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Respect in Close Relationships: Prototype Definition, Self-Report Assessment, and Initial Correlates
Abstract
Researchers who study romantic relationships have mentioned respect as a factor contributing to relationship success, but little effort has been made to define respect, measure it, or discover how it relates to other relationship constructs. In Study 1 a prototype methodology was used to identify consensual features of respect. Participants in Study 2 rated the centrality of the features of respect and completed a new prototype-based respect-for-partner scale that was highly reliable and correlated in predictable ways with avoidant attachment and evaluative aspects of partner descriptions. In Study 3, the new respect scale predicted relationship satisfaction better than scales measuring liking, loving, attachment-related anxiety and avoidance, and positive and negative partner qualities. Suggestions are offered for future research on respect.
... Work in the social recognition framework by Simon et al.'s has mostly focused on demonstrating a supreme role of equality in intergroup respect experiences (e.g., Reininger et al., 2020;Simon, Grabow, & Böhme, 2015), tending to neglect variations in the extent to which other forms of recognition result in feelings of respect (e.g., Simon et al., 2016;Simon, Grabow, & Böhme, 2015; but see Schaefer et al., 2021). Last, some contextualized definitions of respect have been brought forward for different professional situations (e.g., leadership: van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2010; nursing: Koskenniemi et al., 2015) or different relationships (between romantic partners or parent and child: Frei & Shaver, 2002). But no systematic attempts have been made to integrate the insights from these approaches to social worth in different contexts. ...
... Tentative support for this idea comes from a study by Frei and Shaver (2002). Using a prototype method, the authors documented mental representations of respect of 181 U.S.-American college students vis-à-vis partners in two different relationships: romantic partners and parents. ...
... Last, we would like to point out some contexts in which social worth plays an especially important role, and which we therefore deem especially fruitful fields of application for our theoretical framework. They include close relationships between families, friends and romantic partners (see Frei & Shaver, 2002), workplace dynamics (see Tyler & Blader, 2003), and leadership and follower satisfaction (see Rudolph et al., 2021;van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2010). It can also be used to examine the social worth impact of behavior in interactions between the individual and society or between societal groups, such as policing (Meares, 2014), taxation (Kirchler et al., 2008), or vaccine mandates (Korn et al., 2020). ...
People care a great deal about their social worth in other people's eyes, and social worth is an important factor in many social scientific theories. At the same time, social worth phenomena are scattered across diverse literatures under different conceptual labels, with little correspondence between them. In the present article, we attempt to integrate social worth research by focusing on three core questions: (1) What is the meaning of social worth in a particular interaction or relationship? (2) How do people evaluate their social worth in the eyes of their partner? and (3) How do people react when they are credited with different forms of social worth? According to the theoretical framework we propose, the particular meaning of social worth depends on a person's goals for an interaction, and we draw on interdependence theory to map how different situations afford the activation of different goals. To evaluate their social worth in a partner's eyes, a person judges whether the role they are accorded by the partner satisfies their own interaction goals. This comparison can yield an affirmation, a disconfirmation, or a violation of the person's social worth expectations. A person's reactions to these social worth experiences can be understood as attempts to regulate the situation's interdependence structure following the partner's feedback. We review social worth-related research from different research areas to show the framework's wide applicability and integrative potential. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Work in the social recognition framework by Simon and colleagues has mostly focused on demonstrating a supreme role of equality in intergroup respect experiences (e.g., Simon, Grabow, et al., 2015;Reininger et al., 2020), tending to neglect variations in the extent to which other forms of recognition result in feelings of respect (e.g., Simon, Grabow, et al., 2015;Simon et al., 2016;but see Schaefer et al., 2021). Lastly, some contextualized definitions of respect have been brought forward for different professional situations (e.g., leadership: Van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2010;nursing: Koskenniemi, 2012) or different relationships (between romantic partners or parent and child: Frei & Shaver, 2002). But no systematic attempts have been made to integrate the insights from these approaches to social worth in different contexts. ...
... Tentative support for this idea comes from a study by Frei and Shaver (2002). Using a prototype method, the authors documented mental representations of respect of 181 US-American college students vis-à-vis partners in two different relationships: romantic partners and parents. ...
... They include close relationships between families, friends and romantic partners (see Frei & Shaver 2002), workplace dynamics (see Tyler & Blader, 2003), and leadership and follower satisfaction (see Van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2010;Rudolph et al., 2021). It can also be used to examine the social worth impact of behavior in interactions between the individual and society or between societal groups, such as policing (Meares, 2014), taxation (Kirchler et al., 2008), or vaccine mandates (Korn et al., 2020). ...
People care a great deal about their social worth in other people’s eyes and social worth is implicated as an important factor in a host of social scientific theories. At the same time, social worth phenomena are scattered across diverse literatures under different conceptual labels, with little correspondence between them. In the present article, we attempt to integrate social worth research by focusing on three core questions: (1) What is the meaning of social worth in a particular interaction or relationship? (2) How do people evaluate their social worth in the eyes of their partner? And (3) how do people react when they are credited with different forms of social worth? According to the theoretical framework we propose, the particular meaning of social worth depends on a person’s goals for an interaction, and we draw on interdependence theory to map how different situations afford the activation of different goals. To evaluate their social worth in a partner’s eyes, a person judges whether the role they are accorded by the partner satisfies their own interaction goals. This comparison can yield an affirmation, a disconfirmation, or a violation of the person’s social worth expectations. A person’s reactions to these social worth experiences can be understood as attempts to regulate the situation’s interdependence structure following the partner’s feedback. We review social worth-related research from different research areas to show the framework’s wide applicability and integrative potential.
... We define trait (character-based) appraisal self-respect (ASR) as a disposition to perceive or appraise oneself as being a respectworthy honourable person (Kumashiro et al., 2002;Dillon, 2010). Respect is a specific type of attitude that, unlike liking, is directed towards a target (the self in the case of self-respect) when perceived to possess attributes which command recognition and proper consideration or regard, regardless of personal affinities and needs (Clucas, 2019;Dillon, 2010;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Prestwich & Lalljee, 2009). In this way, self-respect is a more specific self-evaluation than global self-esteem (Clucas, 2019), which is defined as a generalised attitude of favourableness or unfavourableness towards the self as a whole (Rosenberg et al., 1995). ...
... Empirical research supports honourable character traits as being respectworthy in the eyes of others and in one's own eyes. Research on interpersonal respect shows respect towards someone to rest on the perception of that person's honourable character traits (e.g., moral integrity, concern for others' welfare, mental toughness) (see Frei & Shaver, 2002;Prestwich & Lalljee, 2009). Similarly, research supports that one's honourable character traits, such as moral integrity and strength of character, influence one's perceived respectworthiness and respect for oneself. ...
... Subsequently, we used existing theorising and research on respect, self-respect and honour (Clucas, 2019;Cross et al., 2014;Dillon, 2010;Kristjansson, 2007;Kumashiro et al., 2002;Luchies et al., 2010;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Prestwich & Lalljee, 2009;Uskul et al., 2012), complemented by the results of the pilot study, to develop items to capture selfperception as having key respectworthy honourable character traits, notably: Adherence to morals/standards, strength of character (including moral courage) and having dignified behaviour which in combination support trait ASR (see Kristjansson, 2007). We aimed to capture self-appraisal as having honourable character merits, as opposed to recognition of inherent human worth (Dillon, 2010;Renger, 2018). ...
Despite the widely accepted recognition of the notion of self-respect and its importance for emotional well-being, it has received scant attention in the psychological literature. We report on the development and validation of a scale to measure trait (character-based) appraisal self-respect (ASR), conceptualised as a disposition to perceive or appraise oneself as being a respectworthy honourable person. We tested the factor structure, reliability, convergent, discriminant and criterion validity of the ASR scale in samples of adult individuals (combined N = 1910 across samples). The resulting ASR scale was found to be essentially unidimensional and showed good internal and acceptable test-retest reliability. Trait ASR was correlated with (yet distinct from) theoretically related measures of global self-esteem, moral self and principledness, and was distinct from other self-esteem facets not based on honourable character traits. Importantly, it related to well-being and prosocial behaviour over-and-above self-esteem. The validation work served to consolidate the theoretical boundaries and utility of this important concept.
... The concept of respect has been explored in various disciplines such as leadership (DeLellis, 2000), psychology and social psychology (Millar, 2001;Tyler & Blader, 2001), interpersonal communication (Frei & Shaver, 2002), philosophy, and ethics (Darwall, 1977(Darwall, , 2010. All have acknowledged the difficulty of defining respect, but it is widely understood that respect or disrespect is a major antecedent for conflict or harmony between individuals, groups, organizations, or nations (DeLellis, 2000). ...
... In contrast to the sport management and sponsorship research, a few marketing and public relations scholars have used respect in their terminology, and acknowledged it as one of the most effective tools available to marketers for building and maintaining relationships with customers (Ali & Ndubisi, 2010;Costley et al., 2005;Kumar, 2009;Murphy et al., 2007). For these researchers, components of respectful treatment include listening to the views and opinions of others, tolerance, and understanding (Costley et al., 2005;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Millar, 2001). In contradistinction, behaviours such as arrogance, failing to listen, ignoring, discriminating, and insensitivity cause people to feel that their beliefs and opinions are not valued or acknowledged, leading to perceptions of disrespect (Keaveney, 1995;Kumar, 2009;Millar, 2001). ...
... A perceived lack of a civil dialogue ethic (Hove, 2014) caused the respondents to feel that their opinions were not valued and acknowledged (see Frei & Shaver, 2002;Millar, 2001), leading to their perceptions of being disrespected. The majority of respondents perceived that "Adidas were patronising and unresponsive" and that their communication -consisting of "just damage control, no apologies" -lacked openness and sincerity: "Very poorly handled. ...
Research on sport sponsorship–fan relationships rarely explores the duration of fans’ feelings towards a sponsor, even though research demonstrates that management of this relationship is crucial. In addition, little research in management, sponsorship, marketing, or public relations explores contexts in which sponsorship involves a national sports team that attracts significant patriotic sentiment. The purpose of this study was to address these absences by exploring the longevity of public responses to a sponsor transgression crisis. The results identify the central role played by perceptions of respect and disrespect in New Zealanders’ responses to a jersey-pricing crisis and the sponsor’s response to public criticisms. The results indicate that national team sponsors who explicitly galvanize intense feelings of patriotism need to understand and respect the national public’s emotional stake in their national team rather than narrowly pursuing sales or the bottom line. The study also highlights the importance of implementing respectful crisis management strategies during a crisis involving patriotic feelings.
