapter describes the dialectics of psychological similarities and differences between individuals determining the types of attraction. The dialectics of happiness and unhappiness, attraction and repulsion, create the appealing bittersweet nature of love as an attraction. Proximity, reciprocity, and the dynamics of interpersonal interaction also determine psychological attraction. The psychological dynamics of interpersonal attraction involve certainty, the need for closure, familiarity, and stability on the one hand and uncertainty, novelty, and instability on the other. Transformations of psychological arousal, such as arousal and excitation transfers, the extrinsic arousal effect, and the opponent process, can inspire interpersonal attraction. The chapter shows how autonomy and interdependence between individuals generate their attraction to each other. The desires for psychological union, complementarity, and self-expansion become the ultimate drivers of interpersonal attraction. The two last sections review the findings, which demonstrate the role of personality traits and rational and practical motivation in interpersonal attraction. In this context, the author presents attraction theories that are based on the motivating roles of reinforcement, exchange, and reward.
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Motivate your students to learn and apply strong communication principles in personal and business relationships as Adler/Proctor/Manning's popular LOOKING OUT, LOOKING IN, 16E with MindTap digital resources applies the latest research to students' everyday lives using magazine-style readings, the latest pop culture references and expanded discussion of social media.
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Background Women and ethnic minorities have historically been underrepresented in some STEM fields. It is therefore important to understand the factors influencing students’ persistence in STEM fields, and what STEM belonging means from the voices of socio-demographically diverse students, in order to ensure equity among students in STEM fields and to increase their belonging to this field, which has not been clearly defined in the literature, and there is a lack of agreement about the definition of belonging itself. For this purpose, the perspectives of students in England are brought together in this study in an attempt to better understand the concept of STEM belonging within a broader context of integration. Result The inductive thematic analysis with the voices of socio-demographically diverse 313 A-level, undergraduate and postgraduate Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry students showed that compared to male students, it was mostly female, non-binary, non-White, and first-generation students who defined STEM belonging as ‘Feeling safe and comfortable in the STEM community and settings’. This theme was defined by the participants as the group/community/learning environment in which the individual belongs, the interaction with the people in the field, and the comfort that this participation/interaction creates. Students stressed the importance of creating a supportive and welcoming STEM environment so that individuals can feel at home, as well as a safe and comfortable STEM environment for people of all identities, genders, ethnicities, and backgrounds. Based on the participants’ responses, this study also conceptualised the concept of STEM belonging as having four phases: the ‘adaptation phase’, the ‘integration phase’, the ‘continuum phase’, and the ‘transition phase’. These four phases which comprise the STEM belonging concept are consecutive and interconnected. Conclusion The study concluded that all human beings are connected in a relational way (either strong or weak) and that the concept of STEM belonging develops as a result of interactions with ‘self’ and ‘others’ who have a shared passion and an interest in STEM fields. Although individuals have intrinsic motivation and individual prompts in STEM fields (i.e. resilience, beliefs in their capacity/ability and curiosity, etc.), social determinants (i.e. receiving adequate support from members of the STEM community, social capital and social cohesion, etc.) also play a significant role in influencing individual’s sense of STEM belonging.
Article
Purpose Drawing on social exchange theory, this study aims to investigate the reciprocal relationship between an employee’s knowledge sharing and his or her coworkers’ responses to this focal contributor in terms of knowledge sharing and helping behaviors. Design/methodology/approach A two-wave online survey collected data from 84 respondents who provided ratings on each member on their team, representing 440 dyadic relationships. Hierarchical linear modeling analyzed the between-subjects and within-subject data simultaneously. Findings Employees generally reciprocate contributors’ knowledge sharing with an exact act (i.e. knowledge sharing) through the mechanism of peer respect. However, respect generated by knowledge sharing is enhanced only when the knowledge contributor is competent. Originality/value Research on how an employee’s knowledge sharing actually influences other members of a team is lacking. This study addresses this gap by examining responses to a team member’s knowledge sharing from a peer’s perspective. It also reveals when knowledge sharing is more pronounced in earning peer respect.
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Interesting psychological research is interpersonal relationships, one of the factors that influences the success and failure of interpersonal relationships is trust. Amanah includes all religious duties or responsibilities addressed to humans which include matters in this world and the hereafter. Trust has two components, namely positive personality aspects and the ability to complete tasks. This research uses descriptive qualitative methods with semi-structured interview techniques. Apart from that, this research used observation techniques with two participants. The aim of this research is to find out how students who live in boarding houses behave confidently. The research results show that trustworthy people carry out tasks in a trustworthy, responsible and honest manner.