... Academic literature on the role of respect in relationships is unfortunately lacking, though common relationship resources and pop culture consider the association obvious (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Gottman, 1994;Hendrick & Hendrick, 2006). Definitions of the construct of respect in romantic relationships focus on both the emotional aspects of respect as well as associated behaviors of a partner. ...
... Definitions of the construct of respect in romantic relationships focus on both the emotional aspects of respect as well as associated behaviors of a partner. Respect has thus been found to be strongly associated with satisfaction and commitment in relationships (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Hendrick & Hendrick, 2006). The concept of contempt, which is seen as the opposite of respect, has received more empirical attention. ...
... Respect was assessed using four items derived from the Respect in Close Relationships scale (Frei & Shaver, 2002). Responses were obtained from participants using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree), and the items were scored such that lower scores on the scale reflected greater problems, or less respect within the relationship. ...
Relationship education programs (REPs) have substantial bodies of evidence that support their efficacy as community-based relationship education interventions for many couples, including racial/ethnic minority (REM) couples and couples from low-income households. While many studies support the efficacy of REPs, less is known about the characteristics of couples who experience worse relationship functioning after these interventions. Accordingly, we examined whether pre-intervention relationship factors would be associated with couples who reported worse relational commitment post-intervention. A total of 1,710 individuals (N = 855 couples) from a large, low-income, urban center participated in REPs. The sample was predominantly African American/Black (58.1%) and Hispanic/Latinx (40.6%), including 16 same-sex couples. Across all outcome variables (dedication, constraint, and separation), the participants receiving the intervention in a group format were more likely to report worse relationship functioning after the intervention. Negative communication was found to be more predictive than positive communication, and higher baseline respect counter-intuitively predicted greater odds of deterioration, especially for female partners. This study calls attention to why couples may experience worsening of commitment after REPs, and ultimately, may help predict which low-income, REM couples may benefit from relationship education, as well as how programs can be better culturally tailored to meet their needs.
... Beyond this minimal consensus, there are different conceptualizations of respect, focusing either on the social motives underlying respect experiences (Huo and Binning, 2008), on the distinction between conditional and unconditional respect (Grover, 2014;Rogers and Ashforth, 2017), or on three types of recognition that have emerged from relationships in three different social spheresachievement-based esteem, equality-based respect, and need-based care (Renger and Simon, 2011;Simon, 2007;Simon and Grabow, 2014). In addition to these broad, "high-level" accounts of respect, there are attempts to understand respect in a more contextualized way, in specific situations, interactions, or relationships (see, e.g., Frei and Shaver, 2002;Van Quaquebeke and Eckloff, 2010). ...
... These respect typologies rarely assess the importance of different types of respect in different situations or for different actors (but see Simon et al., 2016;Schaefer et al., 2021). Moreover, they do not specify behavioral cues via which the different respect types are enacted by the sender and gauged by perceivers. 1 More situation-specific accounts of respect do exist for some domains, such as romantic relationships and families (Frei and Shaver, 2002), organizational leadership (Rudolph et al., 2021;Van Quaquebeke and Eckloff, 2010;Felps, 2018), or in nursing (Koskeniemi et al., 2018). These situation-specific accounts list specific behaviors and perceptions that are closely tied to the specific interaction context in those relationships. ...
What makes people feel respected or disrespected in political discussions with contrary-minded others? In two survey studies, participants recalled a situation in which they had engaged in a discussion about a political topic. In Study 1 ( n = 126), we used qualitative methods to document a wide array of behaviors and expressions that made people feel (dis)respected in such discussions, and derived a list of nine motives that may have underlain their significance for (dis)respect judgments. Study 2 ( n = 523) used network analysis tools to explore how the satisfaction of these candidate motives is associated with felt respect. On the whole, respect was associated with the satisfaction or frustration of motives for esteem, fairness, autonomy, relatedness, and knowledge. In addition, the pattern of associations differed for participants who reported on a discussion with a stranger versus with someone they knew well, suggesting that the meaning of respect is best understood within the respective interaction context. We discuss pathways towards theoretical accounts of respect that are both broadly applicable and situationally specific.
... From psychological and sociological points of view, respect considered as an important indicator for shaping human interpersonal relationships (Zacchilli et al., 2009). For instance, Frei and Shaver (2002) assert that respect is related to consumers' attitudes and is determined by quality of their feelings and thoughts. Thus, online brand communities, in different social media platforms, often play a significant role in creating remarkable and significant experiences with a particular brand via sending relevant messages by customers to other customers to enhance brand respect. ...
... We find that lovemark is a second-order construct, which comprises of two sub-dimensional constructs, namely, lovemark and brand respect within luxury fashion brands context over SNSs platform. This result is supported by extant literature (Albert et al., 2008;Algharabat, 2017;Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006;Giovanis & Athanasopoulou, 2018;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Roberts, 2005;Zacchilli et al., 2009), which investigated this notion over both offline as well as online contexts. ...
This research aims to investigate the impact of social media marketing activities (SMMa) on brand loyalty directly and through mediating variables community engagement and lovemark. To propose a research model, we used the theories including lovemark theory, engagement theory and brand equity theory. As a result, this research investigates the impact of SMMa, community engagement, and lovemark on brand loyalty. Using an online survey, we collected data from 464 female participants who are following luxury fashion brands on major social networking sites including Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and Twitter. Results using PLS revealed that SMMa positively influences community engagement and lovemark. Moreover, we find positive relationships between community engagement, lovemark and brand loyalty. However, we find that SMMa has no direct influence on brand loyalty.
... This theme roots respect in egalitarian attitudes, values, and considerations (Jones, 2002;McDowell, 2007), and involves the acceptance of others despite their perceived differences and weaknesses. Respect as prosociality has been a prominent perspective in the psychological literature since the early 2000s, as theories and research have equated respect with empathy, care, supportiveness, and love (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Lawrence-Lightfoot, 2000;Schirmer, Weidenstedt, & Reich, 2013). Indeed, in the last 20 years or so, researchers have argued that respect is at the heart of loving and cooperative relationships (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Sennett, 2003). ...
... Respect as prosociality has been a prominent perspective in the psychological literature since the early 2000s, as theories and research have equated respect with empathy, care, supportiveness, and love (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Lawrence-Lightfoot, 2000;Schirmer, Weidenstedt, & Reich, 2013). Indeed, in the last 20 years or so, researchers have argued that respect is at the heart of loving and cooperative relationships (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Sennett, 2003). Respect as social conventions involves following social rules, norms, and customs/ traditions. ...
Respect is an integral part of everyday life. It is a virtue central to the aim of living an ethically good life. Despite its importance, little is known about its emergence, development, correlates, and consequences. In this monograph, we aim to fill this gap by presenting empirical work on children's and adolescents' thinking and feelings about respect. Specifically, we examined the development of respect in ethnically diverse samples of children between the ages of 5 and 15 years ( N = 476). Using a narrative and semi‐structured interview, as well as self‐, caregiver‐ and teacher‐reports, and peer‐nominations, we collected information on children's respect conceptions and reasoning, as well as on the social‐emotional correlates and prosocial and aggressive behavioral outcomes of respect.
We begin with a review of theoretical accounts on respect. This includes a selective overview of the history of respect in philosophy and psychology in Chapter I. Here, we discuss early writings and conceptualizations of respect across the seminal works of Kant and others. We then provide an account of the various ways in which respect is conceptualized across the psychological literature. In Chapter II, we review extant developmental theory and research on respect and its development, correlates, and behavioral consequences. In this chapter, as part of our developmental framework, we discuss how respect is related and distinct from other emotions such as sympathy and admiration.
Next, we describe our methodology (Chapter III). This includes a summary of our research aims, samples, and measures used for exploring this novel area of research. Our primary goals were to examine how children and adolescents conceptualize respect, how their conceptualizations differ by age, whether and to what degree children feel respect toward others' “good” behavior (i.e., respect evaluations for behavior rooted in ethical norms of kindness, fairness, and personal achievement goals), and how children's respect is related to other ethical emotions and behaviors.
The next three chapters provide a summary of our empirical findings. Chapter IV showcases our prominent results on the development of children's conceptions of respect. Results revealed that children, across age, considered prosociality to be the most important component involved in conceptualizations of respect. We also found age‐related increases in children's beliefs about fairness as a core component of respect. Children and adolescents also reported feeling higher levels of respect for behavior in the ethical domain (e.g., sharing fairly and inclusion) than behavior in the personal domain (i.e., achieving high grades in school). Chapter V investigates how sympathy and feelings of sadness over wrongdoing relate to respect conceptions and respect for behavior. Our findings show that sadness over wrongdoing was positively associated with adolescents' fairness conceptions of respect. Sympathy was positively related to children's feelings of respect toward others' ethical behavior. In Chapter VI, we present links between respect and social behavior. Our findings provide some evidence that children's feelings of respect are positively linked with prosocial behavior and children's conceptions of respect (particularly those reflecting themes of fairness and equality) are negatively related to physical aggression.
In the last two chapters, we discuss the empirical findings and their implications for practice and policy. In Chapter VII, we draw upon recent work in the field of social‐emotional development to interpret our results and provide insight into how our findings extend previous seminal work on the development of respect from early childhood to adolescence. Finally, in Chapter VIII, we conclude by discussing implications for educational and clinical practice with children and adolescents, as well as social policies aimed at reducing discrimination and nurturing children's well‐being and positive peer relationships.
... Respect is cross-cultural and universal (Frei and Shaver, 2002;Hendrick et al., 2010) and has been described as fundamental in love (Hendrick et al., 2011). It plays a cardinal role in interpersonal relations at all levels (Hendrick et al., 2010). ...
... Grote and Frieze (1994), found that respect correlates with companionate or friendship love (Grote and Frieze, 1994), indicating that respect is essential to intimacy and relationship satisfaction. Also, respect is positively correlated with passion, altruism, self-disclosure, and relationship overall satisfaction (Frei and Shaver, 2002;Hendrick and Hendrick, 2006). It is associated with the tendency to overlook a partner's negative behavior or respond with pro-relationship actions or compassion to their shortcomings Gottman, 1999). ...
Scholars across an array of disciplines including social psychologists have been trying to explain the meaning of love for over a century but its polysemous nature has made it difficult to fully understand. In this paper, a quadruple framework of attraction, resonance or connection, trust, and respect are proposed to explain the meaning of love. The framework is used to explain how love grows and dies and to describe brand love, romantic love, and parental love. The synergistic relationship between the factors and how their variations modulate the intensity or levels of love are discussed.
... The basis of respect is a broad humanistic tendency to value each person as a dignified person and this kind of respect is considered unconditional. In this paper we accept the view of Frei and Shaver, that respect is an attitude, not an emotion, and includes cognitive processes, feelings and behaviors with possible differences between these components (Frei & Shaver, 2002). According to this understanding of respect, it is possible, even when we do not accept the values and attitudes of others, to treat them as equals to ourselves. ...
The term assertiveness comes from the English word "to assert" and "be assertive" (adjective), which means to defend and firmly persist in one's opinion, to be persistent, to have great self-confidence, to express one's rights and needs, and the other not to be hurt. It is one of the most important psychological qualities of a person that significantly contributes to maintaining internal balance, expressing one's own attitudes and cultivating good interpersonal relationships. In general, assertiveness is a successful combination of firmness and good behavior, which is a necessary aspect of practicing the police profession. This paper talks about assertiveness as a desirable way of communication between the police and the citizens. The studies show that assertiveness not only complies with legal procedures, but also improves communication between the police and citizens, allows citizens to feel understood and accepted, and allows police officers to perform their work efficiently and with less stress. The application of this type of communication contributes to a better resolution of conflicts and may prevent escalations.
... To complete our conceptualization of perceived listening, we distinguish it from other related constructs (Podsakoff et al., 2016). The evaluation of listening is closely related to perceptions of empathy (Kellett et al., 2006), perspectivetaking (Lui et al., 2020), no rudeness (Porath & Erez, 2007), responsiveness (Reis & Clark, 2013), respect (Frei & Shaver, 2002), and feeling understood (Reis et al., 2017). Theoretically, perceived listening differs from all of these constructs in that it is based on evaluating the other person's behavior during or after a conversation (Kriz et al., 2021a, b). ...
This meta-analytic systematic review and theory by Kluger et al. explores the relationship between perceived listening and job performance. The study suggest that perceived listening improves job performance by enhancing listener-speaker relationship quality.
... The high state of respect for specific brands influence consumer loyalty (Pawle & Cooper, 2006). Brand respect is at the heart of creating a strong reciprocal relationship to form a relationship that benefits both the brand and the consumer (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Hendrick & Hendrick, 2006). In addition, it also reviews how to measure emotions based on the thoughts included in the "love marks" theory, namely that brands today need not only to be respected but also to build loving relationships with consumers. ...
Repurchasing in the future reflects the success of a business that can build customer loyalty, which happens because the company can meet the needs and expectations of consumers. The dynamics of changes in consumer behavior in choosing products encourage companies to be able to provide satisfying products. Satisfied consumers will feel a bond with the product. Purpose of the study is to examine Self-Brand Connection (SBC) as a mediating variable between customer satisfaction on repurchase intention and the role of love mark in moderating SBC for intention to repurchase. The sample used in the study was 210 and analysed quantitatively via SmartPLS3. The study found that customer satisfaction affects repurchase intentions. Customer satisfaction positively affects self-brand connection. The SBC affects repurchase intention. Love for culinary brands cannot moderate self-brand connection on repurchase intention. Brand respect can moderate SBC on repurchase intention.
... To complete our conceptualization of perceived listening, we distinguish it from other related constructs (Podsakoff et al., 2016). The evaluation of listening is closely related to perceptions of empathy (Kellett et al., 2006), perspective-taking (Lui et al., 2020), no rudeness (Porath & Erez, 2007), responsiveness (Reis & Clark, 2013), respect (Frei & Shaver, 2002), and feeling understood (Reis et al., 2017). Theoretically, perceived listening differs from all of these constructs in that it is based on evaluating the other person's behavior during or after a conversation . ...
Kluger, A. N., Lehmann, M., Aguinis, H., Itzchakov, G., Gordoni, G., Zyberaj, J., & Bakaç, C. (in press). A meta-analytic systematic review and theory of perceived listening and job outcomes (performance, relationship quality, affect, and cognition). Journal of Business and Psychology.
Abstract
The quality of listening in interpersonal contexts was hypothesized to improve variety of work outcomes. However, research of this general hypothesis is dispersed across multiple disciplines and mostly atheoretical. We propose that perceived listening improves job performance through its effects on affect, cognition, and relationship quality. To test our theory, we conducted a registered systematic review and multiple meta-analyses, using a three-level meta-analysis models, based on 664 effect sizes and 400,020 observations. Our results suggest a strong positive correlation between perceived listening and work outcomes, ¯r = .39, 95%CI = [.36, .43], ρ ̅ = .44, with the effect on relationship quality, ¯r= .51, being stronger than the effect on performance, ¯r= .36. These findings partially support our theory, indicating that perceived listening may enhance job performance by improving relationship quality. However, 75% of the literature relied on self-reports raising concerns about divergent validity. Despite this limitation, removing data solely based on self-reports still produced substantial estimates of the association between listening and work outcomes (e.g., listening and job performance, ¯r = .21, 95%CI = [.13, .29], ρ ̅ = .23). Our meta-analyses highlight the need for further research into the relationship between listening and job knowledge, measures assessing poor listening behaviors, and the importance of considering listening as a potential predictor of listeners’ and speakers’ job performance, and a means to improve relationships at work.
... Respect is important in friendships, and thus it comes as no surprise that it is mentioned on the list of things that people desire to receive from their love partners (Gottmann, 1999). Respect is vital for long-term romantic relationships as it is relevant for intimacy and relationship satisfaction and was found to be positively correlated with self-disclosure, passion, and altruism (Hendrick & Hendrick, 2006;Frei & Shaver, 2002). When people feel that they are not respected within a relationship, they react badly, and it may also lead to the relationship ending. ...
Our love relationships define us as individuals and shape our personal growth across the lifespan in all developmental domains (i.e. cognitive, emotional, physical, social, personality). Love relations evolve across the later stages of life as the individuals within a couple change. In this chapter, I will focus on romantic relationships and their impact on individual development in midlife and older age. First, I will discuss definitions of love and marital satisfaction, theories that explain love and what instruments were developed to measure love and fulfilled romantic relations. Second, I will examine what middle-aged and older people think about love and relationships and what are the positive and negative characteristics of romantic relationships in midlife and older age. In this context, I will discuss the potentials and pitfalls of the empty nest syndrome, grey divorces and bereavement. Third, I will analyse the relation between romantic relationships and personal development in all life domains. Finally, I will reflect on how positive psychology principles and developmental resources can be applied to help middle-aged and older individuals to achieve their desired relationships as well as foster their developmental potential.
... родительских отношениях, в психологии групп, в психологии лидерства, в психологии конфликтов. В части исследований понятие «уважение» используется без какого-либо описания [Fiske et al., 1999], в других исследованиях понятие описывается, но его определение не дается [Frei, Shaver, 2002;Morrison, 2006]. В части работ определения уважения предлагаются, но отсутствует какая-либо эмпирическая проверка предложенного определения [Janoff-Bulman, Werther, 2008;van Quaquebeke et al., 2007]. ...
Анализируется семантика понятий «уважение» и «уважение к родителям», сравниваются семантические профили данных понятий у старших подростков и взрослых. Приведен теоретический обзор представлений об уважении, показана недостаточная проработанность данного понятия и актуальность обращения к исследованию уважения к родителям. Представлены результаты эмпирического исследования семантики понятий «уважение» и «уважение к родителям» (N = 384), приводится сравнение результатов выборки подростков в возрасте от 14 до 18 лет (n = 164) и взрослых в возрасте от 22 до 70 лет (n = 220). Исследование проводилось с помощью методики «семантический дифференциал» (использованы 22 биполярные шкалы) и разработанной нами шкалы семантики понятия «уважение», содержащей 26 высказываний о возможных дефинициях и смысловой нагрузке понятия «уважение». Обработка результатов исследования проведена с помощью пакета SPSS Statistics, использованы следующие процедуры: описательные статистики, критерий знаковых рангов Уилкоксона, непараметрический критерий U Манна–Уитни, одновыборочный критерий Колмогорова–Смирнова, корреляция Спирмена, критерий адекватности выборки Кайзера–Мейера–Олкина, критерий сферичности Барлетта, факторный анализ (метод – анализ главных компонент, вращение – Варимакс, нормализация Кайзера). Выделены семантические универсалии понятий «уважение» и «уважение к родителям». Описаны различия в восприятии данных понятий подростками и взрослыми. По результатам исследования делаются выводы о более позитивном и согласованном отношении респондентов к понятию «уважение к родителям» по сравнению с понятием «уважение»; об отличии представлений подростков и взрослых о данных понятиях. Также в работе проанализированы представления старших подростков и взрослых о том, что является условиями становления уважения к родителям и содержанием данного понятия. Результаты факторного анализа позволили сделать вывод о том, что уважение к родителям трактуется как чувство уважения к родителям или предписанное уважительное поведение.
... There is accumulating evidence that secure people's positive working models of others contribute to expressions of respect, admiration, and gratitude toward a romantic partner (e.g., Beck & Clark, 2010;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Mikulincer et al., 2006). In a diary study, Mikulincer et al. (2006) explored these issues in the context of marital relationships and found that attachment security predicted higher levels of daily gratitude toward a spouse across 21 consecutive days. ...
How can we get the most out of our close relationships? Research in the area of personal relationships continues to grow, but most prior work has emphasized how to overcome negative aspects. This volume demonstrates that a good relationship is more than simply the absence of a bad relationship, and that establishing and maintaining optimal relationships entails enacting a set of processes that are distinct from merely avoiding negative or harmful behaviors. Drawing on recent relationship science to explore issues such as intimacy, attachment, passion, sacrifice, and compassionate goals, the essays in this volume emphasize the positive features that allow relationships to flourish. In doing so, they integrate several theoretical perspectives, concepts, and mechanisms that produce optimal relationships. The volume also includes a section on intensive and abbreviated interventions that have been empirically validated to be effective in promoting the positive features of close relationships.