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p>This research with qualitative and quantitative approaches in order to develop measurements of religious moderation. There are stages that will be carried out, first determining the definition or concept of religious moderation, with a prototype methodology approach. Search, explain and describe individuals who have moderate nature in religion. Prototype methodology is used to obtain constructs of psychological variables, including cognitive, conative and psychomotor. Subsequent research compiles or develops measuring instruments for religious moderation. The first study was analyzed qualitatively, while the second study used quantitative analysis. Based on reliability tests with an alpha internal consistency approach, reliability was obtained of 0.90. Based on confirmatory analysis, it was found that chi-square 295.103 (DF = 164, p = 0.000), CMIN / DF = 1.799, GFI = 0.877, TLI = 0.887 and RMSEA = 0.062. Conclusion The criteria for acceptance of the model are met or have been as required. The proposed model design is the same as the empirical data or the model proposed fit. This means that religious moderation can be explained through tolerant behavior towards other people's religions and beliefs, having a national commitment, non-violence and being able to behave and behave accommodating with local culture.</p
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The Morality-Agency-Communion (MAC) model of respect and liking suggests that traits linked with morality are important for respect and liking; traits related to competence or assertiveness are important for respect and traits related to warmth are important for liking. However, tests of this model have tended not to consider traits related to immorality, incompetence, lack of assertiveness or coldness. This study addressed this issue by utilizing a within-subjects design in which participants were required to rate their respect and liking for individuals with specific trait types across four categories (moral; competence; assertiveness; and warmth) at three levels (positive, negative and neutral). The central tenets of the MAC model were supported for 'positive' traits (morality, competence, assertiveness and warmth). However, for 'negative' traits (immorality, incompetence and lack of assertiveness), individuals were similarly not liked and not respected. Individuals who were cold were respected more than liked. The findings of this study extend the MAC model by indicating that the amount that individuals are respected versus liked depends not only on trait type but also whether a trait is positive or negative.
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Relationship science is a dynamic, flourishing enterprise, with numerous discoveries and new lines of inquiry evident in recent changes in its textbooks and the teaching activities invented by its instructors. To survey changes and challenges in the teaching of courses that introduce students to relationship science—and to pursue “news instructors can use”—we surveyed 135 instructors of relationships courses regarding their teaching tactics and experiences. Guided by their responses and suggestions for further inquiry, we also examined the changes in textbooks on which they rely and reviewed teaching activities created to assist them with their teaching over the last 20 years. At present, some topics are nearly universal components of relationships courses but idiosyncrasy exists, particularly with regard to new topics—such as coverage of technology, intersectionality, or consensual nonmonogamy—that instructors plan to include in revisions of their courses. Suggestions for both new and experienced instructors are provided.
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Malaysia Madani, a slogan introduced by the current Malaysian Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim on January 19th, 2023, aimed at leading the country headlong by promoting the values of Sustainability, Prosperity, Innovation, Respect, Trust, and Care and Compassion. These principles resemble the shared-trust-relationship between the government and citizens; the government projects its transparency, honesty, and compassionate in conveying messages to its citizens while the people on the ground set the image of current government as dialogic, sustainable, and entrusted. Notably, these values embraced are adhered to the Islamic values of governance. The Holy Qur’an, the primary Islamic jurisprudence (Shari’ah) offers great emphasis on the humanistic relationship and ways of enhancing them which eventually the concept of MADANI reflects. Malaysia, a multicultural country embraces a variety set of values and life philosophy demands its government-citizen relationship to always keep the values of justice and benevolence. Such perception and expectation are very significant to both as this will further empower the political ideologies of the ruling party, hence, the hegemonic position establishes.
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This study examined the effect of attachment styles on the life satisfaction of adults and the serial mediating effect of self-efficacy, self-love, and fear of compassion in this effect for the first time in the literature to the best of our knowledge. The study group consisted of a total of 639 adults. As a result of the study, it is seen that secure attachment affects life satisfaction positively. This process is mediated by the variables of high self-efficacy, high self-love, and low fear of compassion. However, avoidant attachment seems to negatively affect life satisfaction. This process is mediated by low self-efficacy, low self-love, and high fear of compassion variables. Apart from these results, it was observed that anxious-ambivalent attachment negatively affected life satisfaction, but this relationship was not mediated by self-efficacy, self-love, and fear of compassion. This result may be due to the fact that people with anxious-ambivalent attachment style perceive others positively despite seeing themselves as worthless and inadequate. These people may not want to show compassion for themselves because they have low self-worth, but they may show compassion for others because they find them valuable.
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The farming communities in the Christiana district with a population of close to 21 000 residents struggled with issues including poverty, unemployment, financial problems, alcoholism, occultism and Satanism and family issues such as father absence, fatherlessness and single parenting. An intervention that included training and equipping of fathers, who were farm workers from the local faith community, was necessary and crucial. Farm workers (faith communities) responded to the need for a biblical fatherhood programme. Human fatherhood should be recognised and given serious consideration because it gave an anticipation of who God the Father is. If human fatherhood did not exist, then all truth and knowledge about God the Father would be void and insignificant. Fatherhood today is an element of broken families and perhaps the most threatened element in the world. The aim of this article was to lessen the social issue of father absence through the implementation of the Biblical Fatherhood Programme. The programme has a biblical nature to solve social ills within communities. The programme was developed from a practical-theological study on fatherhood, with the primary reason to train and equip participants with fatherhood knowledge. This article presents a reflective and community engagement strategy, based on the author’s reflection of items that arose when a biblical fatherhood programme was presented to farm workers in the Christiana district of South Africa. Reflection as a methodology enabled researchers and practitioners to theorise from their own practice, improving and developing their work. Reflection was a turning back onto ‘a self’ where the researcher was the observer of the scenario. Reflection was also a significant and mental activity for researchers to use in their work with participants. The results and this article presented the reflective, rather than empirical findings of the programme implementation. The training intervention was presented in a narrative form and based on research about the essence of fatherhood. This was conceptualised from biblical truth and perspective. Participants showed immense interest in the programme and the Bible. Their theological views concerning the Bible for answers were crucial to their problems and situations. Participants’ spiritual life was pivotal to enjoy healthy relationships with God.Contribution: The programme contributed monumentally to the lives of participants. It was impossible for participants to live their lives without the Bible. The Bible is not just an authoritative source of teaching, but it speaks of human fatherhood and serves as a guideline to enunciate the care of God the Father.
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This study presented the practices of pupil behaviour management of Vietnamese primary teachers with a focus on primary pupils’ misbehaviours, and the activities the primary teachers implemented to manage this misbehaviour. 1,545 primary pupils’ parents and teachers from all three main areas in Vietnam took part in the questionnaire surveys. Mathematical statistical methods were used to analyse data along with collating the perceptions between primary teachers and parents. The results showed that pupil behaviour management had been implemented to a positive extent by the primary teachers in classroom practices. The primary teachers frequently implemented the activities of pupil behaviour management to deal with pupils’ misbehaviours, and this could help prevent misbehaviour in classroom practices. Nevertheless, the study also revealed that one of the emergent problems that needs to be solved in order to achieve better pupil behaviour management is pupils’ inattentive attitudes in learning. A possible reason was attributed to the teachers’ less cares and the lower frequency with which interactive instruction was implemented by the primary teachers in their teaching practices. The study suggested that an appropriate strategy of pupil behaviour management for Vietnamese primary teachers needed to be designed in order to help better engage pupils in learning and to meet the requirements of the ongoing implementation of competence-based curricula. A social constructivist approach with its interactive and meaningful features was recommended for further studies to work on designing an appropriate behaviour management strategy for pupils in a Confucian heritage culture such as Vietnam.
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Dieses Kapitel beleuchtet verschiedene theoretische Zugänge des Respektsbegriffs und beschreibt diese hinsichtlich ihrer Herleitung als deduktive und induktive Ansätze. Beide Ansätze bestimmen nicht nur die eigentliche Respektsdefinition, sondern auch die darauf aufbauenden Forschungsmethoden, welche ausführlich dargestellt werden. Ergänzend zeigt ein Überblick über Ergebnisse empirischer Untersuchungen, dass Respekt positive und Disrespekt negative Auswirkungen in den verschiedensten Lebensbereichen hat. Entsprechend kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass Respekt nicht nur in der Theorie, sondern auch in der Empirie als Merkmal sozialer Angemessenheit gelten kann.