... Subsequent studies (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Owen et al., 2012) have found that people with more attachment insecurities are less likely to perceive appreciation and respect from romantic partners, which contribute to a lack of relational success. Furthermore, insecure attachment prevents romantic partners from forming, consolidating, and maintaining lasting and satisfying relationships (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). ...
Studies to identify the association between individuals’ attachment patterns and their marital attitudes are insufficient and necessitate more empirical study. The current study aimed to investigate the impact of attachment styles on attitudes toward marriage and the mediating role of emotional intimacy among 182 participants at a southeastern university in the United States. Differences in perceptions of the degree of emotional intimacy among securely, avoidantly, and anxiously/ambivalently attached participants were explored to analyze the mediation effect of emotional intimacy between attachment styles and marital attitudes. The research findings revealed that secure, anxious/ambivalent, and avoidant individuals tended to have different attitudes toward marriage. Their marital attitudes were mediated by the emotional intimacy levels associated with their attachment styles. Implications for educators, researchers, and practitioners are discussed.
... Powtórzenie powyższych badań na odpowiednio dużej próbie osób heteroseksualnych może pomóc w ostatecznej weryfikacji hipotezy o związku kompulsyjności seksualnej z satysfakcją seksualną i ogólną satysfakcją z relacji.1.4.4. Czynniki wpływające na kształtowanie się przywiązaniaChoć wiele już powiedziano, o skutkach rozwinięcia się bezpiecznego stylu przywiązania u dorosłych -takich jak większa satysfakcja i zaangażowanie w związki romantyczne w stosunku do osób z pozabezpiecznymi stylami przywiązania(Frei, Shaver;2002), mniejsza konfliktowość relacji(Campbell, Simpson, Boldry, Kashy, 2005) i większy opór przed rozpadem związku i rozwodem(Davila, Bradburry, 2001), można wyróżnić stosunkowo niewiele badań na temat czynników środowiskowych wpływających na utworzenie się bezpiecznych i pozabezpiecznych styli przywiązania, ze względu na koszt i czas ich trwania (Booth-LaForce, Rosiman, Owen, Fraley, Holland, 2013).W dotychczasowych badaniach nad tym zagadnieniem, ustalono, że bardziej prawdopodobnym jest rozwinięcie się bezpiecznej odpowiedzi na "obcą sytuację"(Ainsworth, 1978) u niemowląt posiadających wrażliwych i responsywnych opiekunów od najwcześniejszego etapu życia. Psychologowie społeczni kładą nacisk nie tylko na różnicę w jakości bliskich relacji z opiekunem jako czynnik różnicujący dla wytworzenia się różnych stylów przywiązania, ale także doświadczenia interpersonalne45:6608055667 ...
Hypersexuality is a disorder characterized by repetitive sexual experiences and
fantasies, associated with a sense of loss of control, distress, and adverse effects on an
individual’s bio-psycho-social functioning (Kafka, 2001). Hypersexual behavior most
often includes masturbation (autoeroticism), entering into sexual relations with
strangers (promiscuity, paid sex) or using the Internet and virtual reality for sexual
purposes (cybersex) (Habrat et al. 2012).
The primary aim of this study is to determine if a statistical relationship exists
between attachment styles in close relationships and hypersexuality. A secondary aim of
this study is to bring to light previously unknown factors which also affect the
development of hypersexual disorder. This work assumes that hypersexual individuals
are characterized by a more insecure attachment style and lack of personality integration
compared to the non-hypersexual group. To validate that assumption, the attachment
style variable was examined using the Experiences in Close Relationships -
Relationship Structures scale (Fraley et al. 2011), and its Polish adaptation (Marszał,
2015). This work compares the attachment styles of healthy and hypersexual people.
This work also explores potential cultural differences in the developed attachment styles
by comparing relevant data from Polish and US American study participants. The
influence of the borderline personality disorder on the intensity of reported
hypersexuality symptoms was also examined. A statistical comparison between a group
of hypersexual individuals and a control group indicates that hypersexual people are
characterized by a more insecure attachment style on two fronts. First, that hypersexual
individuals demonstrate higher avoidance of closeness and fear of abandonment scores
in relationship with their mothers, compared to control group. Second, that hypersexual
individuals demonstrate a stronger avoidance of closeness in relationship with their
fathers when compared to individuals from control group. A statistical analysis is
presented that indicates a weak positive correlation between avoiding closeness and fear
of abandonment in maternal relationships with the total hypersexuality score as well as
all its subscales. The analysis also shows a weak positive correlation between avoiding
closeness in the relationship with the partner and total hypersexuality score, as well as
two subscales of hypersexuality: accompanying factors, and negative impact on the
mood. The study demonstrates that borderline personality disorder is a key factor in
explaining hypersexuality as it allows to explain 52% of the variance of this disorder.
Sztobryn, Adrian (2018). Hypersexuality and attachment styles in men. Master's thesis
under the supervision of prof. dr. hab. Lidia Cierpiałkowska. Poznań, Institute of
Psychology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 113 pp., 130 bibl. items, 8 attachments.
Keywords: hypersexuality, attachment styles, sex addiction, compulsive sexual
behaviors, borderline personality disorder
... Whereas security-enhancing interactions with available and responsive attachment figures promote a positive view of others, emotionally painful, frustrating interactions with unavailable or rejecting attachment figures contribute to negative views of others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). Indeed, numerous studies have found that attachment anxiety and avoidance scales are associated with lower esteem for others (e.g., Luke, Maio, & Carnelley, 2004), more doubts about others' trustworthiness (e.g., Hofstra, van Oudenhoven, & Buunk, 2005), and less respect for relationship partners (e.g., Frei & Shaver, 2002). Moreover, attachment insecurities are associated with lower ratings of relationship partners' responsiveness, dependability, authenticity, and faithfulness (e.g., Beck, Pietromonaco, DeVito, Powers, & Boyle, 2014) and more negative expectations concerning a partner's behavior (e.g., Rowe & Carnelley, 2003; see also Reis et al., this volume). ...
... given to particular people based on status, qualities, or achievements (Darwall, 1977 [Appraisal/Recognition Respect]; Janoff-Bulman & Werther, 2008 [Categorical/Contingent Respect]; Kellenberger, 1995 [Respect for all humanity vs for ability or achievements]). Researchers define respect as a value (Ingersoll-Dayton & Saengtienchai, 1999), as a moral principal (Browne, 1993), behavior (Grover, 2014), emotion (Fischer & Li, 2007;Kövecses, 1990), or attitude (Frei & Shaver, 2002). Most of the definitions in the literature are deductive and formulated according to accumulated and conceptualized knowledge and insights. ...
Respect is a common social concept, yet how lay people define it has not been thoroughly investigated. This study used a grounded theory approach, using in-depth interviews, to conceptualize respect according to lay knowledge. 40 participants from two cultures in the Middle East-20 Jewish Israelis and 20 Palestinians-reported how they define respect (Kavod in Hebrew and Ihtiram in Arabic). The findings define respect as a complex, multidimensional concept. Based on the findings, a respect pyramid model was developed, which includes four dimensions: avoiding disrespect, deserved/ normative respect, conditional respect, and considerate respect. Each dimension indicates an increase in aspects that make the respect less conditional and more intrinsic, while requiring higher sensitivity and greater effort. The implications of the respect pyramid for relationships and the cultural differences regarding definitions of respect are discussed.
... To complete the definition, we offer a few final thoughts. First, because listening in the present review takes place in the context of conversations, listening is distinct from related constructs such as empathy (Kellett et al. 2006), perspective taking (Lui et al. 2020), rudeness (Porath & Erez 2007), feeling understood (Reis et al. 2017), perceived responsiveness (Reis et al. 2017), and respect (Frei & Shaver 2002). These constructs co-occur with listening but can also occur outside the conversational context. ...
Listening is associated with and a likely cause of desired organizational outcomes in numerous areas, including job performance, leadership, quality of relationships (e.g., trust), job knowledge, job attitudes, and well-being. To advance understanding of the powerful effects of listening on organizational outcomes, we review the construct of listening, its measurement and experimental manipulations, and its outcomes, antecedents, and moderators. We suggest that listening is a dyadic phenomenon that benefits both the listener and the speaker, including supervisor-subordinate and salesperson-customer dyads. To explain previous findings and generate novel and testable hypotheses, we propose the episodic listening theory: listening can lead to a fleeting state of togetherness, in which dyad members undergo a mutual creative thought process. This process yields clarity, facilitates the generation of novel plans, increases well-being, and strengthens attachment to the conversation partner. 4.1
... To complete the definition, we offer a few final thoughts. First, because listening in the present review takes place in the context of conversations, listening is distinct from related constructs such as empathy (Kellett et al 2006), perspective-taking (Lui et al 2020), rudeness (Porath & Erez 2007), feeling understood (Reis et al 2017), responsiveness (Reis et al 2017), and respect (Frei & Shaver 2002). These constructs co-occur with listening but can also occur outside the conversational context. ...
Listening is associated with and a likely cause of desired organizational outcomes in numerous areas, including job performance, leadership, quality of relationships (e.g., trust), job knowledge, job attitudes, and well-being. To advance understanding of the powerful effects of listening on organizational outcomes, we review the construct of listening, its measurement and experimental manipulations, and its outcomes, antecedents, and moderators. We suggest that listening is a dyadic phenomenon that benefits both the listener and the speaker, including supervisor-subordinate and salesperson-customer dyads. To explain previous findings and generate novel and testable hypotheses, we propose the episodic listening theory: listening can lead to a fleeting state of togetherness, in which dyad members undergo a mutual creative thought process. This process yields clarity, facilitates the generation of novel plans, increases well-being, and strengthens attachment to the conversation partner.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 9 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... Attachment anxiety and avoidance predict how people function in their romantic relationships (Collins, 1996;Feeney & Noller, 1990;Hazan & Shaver, 1987;Simpson, 1990). For example, people who score low in both attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety (often referred to as "secure") report higher levels of satisfaction in their romantic relationships than do their avoidant and anxious counterparts (Frei & Shaver, 2002), and they show less stress and negativity in response to conflict with their partner (Simpson et al., 1996). People who score high in attachment-related anxiety respond poorly to relationship conflict (Campbell et al., 2005) and engage in excessive reassurance-seeking that can cause stress for their partner and smother or drive their partner away (Shaver et al., 2005). ...