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The article presents a conceptual model of close relationships. Close relationships are a specific and multicomponent phenomenon in the living space of modernity. On the basis of the analysis of sources and rethinking of the data obtained earlier, close relationships are considered as a type of interpersonal relations. It is a meaningful, selective relationship of people aimed at satisfying their need for love and belonging, based on affiliative feelings and attachment. Closeness in relationships is defined as a structural property of the dyad, including the strength, frequency, psychological distance, the variety of interrelationships that exist between people. It is noted that close relationships are set by social roles. Reciprocal roles, for example, parent and child, husband and wife set the initial belonging of these relationships to the category of close, but do not guarantee the presence in them of intimacy as a qualitative characteristic. The invariant (partners' attachment to each other, emotional experiences, psychological distance; value-semantic unity; involvement) categorical attributes of close relationships were identified. The variation signs characterising their main types (romantic, marital, friendship, love, kinship) are described. It is noted that the dynamics conditioned by the totality of factors determines the variety of close relationships – dysfunctional and functional. We understood the limitations and prospects for further developments in this area.
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This chapter serves to discuss common perspectives of respect in the classroom and highlight ways to re-conceptualize authority in student-teacher relationships so that respect can be grounded in both authority and caring. The authors believe that through the framework of critical race theory, teachers can learn how to express caring respect in ways that will be validating to their students. Furthermore, because of this reframing of authority, teachers will be able to accept non-authority-based respect. Finally, this chapter encourages teachers to experience and understand respect in the ways that validate their students as people and honor their own abilities as teachers. Rather than using ideas of respect to exhibit and reinforce institutional authority, teachers can instead promote caring respect in their classrooms by highlighting students' voices and reflecting on their own roles as both an educator and a person.
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in this chapter we will examine the development and impact of trust in the context of close relationships we will begin with a definition of trust and a discussion of its roots in individuals' interpersonal histories we will go on to explore the development of trust in intimate relationships, emphasizing how its foundations are colored by the seminal experiences that mark different stages of interdependence we will then consider the various states of trust that can evolve and their consequences for people's emotions and perceptions in established relationships (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Examined the effect of self-disclosure on marital satisfaction in couples and also introduced attitude similarity as a possible predictor of marital satisfaction. 51 couples (mean age 30.6 yrs) completed 5 test instruments, including a self-disclosure scale, 2 marriage satisfaction scales, an attitude survey, and a demographic questionnaire. Results (1) revealed high reciprocity between spouses on most measures, (2) found a consistent positive relationship between self-disclosure and marital satisfaction, (3) substantiated self-disclosure as a significant predictor of marital satisfaction, and (4) demonstrated that attitude similarity had a strong positive relationship to marital satisfaction. Findings provide a firm basis for self-disclosure and attitude similarity as important predictors of marital satisfaction. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Responds to comments by A. C. Bohart and T Greening, S. B. Shapiro, G. Bacigalupe, R. Walsh, W. C. Compton, C. L. McLafferty and J. D. Kirylo, N. Abi-Hashem, A. C. Catania, G. K. Lampropoulos, and T. M. Kelley (see records 2002-15384-010, 2002-15384-011, 2002-15384-012, 2002-15384-013, 2002-15384-014, 2002-15384-015, 2002-15384-016, 2002-15384-017, 2002-15384-018, and 2002-15384-019, respectively) on the January 2000, Vol 55(1) special issue of the American Psychologist dedicated to positive psychology. M. E. P. Seligman and M. Csikszentmihalyi expand on some of the critical themes discussed in the commentaries. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Study 1 identified a 3-dimensional latent structure of the prototype of love, based on factor analyzing centrality ratings of 68 prototypical features of love identified by B. Fehr (see record 1989-04996-001); we labeled these Passion, Intimacy, and Commitment. Studies 2 and 3 cross-validated this result with new samples. Study 4 showed convergent and discriminant validity of scales based on these dimensions and compared results with the centrality-rating method to an alternative prototype-relevant method. Study 5 found convergent and discriminant validity with a version of R. J. Sternberg's (1988) Triangular Love Scale. Study 5 also obtained the same 3-dimensional structure for both people's concept of love and descriptions of their own love relationships but the emphasis among dimensions corresponded only moderately between concept and descriptions. Study 6 showed correspondences between prototype-feature dimensions and love styles (C. Hendrick & S. Hendrick, see record 73:13421; J. A. Lee, 1977). Study 7 examined a shortened scale for the 3 dimensions and replicated the main results of Study 6 with that scale. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Three studies, involving 146 undergraduates and 68 heterosexual couples, assessed the construct validity of the self- and other-model dimensions underlying the 4-category model of adult attachment. Five methods were used to assess the hypothesized dimensions: self-reports, friend-reports, romantic partner reports, trained judges' ratings of peer attachment, and trained judges' ratings of family attachment. Study 2 related the latent attachment dimensions to theoretically relevant outcome latent variables. As predicted, Ss' self models converged with direct measures of the positivity of their self-concepts, and Ss' other models converged with direct measures of the positivity of their interpersonal orientations. Study 3 related the latent attachment dimensions to 3 alternate self-report measures of adult attachment and showed that the 2 dimensions served as an organizing framework for the different measurement approaches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Analyzed lay conceptions of love and commitment from a prototype perspective. In Study 1, Ss listed the features of love and/or commitment. In Study 2, centrality (prototypicality) ratings of these features were obtained. In Study 3, central features were found to be more salient in memory than peripheral features. In Study 4, it was shown that it sounded peculiar to hedge central but not peripheral features. In Study 5, central features of love were expected to be more applicable than peripheral features as relationships increased in love. Similarly for commitment, central features were expected to be more applicable than peripheral features as relationships increased in commitment. In Study 6, violations of central features of love were perceived as contributing to a greater decrease in love than were violations of peripheral features. Similarly, violations of central features of commitment were perceived as contributing to a greater decrease in commitment than were violations of peripheral features. I concluded that the findings across several studies fit best with Kelley's (1983) description of love and commitment as largely overlapping but partially independent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Even if superordinate concepts (such as "fruit," "vehicle," "sport") are prototypically organized, basic-level concepts (such as "apple," "truck," "hockey") might be classically defined in terms of individually necessary and jointly sufficient features. A series of 6 studies examined 1 basic-level concept in the domain of emotion, "love," and found that it is better understood from a prototype than a classical perspective. The natural language concept of "love" has an internal structure and fuzzy borders: Maternal love, romantic love, affection, love of work, self-love, infatuation, and other subtypes of love can be reliably ordered from better to poorer examples of love. In turn, each subtype's goodness as an example of love (prototypicality) was found to predict various indices of its cognitive processing. Implications for a scientific definition and typology of love are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The discovery of the Big Seven factor model of natural language personality description (Tellegen, 1993; Tellegen & Waller, 1987; Waller, in press; Waller & Zavala, 1993) challenges the comprehensiveness of the Big Five factor structure. To establish the robustness and cross-cultural generalizability of the seven-factor model, a Big Seven (Tellegen, Grove & Waller, 1991) and a Big Five (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991) questionnaire were administered to 2 samples: (1) a sample of 569 community-dwelling volunteers from the US and (2) a sample of 435 Spanish native speakers from Spain. Factor structures from the self- and peer-ratings on the Spanish version of the Big Seven questionnaire largely replicated the American structure (Waller, in press). Nevertheless, some psychologically meaningful item-level differences emerged. These differences suggest that Spaniards attach negative and positive values to self–other perceptions of introversion and unconventionality, respectively. Our findings support the cross-cultural robustness of the Big Seven factors and the advantages of this structure for studying culturally specific differences in personality trait-term evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Reports 7 studies that explored the possibility that the concept of emotion is better understood from a prototype perspective than from a classical one. Specifically it is argued that membership in the concept of emotion is a matter of degree rather than all-or-none (that the concept has an internal structure) and that no sharp boundary separates members from nonmembers (that the concept has fuzzy boundaries). Undergraduates served as Ss in all experiments. As hypothesized, the concept of emotion was found to have an internal structure: Happiness, love, anger, fear, awe, respect, envy, and other types of emotion could be reliably ordered from better to poorer examples of emotion. In turn, an emotion's goodness of example (prototypicality) ranking predicted how readily it comes to mind when one is asked to list emotions, how likely it is to be labeled as an emotion when one is asked what sort of thing it is, how readily it can be substituted for the word emotion in sentences without their sounding unnatural, and the degree to which it resembles other emotion categories in terms of shared features. (54 ref)
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In the present study, I intended to determine the similarity between Rubin's (1970) Love Scale components and five of Lee's (1976) six lovestyles in a relatively homogenous sample of 301 16- and 17-year-old British females. Items describing loving behaviors toward a particular individual were formulated to measure these lovestyles together with that of Ludus. The six orthogonal factors extracted from the correlation matrix of these and Rubin's items were called Love, Mutual Love, Respect, Similarity, Physical Attraction and Hostility. The results suggested that Rubin's Love Scale contained elements of Mania and Agape but none of Ludus, which could not be further differentiated. Rubin's (1970) Liking Scale, however, could be further subdivided into Respect (Pragma) and Similarity (Storge).