In the 1980s, psychologists extended attachment theory into the domain of adult romantic bonds by proposing that romantic love can be conceptualized as a process of becoming attached ( Hazan & Shaver, 1987 ). From this perspective, individuals differ in two primary attachment dimensions: anxiety, the extent to which they worry about abandonment in their romantic relationships, and avoidance, the extent to which they are uncomfortable with interdependence and closeness. Research suggests that people perceive the rearing environment as a primary cause of people’s romantic attachment styles ( Tillman et al., 2008 ). If it is, family members should be similar in attachment-related anxiety and avoidance. To test this idea, we collected romantic attachment data on 965 US college students and the family members they nominated (205 siblings, 245 mothers, and 182 fathers). The students and family members in our sample showed negligible-to-weak resemblance in attachment-related anxiety and avoidance. Because previous studies have shown substantial similarity between identical twins and weak similarity between fraternal twins in romantic attachment styles, our data reinforce the possibility that nonshared environmental influences (such as individuals’ specific relationship histories) and genetic influences are the primary sources of individual differences in attachment-related anxiety and avoidance.
... 2 Dating Violence Evaluation Scales (Josephson, 2003), Dating Violence Scale (Macgowan, 1997), Dating Violence Survey (Silverman, 2000), Dating Violence Test (Schewe, 2003a), Healthy Relationships Questionnaire (Schewe, 2003b), Justification for Violence Questionnaire (Schewe, 2003c), Skills for Violence Free Relationships Inventory (Rybarik et al., 1995), Respect for Partner Scale (Frei & Shaver, 2002), Violence Supportive Attitudes Questionnaire (Schewe, 2003d), as well as large portions of Attitudes Towards Women Scale for Adolescents (Galambos et al., 1985), Attitudes Towards Dating Violence (Price et al., 1999), and Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (Wolfe et al., 2003). 2 were available. These were then combined into an initial questionnaire consisting of over 200 items. ...
... The mechanism by which attachment impacts PPI appears to involve cognitive bias. In fact, studies have associated insecure attachment styles (i.e., high levels of avoidance and anxiety) with biases in perceptions of the partner (e.g., Collins & Feeney, 2004;Collins, Ford, Guichard, & Allard, 2006;Florian, Mikulincer, & Bucholtz, 1995;Frei & Shaver, 2002;Overall, Fletcher, Simpson, & Fillo, 2015;Stackert & Bursik, 2003). ...
This study investigated the role of perception of the partner's investment (PPI) as a mediator of the relation between attachment and relationship satisfaction. The participants in the study were 1088 Brazilians who were involved in a committed monogamous romantic relationship. Relations between study variables were tested using structural equations. The results showed that PPI fully mediated the relation between attachment-related anxiety and avoidance and relationship satisfaction. Attachment factors that were mediated by PPI explained 80.7% of the variance of relationship satisfaction. The results revealed that higher levels of attachment-related avoidance and anxiety were associated with a lower PPI and consequently lower relationship satisfaction. Therapeutic interventions for couples may reduce perceptual bias, mainly when attachment levels of the dyad are known.
... Consumer satisfaction was measured using Oliver's (1980) five items. Carroll and Ahuvia's (2006) five-item brand love scale was employed along with Frei and Shaver's (2002) eight-item brand respect scale to represent the Lovemarks scale in the study. Brand loyalty was measured using twelve items adopted from Yoo and Donthu (2001) study, and four items were created to capture purchase intention via multiple channels. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the role of brand experience, as conceptualized by Brakus, Schmidt, and Zarantonello’s (2009), in fostering Consumer Based Brand Equity (CBBE) elements associated with the new store format and their impact on consequent purchase intention through multiple retail channels. A survey sent to a national sample of female consumers regarding Nordstrom Local, a small, inventory-free retail store in the U.S., resulted in 406 usable responses. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized relationships among variables where nine of the ten proposed hypotheses were supported. The findings of this study support that the brand experience of a small, inventory-free retail format can be effective in fostering CBBE, which has a positive impact on purchase intention. Furthermore, patronizing a small, inventory-free retail format appears to influence purchase intention consummated through the retailer’s other channels. This appears to be the first empirical study to explore the impact of the small, inventory-free retail format on consumer responses. The findings may aid industry professionals in identifying successful strategies that appeal to changing preferences of today’s consumer.
... A relatively secure attachment is important to a mentoring relationship because securely attached protégés are more likely than those who are insecure to report high levels of commitment (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Given that higher relationship quality secures attachment orientation, Bartholomew (1990) points out that secure individuals exhibit "high self-esteem and an absence of serious interpersonal problems" (p. ...
Traditional succession patterns, which characterise succession decisions in many parts of Africa, is a major determining reason why the businesses are short-lived. To date, family business research has not examined why these practices persist and why a preponderance of sub-Saharan African (SSA) family firms do not last long to become true family businesses. Likewise, family business literature is lacking a model that attempts to fuse Western leadership succession processes with the African socio-cultural context in multi-level framework. Consequently, the relationship between succession planning and business continuity is inherently contradictory, as the two tend to be at crossroads at various stages of the business life cycles. To address this dichotomy, I attempt to give a more coherent picture by locating research in a more complex framework in which culture and history play a relevant role. Hence, I adopt a critical realist paradigm, given that “social phenomena are intrinsically meaningful, and that meaning is not only externally descriptive of them but also constitutive of them” (Sayer, 2000, p. 17). Critical realism accepts the possibility of knowing reality (Easton, 2010), and moves beyond the dichotomy and thus abandoning the determinism of convergence. With this assumption in mind, I explore and examine the experiences, processes and effects of cultural, structural and organisational factors on incumbents’ succession decisions and
transgenerational intentions and next-generation members’ decisions to engage in sub-Saharan African family firms.
Drawing on the results, within a rigid masculine sub-Saharan African culture, there is marginal desire to deviate from the behavioural norms, which not only negatively affects the organisational and societal structures, but also creates sociological and psychological problems, which includes the attitudes of discrimination against women and non-first-born children in family business succession. Daughters are psychologically affected when faced with diminished legitimacy and a resistive culture, which stems from founder-CEOs’ traditional succession decisions. In response, they tend to lower their expectations of control, influence and selection to lead the family business, notwithstanding the reduced assertiveness and goal-focused behaviour, which includes behavioural outcomes such as disinterest in pursuing a career in the family firm.
... Consumer satisfaction was measured using Oliver's (1980) five items. Carroll and Ahuvia's (2006) five-item brand love scale was employed along with Frei and Shaver's (2002) eight-item brand respect scale to represent the Lovemarks scale in the study. Brand loyalty was measured using twelve items adopted from oo and Donthu (2001) study, and four items were created to capture purchase intention via multiple channels. ...
Observed shifts in consumer behavior have created disruptions and comprehensive change in retailing processes as a whole. The most dramatic change in consumer shopping behavior lies within the Millennial cohort. As a result, luxury department stores have struggled to find relevancy with these younger consumers. Millennials seemingly have an increased desire for luxury, items yet hold negative attitudes towards luxury department stores. Currently, no literature addresses Millennial luxury consumers, their connection with disruptions in the retailing industry, and particularly in regard to the luxury department store. Therefore, the authors propose a model to investigate the Millennial luxury consumer and the luxury department store based on systems theory. The proposed model will be used to understand the interactions and interdependence between the Millennial consumer, the fashion retailing industry, and specifically the luxury department store, from a holistic systems perspective. Additionally, the model can be valuable to the luxury department store retailer as it will provide support for strategic adaptations to ensure consumer attainment and business sustainability.
... Earlier studies have reported risk as a potent threat to the consumer decision-making process. Some studies have reported a significant correlation between brand respect and purchase intentions (Frei & Shaver, 2002;Zacchilli et al., 2009). Thus BL, BR, and BT are the three elements forming the construct of brand admiration. ...
This paper focuses on consumer electronics products and observes the comparative effect of celebrity vis-à-vis expert influencers on consumers' online purchase intentions. The mediating role played by brand admiration and brand attitude between influencer marketing and online purchase intentions are tested. The moderating role played by message involvement between influencer marketing and brand attitude is also observed. The survey method was employed to conduct this research, and data were collected from 438 respondents. The proposed hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling, hierarchical regression analysis, and Hayes process method. The results submit that there is a definite advantage in choosing an expert influencer over an attractive celebrity influencer while planning the marketing communications of consumer electronics products. The mediating role of brand attitude and brand admiration is empirically evident. The moderating effect of involvement is also established.
... It has been shown that listening is not necessarily isomorphic with some constructs, but not with all. For example, listening is not isomorphic with respect, as studies on laypeople's perception of the construct of respect suggest that honesty and loyalty, for example, are much more central to its definition than is listening (Frei & Shaver, 2002). In contrast, although listening and responsiveness are distinguishable theoretically, we are not aware of empirical work establishing this. ...
Listening has powerful organizational consequences. However, studies of listening have typically focused on individual level processes. Alternatively, we hypothesized that perceptions of listening quality are inherently dyadic, positively reciprocated in dyads, and are correlated positively with intimacy, speaking ability, and helping-organizational-citizenship behavior, at the dyadic level. In two studies, teammates rated each other on listening and intimacy; in one, they also rated speaking ability, and helping-organizational-citizenship behavior, totaling 324 and 526 dyadic ratings, respectively. In both , social relations modeling suggested that the dyad level explained over 40% of the variance in both listening and intimacy, and yielded the predicted positive dyadic reciprocities (dyad members tend to rate each other similarly). Furthermore, listening perceptions correlated with intimacy, speaking ability, and helping reported by other workers, primarily at the dyadic level. Moreover, rating of listening, but not of speaking, by one dyad member, predicted intimacy reported by the other dyad member, and that intimacy, in turn, predicted helping-organizational-citizenship behavior. Counterintuitively, listening quality is more a product of the unique combination of employees than an individual difference construct. We conclude that perceived listening, but not perceived speaking, appears to be the glue that binds teammates to each other dyadically, and consequently affects helping.
The Morality-Agency-Communion (MAC) model of respect and liking suggests that traits linked with morality are important for respect and liking; traits related to competence or assertiveness are important for respect and traits related to warmth are important for liking. However, tests of this model have tended not to consider traits related to immorality, incompetence, lack of assertiveness or coldness. This study addressed this issue by utilizing a within-subjects design in which participants were required to rate their respect and liking for individuals with specific trait types across four categories (moral; competence; assertiveness; and warmth) at three levels (positive, negative and neutral). The central tenets of the MAC model were supported for 'positive' traits (morality, competence, assertiveness and warmth). However, for 'negative' traits (immorality, incompetence and lack of assertiveness), individuals were similarly not liked and not respected. Individuals who were cold were respected more than liked. The findings of this study extend the MAC model by indicating that the amount that individuals are respected versus liked depends not only on trait type but also whether a trait is positive or negative.
Relationship science is a dynamic, flourishing enterprise, with numerous discoveries and new lines of inquiry evident in recent changes in its textbooks and the teaching activities invented by its instructors. To survey changes and challenges in the teaching of courses that introduce students to relationship science—and to pursue “news instructors can use”—we surveyed 135 instructors of relationships courses regarding their teaching tactics and experiences. Guided by their responses and suggestions for further inquiry, we also examined the changes in textbooks on which they rely and reviewed teaching activities created to assist them with their teaching over the last 20 years. At present, some topics are nearly universal components of relationships courses but idiosyncrasy exists, particularly with regard to new topics—such as coverage of technology, intersectionality, or consensual nonmonogamy—that instructors plan to include in revisions of their courses. Suggestions for both new and experienced instructors are provided.
Malaysia Madani, a slogan introduced by the current Malaysian Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim on January 19th, 2023, aimed at leading the country headlong by promoting the values of Sustainability, Prosperity, Innovation, Respect, Trust, and Care and Compassion. These principles resemble the shared-trust-relationship between the government and citizens; the government projects its transparency, honesty, and compassionate in conveying messages to its citizens while the people on the ground set the image of current government as dialogic, sustainable, and entrusted. Notably, these values embraced are adhered to the Islamic values of governance. The Holy Qur’an, the primary Islamic jurisprudence (Shari’ah) offers great emphasis on the humanistic relationship and ways of enhancing them which eventually the concept of MADANI reflects. Malaysia, a multicultural country embraces a variety set of values and life philosophy demands its government-citizen relationship to always keep the values of justice and benevolence. Such perception and expectation are very significant to both as this will further empower the political ideologies of the ruling party, hence, the hegemonic position establishes.
This study examined the effect of attachment styles on the life satisfaction of adults and the serial mediating effect of self-efficacy, self-love, and fear of compassion in this effect for the first time in the literature to the best of our knowledge. The study group consisted of a total of 639 adults. As a result of the study, it is seen that secure attachment affects life satisfaction positively. This process is mediated by the variables of high self-efficacy, high self-love, and low fear of compassion. However, avoidant attachment seems to negatively affect life satisfaction. This process is mediated by low self-efficacy, low self-love, and high fear of compassion variables. Apart from these results, it was observed that anxious-ambivalent attachment negatively affected life satisfaction, but this relationship was not mediated by self-efficacy, self-love, and fear of compassion. This result may be due to the fact that people with anxious-ambivalent attachment style perceive others positively despite seeing themselves as worthless and inadequate. These people may not want to show compassion for themselves because they have low self-worth, but they may show compassion for others because they find them valuable.
The farming communities in the Christiana district with a population of close to 21 000 residents struggled with issues including poverty, unemployment, financial problems, alcoholism, occultism and Satanism and family issues such as father absence, fatherlessness and single parenting. An intervention that included training and equipping of fathers, who were farm workers from the local faith community, was necessary and crucial. Farm workers (faith communities) responded to the need for a biblical fatherhood programme. Human fatherhood should be recognised and given serious consideration because it gave an anticipation of who God the Father is. If human fatherhood did not exist, then all truth and knowledge about God the Father would be void and insignificant. Fatherhood today is an element of broken families and perhaps the most threatened element in the world. The aim of this article was to lessen the social issue of father absence through the implementation of the Biblical Fatherhood Programme. The programme has a biblical nature to solve social ills within communities. The programme was developed from a practical-theological study on fatherhood, with the primary reason to train and equip participants with fatherhood knowledge. This article presents a reflective and community engagement strategy, based on the author’s reflection of items that arose when a biblical fatherhood programme was presented to farm workers in the Christiana district of South Africa. Reflection as a methodology enabled researchers and practitioners to theorise from their own practice, improving and developing their work. Reflection was a turning back onto ‘a self’ where the researcher was the observer of the scenario. Reflection was also a significant and mental activity for researchers to use in their work with participants. The results and this article presented the reflective, rather than empirical findings of the programme implementation. The training intervention was presented in a narrative form and based on research about the essence of fatherhood. This was conceptualised from biblical truth and perspective. Participants showed immense interest in the programme and the Bible. Their theological views concerning the Bible for answers were crucial to their problems and situations. Participants’ spiritual life was pivotal to enjoy healthy relationships with God.Contribution: The programme contributed monumentally to the lives of participants. It was impossible for participants to live their lives without the Bible. The Bible is not just an authoritative source of teaching, but it speaks of human fatherhood and serves as a guideline to enunciate the care of God the Father.
This study presented the practices of pupil behaviour management of Vietnamese primary teachers with a focus on primary pupils’ misbehaviours, and the activities the primary teachers implemented to manage this misbehaviour. 1,545 primary pupils’ parents and teachers from all three main areas in Vietnam took part in the questionnaire surveys. Mathematical statistical methods were used to analyse data along with collating the perceptions between primary teachers and parents. The results showed that pupil behaviour management had been implemented to a positive extent by the primary teachers in classroom practices. The primary teachers frequently implemented the activities of pupil behaviour management to deal with pupils’ misbehaviours, and this could help prevent misbehaviour in classroom practices. Nevertheless, the study also revealed that one of the emergent problems that needs to be solved in order to achieve better pupil behaviour management is pupils’ inattentive attitudes in learning. A possible reason was attributed to the teachers’ less cares and the lower frequency with which interactive instruction was implemented by the primary teachers in their teaching practices. The study suggested that an appropriate strategy of pupil behaviour management for Vietnamese primary teachers needed to be designed in order to help better engage pupils in learning and to meet the requirements of the ongoing implementation of competence-based curricula. A social constructivist approach with its interactive and meaningful features was recommended for further studies to work on designing an appropriate behaviour management strategy for pupils in a Confucian heritage culture such as Vietnam.
Dieses Kapitel beleuchtet verschiedene theoretische Zugänge des Respektsbegriffs und beschreibt diese hinsichtlich ihrer Herleitung als deduktive und induktive Ansätze. Beide Ansätze bestimmen nicht nur die eigentliche Respektsdefinition, sondern auch die darauf aufbauenden Forschungsmethoden, welche ausführlich dargestellt werden. Ergänzend zeigt ein Überblick über Ergebnisse empirischer Untersuchungen, dass Respekt positive und Disrespekt negative Auswirkungen in den verschiedensten Lebensbereichen hat. Entsprechend kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass Respekt nicht nur in der Theorie, sondern auch in der Empirie als Merkmal sozialer Angemessenheit gelten kann.
The article presents a conceptual model of close relationships. Close relationships are a specific and multicomponent phenomenon in the living space of modernity. On the basis of the analysis of sources and rethinking of the data obtained earlier, close relationships are considered as a type of interpersonal relations. It is a meaningful, selective relationship of people aimed at satisfying their need for love and belonging, based on affiliative feelings and attachment. Closeness in relationships is defined as a structural property of the dyad, including the strength, frequency, psychological distance, the variety of interrelationships that exist between people. It is noted that close relationships are set by social roles. Reciprocal roles, for example, parent and child, husband and wife set the initial belonging of these relationships to the category of close, but do not guarantee the presence in them of intimacy as a qualitative characteristic. The invariant (partners' attachment to each other, emotional experiences, psychological distance; value-semantic unity; involvement) categorical attributes of close relationships were identified. The variation signs characterising their main types (romantic, marital, friendship, love, kinship) are described. It is noted that the dynamics conditioned by the totality of factors determines the variety of close relationships – dysfunctional and functional. We understood the limitations and prospects for further developments in this area.
This chapter serves to discuss common perspectives of respect in the classroom and highlight ways to re-conceptualize authority in student-teacher relationships so that respect can be grounded in both authority and caring. The authors believe that through the framework of critical race theory, teachers can learn how to express caring respect in ways that will be validating to their students. Furthermore, because of this reframing of authority, teachers will be able to accept non-authority-based respect. Finally, this chapter encourages teachers to experience and understand respect in the ways that validate their students as people and honor their own abilities as teachers. Rather than using ideas of respect to exhibit and reinforce institutional authority, teachers can instead promote caring respect in their classrooms by highlighting students' voices and reflecting on their own roles as both an educator and a person.
Traits can primarily facilitate one's own goals (agentic) or those of others (communal) with the former linked with respect and the latter with liking. However, communal traits vary in morality, which has been associated with respect. Four studies tested the impact of traits varying in morality, agency (competence or assertiveness) and communion (warmth) on ratings of respect and liking. Studies 1 and 2 used vignettes targeting integrity (communion-moral), competency (agency-competence) and friendliness (communion-warmth), while Studies 3 and 4 considered a broader range of pre-rated traits (Studies 3 and 4). Communal traits with a limited moral component were associated more with liking than with respect. Communal traits with a stronger moral component were associated at least as, and sometimes more, strongly with respect than liking. Moral traits were the most respected trait type and were similarly liked as warmth traits. Morality influences whether communal traits primarily influence liking and/or respect.
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Social norms and roles can affect our behavior and intrude on our alternatives. On the flip, that has an impact on and strain to comply may be constraining, specifically for individuals and personal goals for individuals who are much less aligned with the norms and roles of the one. Throughout the college years, a person socializing will increase to plenty volume. Chances of having a romantic relationship increase in those years of lifestyle. Exploring and being curious approximately the opposite genders and the eagerness to be in a courting with the alternative gender boom at its height So, conventional roles can also make it more difficult for a few individuals to proportion their precise characteristics, live true to their personal socio-sexual preferences, and self-decide their conduct in relationships. Provided that those man or woman possibilities and behaviors are crit for enjoyable relationships is usually uncertain as to whether or not following conventional norms and roles of masculinity and femininity ultimately helps or hurts a relationship. Gender role attitude here refers to the beliefs held by individuals towards any specific gender as measured by the Gender Role Attitude Scale (GRAS). The instrument was developed by Prof. Dr. Simge Zeyneloölu to determine attitudes towards gender roles. Another scale used was Romantic partner conflict which refers to the everyday conflicts faced by individuals in relationships and how they handle the conflict. The scale was introduced by Tammy L. Zacchill, purpose of this scale is to measure conflict experienced by individuals in romantic relationships. The study aims at seeing the relationship between gender role attitudes and romantic partner conflict among males.