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Reports initial results of an attempt to introduce and validate a social-psychological construct of romantic love. Starting with the assumption that love is an interpersonal attitude, an internally consistent paper-and-pencil love scale was developed. The conception of romantic love included 3 components: affiliative and dependent need, a predisposition to help, and an orientation of exclusiveness and absorption. The 13-item love-scale scores were only moderately correlated with scores on a parallel 13-item scale of "liking," which reflected a more traditional conception of interpersonal attraction. The validity of the love scale was assessed in a questionnaire study with 158 undergraduate dating couples and a laboratory experiment with 79 undergraduate dating couples. On the basis of the emerging conception of love, it was predicted that college dating couples who loved each other a great deal (as categorized by their love-scale scores) would spend more time gazing into one another's eyes than would couples who loved each other to a lesser degree. The prediction was confirmed. (22 ref.)
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This meta-analysis included 66 studies (N = 4,176) on parental antecedents of attachment security. The question addressed was whether maternal sensitivity is associated with infant attachment security, and what the strength of this relation is. It was hypothesized that studies more similar to Ainsworth's Baltimore study (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978) would show stronger associations than studies diverging from this pioneering study. To create conceptually homogeneous sets of studies, experts divided the studies into 9 groups with similar constructs and measures of parenting. For each domain, a meta-analysis was performed to describe the central tendency, variability, and relevant moderators. After correction for attenuation, the 21 studies (N = 1,099) in which the Strange Situation procedure in nonclinical samples was used, as well as preceding or concurrent observational sensitivity measures, showed a combined effect size of r(1,097) = .24. According to Cohen's (1988) conventional criteria, the association is moderately strong. It is concluded that in normal settings sensitivity is an important but not exclusive condition of attachment security. Several other dimensions of parenting are identified as playing an equally important role. In attachment theory, a move to the contextual level is required to interpret the complex transactions between context and sensitivity in less stable and more stressful settings, and to pay more attention to nonshared environmental influences.
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The present work advances and tests an interdependence-based model of the associations among commitment, pro-relationship behavior, and trust. Findings from two longitudinal studies revealed good support for model predictions. Commitment-inspired acts such as accommodation and willingness to sacrifice provide diagnostic information regarding a partner's pro-relationship motives. Individuals come to trust their partners when they perceive that their partners have enacted pro-relationship behaviors, departing from their direct self-interest for the good of the relationship. The results of mediation analyses are consistent with a model of mutual cyclical growth in which (a) dependence promotes strong commitment, (b) commitment promotes pro-relationship acts, (c) pro-relationship acts are perceived by the partner, (d) the perception of pro-relationship acts enhances the partner's trust, and (e) trust increases the partner's willingness to become dependent on the relationship. Auxiliary analyses revealed that self-reported attachment style does not account for substantial variance beyond the features of interdependence that form the basis for the present model.
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A science of positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions promises to improve quality of life and prevent the pathologies that arise when life is barren and meaningless. The exclusive focus on pathology that has dominated so much of our discipline results in a model of the human being lacking the positive features that make life worth living. Hope, wisdom, creativity, future mindedness, courage, spirituality, responsibility, and perseverance are ignored or explained as transformations of more authentic negative impulses. The 15 articles in this millennial issue of the American Psychologist discuss such issues as what enables happiness, the effects of autonomy and self-regulation, how optimism and hope affect health, what constitutes wisdom, and how talent and creativity come to fruition. The authors outline a framework for a science of positive psychology, point to gaps in our knowledge, and predict that the next century will see a science and profession that will come to understand and build the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish.
Article
Three studies assessed the construct validity of the self- and other-model dimensions underlying the 4-category model of adult attachment (Bartholomew, 1990). Five methods were used to assess the hypothesized dimensions: self-reports, friend-reports, romantic partner reports, trained judges' ratings of peer attachment, and trained judges' ratings of family attachment. In each study, the convergent and discriminant validity of the dimensions were assessed by multitrait-multimethod matrices and by confirmatory factor analysis. Study 2 related the latent attachment dimensions to theoretically relevant outcome latent variables. As predicted, individuals' self models converged with direct measures of the positivity of their self-concepts, and individuals' other models converged with direct measures of the positivity of their interpersonal orientations. Study 3 related the latent attachment dimensions to 3 alternate self-report measures of adult attachment and showed that the 2 dimensions serve as an organizing framework for the different measurement approaches.