Our goal is to use prototype analysis to distinguish the folk or culturally held understandings of love, romantic love, and sex and to specify, from the obtained data, the semantic relationship among these three associated concepts. By considering the semantic distinctions between these three concepts, we come to an unintended insight: if romantic love is a socio-cultural universal it does not appear to have the same evolutionary history as love or sex and this may account for its somewhat ambiguous status in the scholarly literature on romantic love. We demonstrate that, in the United States, sex, in and of itself, is seldom conceived of as a relationship while love and romantic love are primarily viewed as relational. Our findings, though preliminary, strongly suggest that romantic love is a synthesis of two evolutionary drives: love (or bonding) and sex.
Some brands hold a special place in the hearts and minds of the consumers. Those are Lovemarks, which transcends brands. However, a scale to measure Brand Respect, which is a part of lovemark, has yet to be developed. To address this exception, following the literature in theory of measurement, this research conducts a sequence of 3 studies and develops a multi-dimensional scale of brand respect which comprises three dimensions-performance, trust and reputation in accordance with lovemark theory proposed by Robert’s. However, Brand acceptance is the new addition to the theory. Statistics were drawn from 462 consumers of Fashion, Transportation and Technological sectors in Delhi, NCR. The scale shows internal consistency, reliability, construct validity and nomological validity. Future research directions and Implications of the study are discussed.
The farming communities in the Christiana district with a population of close to 21 000 residents struggled with issues including poverty, unemployment, financial problems, alcoholism, occultism and Satanism and family issues such as father absence, fatherlessness and single parenting. An intervention that included training and equipping of fathers, who were farm workers from the local faith community, was necessary and crucial. Farm workers (faith communities) responded to the need for a biblical fatherhood programme. Human fatherhood should be recognised and given serious consideration because it gave an anticipation of who God the Father is. If human fatherhood did not exist, then all truth and knowledge about God the Father would be void and insignificant. Fatherhood today is an element of broken families and perhaps the most threatened element in the world. The aim of this article was to lessen the social issue of father absence through the implementation of the Biblical Fatherhood Programme. The programme has a biblical nature to solve social ills within communities. The programme was developed from a practical-theological study on fatherhood, with the primary reason to train and equip participants with fatherhood knowledge. This article presents a reflective and community engagement strategy, based on the author’s reflection of items that arose when a biblical fatherhood programme was presented to farm workers in the Christiana district of South Africa. Reflection as a methodology enabled researchers and practitioners to theorise from their own practice, improving and developing their work. Reflection was a turning back onto ‘a self’ where the researcher was the observer of the scenario. Reflection was also a significant and mental activity for researchers to use in their work with participants. The results and this article presented the reflective, rather than empirical findings of the programme implementation. The training intervention was presented in a narrative form and based on research about the essence of fatherhood. This was conceptualised from biblical truth and perspective. Participants showed immense interest in the programme and the Bible. Their theological views concerning the Bible for answers were crucial to their problems and situations. Participants’ spiritual life was pivotal to enjoy healthy relationships with God.
Contribution: The programme contributed monumentally to the lives of participants. It was impossible for participants to live their lives without the Bible. The Bible is not just an authoritative source of teaching, but it speaks of human fatherhood and serves as a guideline to enunciate the care of God the Father.
Respect is an important psychological and interpersonal phenomenon that has been included in various theoretical and empirical approaches to leadership for nearly 70 years. In this systematic and critical review article, we provide a comprehensive summary and critique of theories, definitions, measures, and empirical studies of respect in leadership. We first provide an overview of the historical and theoretical background, including the most common theories, definitions, and measures that inform empirical studies of respect in leadership. Second, we present a systematic literature review of empirical studies on respect in leadership, including a critical evaluation of research designs and statistical analyses that support claims of the validity of various conceptualizations of respect that pertain to the study of leadership. Finally, we offer a new working definition of respect in leadership, and an accompanying conceptual framework which informs a number of recommendations for future theory development, empirical research, and leadership practice.
Respect is an important psychological and interpersonal phenomenon that has been included in various theoretical and empirical approaches to leadership for nearly 70 years. In this systematic and critical review article, we provide a comprehensive summary and critique of theories, definitions, measures, and empirical studies of respect in leadership. We first provide an overview of the historical and theoretical background, including the most common theories, definitions, and measures that inform empirical studies of respect in leadership. Second, we present a systematic literature review of empirical studies on respect in leadership, including a critical evaluation of research designs and statistical analyses that support claims of the validity of various conceptualizations of respect that pertain to the study of leadership. Finally, we offer a new working definition of respect in leadership, and an accompanying conceptual framework which informs a number of recommendations for future theory development, empirical research, and leadership practice.
This article provides a reflective discussion of and narrative approach to incarcerated fathers based on the attendees of a Fatherhood Faith-Based Values Intervention programme at the Potchefstroom Remand Detention Facility. It is important to note that one-third of South African inmates are between the ages of 18 and 25 years – hence the reason why the majority of intervention and community engagement programmes at correctional services take place amongst the youth age group. The Department of Correctional Services reported in 2011 that South Africa had 159 265 incarcerated inmates at the time, of whom 110 905 were sentenced offenders and 48 360 were awaiting trial. In 2013, the World Incarcerated Brief reported that South Africa had the largest incarcerated population in Africa and the ninth largest in the world. Seventeen-year-olds comprised 53 000 of this number and were guilty of serious crimes. These numbers increased tremendously over the years. According to the former South African Minister of Correctional Services, Mr Sibusiso Ndebele, in 2013, 30% of inmates were young black men. He also indicated that, although 23 000 inmates were being released each year, 25 000 were introduced into the correctional services system. South Africa currently has overcrowded places of incarceration even though the President of South Africa, Mr Cyril Ramaphosa, granted special remission to 14 647 offenders in 2019. Incarcerated fathers are traumatised and affected by these places of captivity, even when they are on parole or released from detention. The effect of incarceration is a serious concern in the South African landscape and challenge to the researcher who studies the fatherhood phenomenon and the dilemma of father absence.
Cultural beliefs, values, and norms influence the frequency and display of behavior. Accordingly, broadening the operational definitions of social and emotional competencies and establishing the equivalence of measures are two necessary steps to ensure that current assessment tools are sensitive to cultural and contextual variations. The purpose of this article is twofold: first, to examine the risks associated with narrow definitions or assumptions of invariance, particularly as each pertains to the assessment of social and emotional learning (SEL) competencies among Black students in urban schools; and second, to consider the utility of prototype analysis in advancing transformative SEL research and practice.
in this chapter we will examine the development and impact of trust in the context of close relationships
we will begin with a definition of trust and a discussion of its roots in individuals' interpersonal histories
we will go on to explore the development of trust in intimate relationships, emphasizing how its foundations are colored by the seminal experiences that mark different stages of interdependence
we will then consider the various states of trust that can evolve and their consequences for people's emotions and perceptions in established relationships (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Responds to comments by A. C. Bohart and T Greening, S. B. Shapiro, G. Bacigalupe, R. Walsh, W. C. Compton, C. L. McLafferty and J. D. Kirylo, N. Abi-Hashem, A. C. Catania, G. K. Lampropoulos, and T. M. Kelley (see records
2002-15384-010,
2002-15384-011,
2002-15384-012,
2002-15384-013,
2002-15384-014,
2002-15384-015,
2002-15384-016,
2002-15384-017,
2002-15384-018, and
2002-15384-019, respectively) on the January 2000, Vol 55(1) special issue of the
American Psychologist dedicated to positive psychology. M. E. P. Seligman and M. Csikszentmihalyi expand on some of the critical themes discussed in the commentaries. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three studies, involving 146 undergraduates and 68 heterosexual couples, assessed the construct validity of the self- and other-model dimensions underlying the 4-category model of adult attachment. Five methods were used to assess the hypothesized dimensions: self-reports, friend-reports, romantic partner reports, trained judges' ratings of peer attachment, and trained judges' ratings of family attachment. Study 2 related the latent attachment dimensions to theoretically relevant outcome latent variables. As predicted, Ss' self models converged with direct measures of the positivity of their self-concepts, and Ss' other models converged with direct measures of the positivity of their interpersonal orientations. Study 3 related the latent attachment dimensions to 3 alternate self-report measures of adult attachment and showed that the 2 dimensions served as an organizing framework for the different measurement approaches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Even if superordinate concepts (such as "fruit," "vehicle," "sport") are prototypically organized, basic-level concepts (such as "apple," "truck," "hockey") might be classically defined in terms of individually necessary and jointly sufficient features. A series of 6 studies examined 1 basic-level concept in the domain of emotion, "love," and found that it is better understood from a prototype than a classical perspective. The natural language concept of "love" has an internal structure and fuzzy borders: Maternal love, romantic love, affection, love of work, self-love, infatuation, and other subtypes of love can be reliably ordered from better to poorer examples of love. In turn, each subtype's goodness as an example of love (prototypicality) was found to predict various indices of its cognitive processing. Implications for a scientific definition and typology of love are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The discovery of the Big Seven factor model of natural language personality description (Tellegen, 1993; Tellegen & Waller, 1987; Waller, in press; Waller & Zavala, 1993) challenges the comprehensiveness of the Big Five factor structure. To establish the robustness and cross-cultural generalizability of the seven-factor model, a Big Seven (Tellegen, Grove & Waller, 1991) and a Big Five (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991) questionnaire were administered to 2 samples: (1) a sample of 569 community-dwelling volunteers from the US and (2) a sample of 435 Spanish native speakers from Spain. Factor structures from the self- and peer-ratings on the Spanish version of the Big Seven questionnaire largely replicated the American structure (Waller, in press). Nevertheless, some psychologically meaningful item-level differences emerged. These differences suggest that Spaniards attach negative and positive values to self–other perceptions of introversion and unconventionality, respectively. Our findings support the cross-cultural robustness of the Big Seven factors and the advantages of this structure for studying culturally specific differences in personality trait-term evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In the present study, I intended to determine the similarity between Rubin's (1970) Love Scale components and five of Lee's (1976) six lovestyles in a relatively homogenous sample of 301 16- and 17-year-old British females. Items describing loving behaviors toward a particular individual were formulated to measure these lovestyles together with that of Ludus. The six orthogonal factors extracted from the correlation matrix of these and Rubin's items were called Love, Mutual Love, Respect, Similarity, Physical Attraction and Hostility. The results suggested that Rubin's Love Scale contained elements of Mania and Agape but none of Ludus, which could not be further differentiated. Rubin's (1970) Liking Scale, however, could be further subdivided into Respect (Pragma) and Similarity (Storge).