Chapter
As a construct of psychological relevance, commitment has for some time been the focus of numerous programs of research, including explorations in decision making (Edwards, 1954; Festinger, 1957), deviation, and conformity in group settings (Kiesler & Corbin, 1965; Kiesler & Kiesler, 1969; Kiesler, Zanna, & De Salvo, 1966); the maintenance of costly courses of action (Staw, 1976, 1981; Staw & Fox, 1977); and job turnover (Aranya & Jacobson, 1975; Grusky, 1966; Porter, Crampon, & Smith, 1976). However, the examination of commitment specifically within the context of close relationships is a relatively recent development, with most theoretical treatments of the construct emerging after 1965 and most empirical studies being published after 1980. Given the relatively long history of research on interpersonal relationships, it is somewhat perplexing that the critical examination of commitment has been so late in coming to this area.
Article
"Construct validation was introduced in order to specify types of research required in developing tests for which the conventional views on validation are inappropriate. Personality tests, and some tests of ability, are interpreted in terms of attributes for which there is no adequate criterion. This paper indicates what sorts of evidence can substantiate such an interpretation, and how such evidence is to be interpreted." 60 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Article
A virtue is defined as any psychological process that enables a person to think and act so as to benefit both him- or herself and society. Character is a higher-order construct reflecting the possession of several of the component virtues. The process by which the topics of virtue and character fell out of favor in psychology is reviewed, with a call for a rebirth of interest in these concepts in the interface of clinical, counseling, social, and personality psychology.
Book
Part I Models of love and satisfaction in close relationships: marital satisfaction in evolutionary psychological perspective, Shackelford, Buss attachment and relationship satisfaction across the lifespan, Koski, Shaver love and satisfaction, Hendrick a hierachical model of love and its prediction of satisfaction in close relationships, Barnes, Sternberg philosophy as a model of relationship satisfaction, Hojjat. Part II Satisfaction over the course of close relationships: a temporal view of relationship satisfaction and stability, Berscheid, Lopes marital satisfaction and spousal interaction, Feeney, Noller, Ward "rethinking" satisfaction in personal relationships from a dialectical perspective. Erbert, Duck. Part III Conflict and satisfaction in close relationships: angry at your partner? Think again, Christensen, Walczynski marital quality - a new theoretical perspective, Fincham, Beach, Kemp-Fincham. Part IV Psychotherapy and satisfaction in close relationships: acceptance in couple therapy and its implications for the treatment of depression, Cordova, Jacobson the the erosion of satisfaction over time and how to prevent it, Cordova, Markman, Laurenceau a schema-focused perspective on satisfaction in close relationships, Young, Gluhoski.
Article
It is proposed that satisfying, stable relationships reflect intimates' ability to see imperfect relationships in somewhat idealized ways-to make a leap of faith. Both members of dating and married couples completed a measure of relationship illusions, tapping idealized perceptions of the partners' attributes, exaggerated perceptions of control, and unrealistic optimism. Results of concurrent analyses revealed that relationship illusions predicted greater satisfaction, love, and trust, and less conflict and ambivalence in both dating and marital relationships. A longitudinal follow-up of the dating sample revealed that relationships were more likely to persist the stronger individuals' initial illusions. Relationship illusions also predicted increases in later satisfaction but not vice versa. These results suggest that positive illusions capture a prospective sense of conviction or security that is not simply isomorphic with satisfaction.
Article
The variety of interpersonal relationships in contemporary society necessitates the development of brief, reliable measures of satisfaction that are applicable to many types of close relationships. This article describes the development of such a measure. In Study I, the 7-item Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) was administered to 125 subjects who reported themselves to be "in love." Analyses revealed a unifactorial scale structure, substantial factor loadings, and moderate intercorrelations among the items. The scale correlated significantly with measures of love, sexual attitudes, self-disclosure, commitment, and investment in a relationship. In Study II, the scale was administered to 57 couples in ongoing relationships. Analyses supported a single factor, alpha reliability of .86, and correlations with relevant relationship measures. The scale correlated .80 with a longer criterion measure, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976), and both scales were effective (with a subsample) in discriminating couples who stayed together from couples who broke up. The RAS is a brief, psychometrically sound, generic measure of relationship satisfaction.
Article
Interdependence theory identifies level of dependence and mutuality of dependence as two key properties of interdependent relationships. In ongoing relationships, these structural properties are subjectively experienced in terms of commitment–dependence level is experienced as greater or lesser commitment level, and mutuality of dependence is experienced as greater or lesser perceived mutuality in partners’commitment levels. We examined the associations of these variables with couple well-being using data from two three-wave longitudinal studies. One study examined partners in dating relationships and the second study examined partners in marital relationships. Consistent with predictions, both level of commitment and perceived mutuality of commitment accounted for unique variance in couple well-being: Couples exhibited greater adjustment to the degree that the partners were highly committed to their relationship and to the degree that their commitment levels were mutual. Mediation analyses revealed that the association of mutuality of commitment with couple well-being is partially mediated by negative affect (e.g., anxiety, guilt) and partially to wholly mediated by trust level; perceived mutuality of power is not a reliable mediator of this association.
Article
This research tested three models of how the relationship evaluation components of satisfaction, commitment, intimacy, trust, passion, and love a structured and cognitively represented. Participants in Study 1 rated their intimate relationships on six previously developed scales that measured each construct and on a new inventory-the Perceived Relationship Quality Components (PRQC) Inventory. As predicted, confirmatory factor analysis revealed that, for both sets of scales, the best-fitting model was one in which the appropriate items loaded reliably on the six first-order factors, which in turn loaded reliably on one second-order factor reflecting overall perceived relationship quality. These results were replicated on a different sample in Study 2 and across sex. Implications and advantages of the PRQC Inventory are discussed.
Article
Psychology, like society at large, continues to be baffled by the persistent belief that men and women differ in important psychological ways, in spite of countless studies that fail to demonstrate such differences or that capture them for only a brief moment. New approaches avoid the polarization of `male' and female' traits, emphasizing how and why these qualities change over the life span, across cultures and throughout history. To understand where the differences are, we must look to narrative, power, and the conditions of our lives.
Article
Analyzed lay conceptions of love and commitment from a prototype perspective. In Study 1, Ss listed the features of love and/or commitment. In Study 2, centrality (prototypicality) ratings of these features were obtained. In Study 3, central features were found to be more salient in memory than peripheral features. In Study 4, it was shown that it sounded peculiar to hedge central but not peripheral features. In Study 5, central features of love were expected to be more applicable than peripheral features as relationships increased in love. Similarly for commitment, central features were expected to be more applicable than peripheral features as relationships increased in commitment. In Study 6, violations of central features of love were perceived as contributing to a greater decrease in love than were violations of peripheral features. Similarly, violations of central features of commitment were perceived as contributing to a greater decrease in commitment than were violations of peripheral features. I concluded that the findings across several studies fit best with Kelley's (1983) description of love and commitment as largely overlapping but partially independent.
Article
A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study 1, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations of the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self- and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study 1 were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.
Article
Recent work on natural categories suggests a framework for conceptualizing people's knowledge about emotions. Categories of natural objects or events, including emotions, are formed as a result of repeated experiences and become organized around prototypes (Rosch, 1978); the interrelated set of emotion categories becomes organized within an abstract-to-concrete hierarchy. At the basic level of the emotion hierarchy one finds the handful of concepts (love, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and perhaps, surprise) most useful for making everyday distinctions among emotions, and these overlap substantially with the examples mentioned most readily when people are asked to name emotions (Fehr & Russell, 1984), with the emotions children learn to name first (Bretherton & Beeghly, 1982), and with what theorists have called basic or primary emotions. This article reports two studies, one exploring the hierarchical organization of emotion concepts and one specifying the prototypes, or scripts, of five basic emotions, and it shows how the prototype approach might be used in the future to investigate the processing of information about emotional events, cross-cultural differences in emotion concepts, and the development of emotion knowledge.
The heart of parenting: How to raise an emotionally intelligent child
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Patterns of attachment: Assessed in the strange situation and at home
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Respect: An exploration
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Attachment and loss Separa-tion: Anxiety and anger New York: Basic Books Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview
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Reexamining basic dimensions of natural language trait descriptors
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Relationship morality
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Separation: Anxiety and anger
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Commitment, pro-relationship behavior, and trust in close relationships
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