This meta-analysis included 66 studies (N = 4,176) on parental antecedents of attachment security. The question addressed was whether maternal sensitivity is associated with infant attachment security, and what the strength of this relation is. It was hypothesized that studies more similar to Ainsworth's Baltimore study (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978) would show stronger associations than studies diverging from this pioneering study. To create conceptually homogeneous sets of studies, experts divided the studies into 9 groups with similar constructs and measures of parenting. For each domain, a meta-analysis was performed to describe the central tendency, variability, and relevant moderators. After correction for attenuation, the 21 studies (N = 1,099) in which the Strange Situation procedure in nonclinical samples was used, as well as preceding or concurrent observational sensitivity measures, showed a combined effect size of r(1,097) = .24. According to Cohen's (1988) conventional criteria, the association is moderately strong. It is concluded that in normal settings sensitivity is an important but not exclusive condition of attachment security. Several other dimensions of parenting are identified as playing an equally important role. In attachment theory, a move to the contextual level is required to interpret the complex transactions between context and sensitivity in less stable and more stressful settings, and to pay more attention to nonshared environmental influences.
The present work advances and tests an interdependence-based model of the associations among commitment, pro-relationship behavior, and trust. Findings from two longitudinal studies revealed good support for model predictions. Commitment-inspired acts such as accommodation and willingness to sacrifice provide diagnostic information regarding a partner's pro-relationship motives. Individuals come to trust their partners when they perceive that their partners have enacted pro-relationship behaviors, departing from their direct self-interest for the good of the relationship. The results of mediation analyses are consistent with a model of mutual cyclical growth in which (a) dependence promotes strong commitment, (b) commitment promotes pro-relationship acts, (c) pro-relationship acts are perceived by the partner, (d) the perception of pro-relationship acts enhances the partner's trust, and (e) trust increases the partner's willingness to become dependent on the relationship. Auxiliary analyses revealed that self-reported attachment style does not account for substantial variance beyond the features of interdependence that form the basis for the present model.
A science of positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions promises to improve quality of life and prevent the pathologies that arise when life is barren and meaningless. The exclusive focus on pathology that has dominated so much of our discipline results in a model of the human being lacking the positive features that make life worth living. Hope, wisdom, creativity, future mindedness, courage, spirituality, responsibility, and perseverance are ignored or explained as transformations of more authentic negative impulses. The 15 articles in this millennial issue of the American Psychologist discuss such issues as what enables happiness, the effects of autonomy and self-regulation, how optimism and hope affect health, what constitutes wisdom, and how talent and creativity come to fruition. The authors outline a framework for a science of positive psychology, point to gaps in our knowledge, and predict that the next century will see a science and profession that will come to understand and build the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish.
Three studies assessed the construct validity of the self- and other-model dimensions underlying the 4-category model of adult attachment (Bartholomew, 1990). Five methods were used to assess the hypothesized dimensions: self-reports, friend-reports, romantic partner reports, trained judges' ratings of peer attachment, and trained judges' ratings of family attachment. In each study, the convergent and discriminant validity of the dimensions were assessed by multitrait-multimethod matrices and by confirmatory factor analysis. Study 2 related the latent attachment dimensions to theoretically relevant outcome latent variables. As predicted, individuals' self models converged with direct measures of the positivity of their self-concepts, and individuals' other models converged with direct measures of the positivity of their interpersonal orientations. Study 3 related the latent attachment dimensions to 3 alternate self-report measures of adult attachment and showed that the 2 dimensions serve as an organizing framework for the different measurement approaches.
As a construct of psychological relevance, commitment has for some time been the focus of numerous programs of research, including explorations in decision making (Edwards, 1954; Festinger, 1957), deviation, and conformity in group settings (Kiesler & Corbin, 1965; Kiesler & Kiesler, 1969; Kiesler, Zanna, & De Salvo, 1966); the maintenance of costly courses of action (Staw, 1976, 1981; Staw & Fox, 1977); and job turnover (Aranya & Jacobson, 1975; Grusky, 1966; Porter, Crampon, & Smith, 1976). However, the examination of commitment specifically within the context of close relationships is a relatively recent development, with most theoretical treatments of the construct emerging after 1965 and most empirical studies being published after 1980. Given the relatively long history of research on interpersonal relationships, it is somewhat perplexing that the critical examination of commitment has been so late in coming to this area.
"Construct validation was introduced in order to specify types of research required in developing tests for which the conventional views on validation are inappropriate. Personality tests, and some tests of ability, are interpreted in terms of attributes for which there is no adequate criterion. This paper indicates what sorts of evidence can substantiate such an interpretation, and how such evidence is to be interpreted." 60 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
A virtue is defined as any psychological process that enables a person to think and act so as to benefit both him- or herself and society. Character is a higher-order construct reflecting the possession of several of the component virtues. The process by which the topics of virtue and character fell out of favor in psychology is reviewed, with a call for a rebirth of interest in these concepts in the interface of clinical, counseling, social, and personality psychology.
Part I Models of love and satisfaction in close relationships: marital satisfaction in evolutionary psychological perspective, Shackelford, Buss attachment and relationship satisfaction across the lifespan, Koski, Shaver love and satisfaction, Hendrick a hierachical model of love and its prediction of satisfaction in close relationships, Barnes, Sternberg philosophy as a model of relationship satisfaction, Hojjat. Part II Satisfaction over the course of close relationships: a temporal view of relationship satisfaction and stability, Berscheid, Lopes marital satisfaction and spousal interaction, Feeney, Noller, Ward "rethinking" satisfaction in personal relationships from a dialectical perspective. Erbert, Duck. Part III Conflict and satisfaction in close relationships: angry at your partner? Think again, Christensen, Walczynski marital quality - a new theoretical perspective, Fincham, Beach, Kemp-Fincham. Part IV Psychotherapy and satisfaction in close relationships: acceptance in couple therapy and its implications for the treatment of depression, Cordova, Jacobson the the erosion of satisfaction over time and how to prevent it, Cordova, Markman, Laurenceau a schema-focused perspective on satisfaction in close relationships, Young, Gluhoski.
It is proposed that satisfying, stable relationships reflect intimates' ability to see imperfect relationships in somewhat idealized ways-to make a leap of faith. Both members of dating and married couples completed a measure of relationship illusions, tapping idealized perceptions of the partners' attributes, exaggerated perceptions of control, and unrealistic optimism. Results of concurrent analyses revealed that relationship illusions predicted greater satisfaction, love, and trust, and less conflict and ambivalence in both dating and marital relationships. A longitudinal follow-up of the dating sample revealed that relationships were more likely to persist the stronger individuals' initial illusions. Relationship illusions also predicted increases in later satisfaction but not vice versa. These results suggest that positive illusions capture a prospective sense of conviction or security that is not simply isomorphic with satisfaction.
Examined the effect of self-disclosure on marital satisfaction in couples and also introduced attitude similarity as a possible predictor of marital satisfaction. 51 couples (mean age 30.6 yrs) completed 5 test instruments, including a self-disclosure scale, 2 marriage satisfaction scales, an attitude survey, and a demographic questionnaire. Results (1) revealed high reciprocity between spouses on most measures, (2) found a consistent positive relationship between self-disclosure and marital satisfaction, (3) substantiated self-disclosure as a significant predictor of marital satisfaction, and (4) demonstrated that attitude similarity had a strong positive relationship to marital satisfaction. Findings provide a firm basis for self-disclosure and attitude similarity as important predictors of marital satisfaction. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Study 1 identified a 3-dimensional latent structure of the prototype of love, based on factor analyzing centrality ratings of 68 prototypical features of love identified by B. Fehr (see record
1989-04996-001); we labeled these
Passion, Intimacy, and
Commitment. Studies 2 and 3 cross-validated this result with new samples. Study 4 showed convergent and discriminant validity of scales based on these dimensions and compared results with the centrality-rating method to an alternative prototype-relevant method. Study 5 found convergent and discriminant validity with a version of R. J. Sternberg's (1988) Triangular Love Scale. Study 5 also obtained the same 3-dimensional structure for both people's concept of love and descriptions of their own love relationships but the emphasis among dimensions corresponded only moderately between concept and descriptions. Study 6 showed correspondences between prototype-feature dimensions and love styles (C. Hendrick & S. Hendrick, see record 73:13421; J. A. Lee, 1977). Study 7 examined a shortened scale for the 3 dimensions and replicated the main results of Study 6 with that scale. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Analyzed lay conceptions of love and commitment from a prototype perspective. In Study 1, Ss listed the features of love and/or commitment. In Study 2, centrality (prototypicality) ratings of these features were obtained. In Study 3, central features were found to be more salient in memory than peripheral features. In Study 4, it was shown that it sounded peculiar to hedge central but not peripheral features. In Study 5, central features of love were expected to be more applicable than peripheral features as relationships increased in love. Similarly for commitment, central features were expected to be more applicable than peripheral features as relationships increased in commitment. In Study 6, violations of central features of love were perceived as contributing to a greater decrease in love than were violations of peripheral features. Similarly, violations of central features of commitment were perceived as contributing to a greater decrease in commitment than were violations of peripheral features. I concluded that the findings across several studies fit best with Kelley's (1983) description of love and commitment as largely overlapping but partially independent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports 7 studies that explored the possibility that the concept of emotion is better understood from a prototype perspective than from a classical one. Specifically it is argued that membership in the concept of emotion is a matter of degree rather than all-or-none (that the concept has an internal structure) and that no sharp boundary separates members from nonmembers (that the concept has fuzzy boundaries). Undergraduates served as Ss in all experiments. As hypothesized, the concept of emotion was found to have an internal structure: Happiness, love, anger, fear, awe, respect, envy, and other types of emotion could be reliably ordered from better to poorer examples of emotion. In turn, an emotion's goodness of example (prototypicality) ranking predicted how readily it comes to mind when one is asked to list emotions, how likely it is to be labeled as an emotion when one is asked what sort of thing it is, how readily it can be substituted for the word emotion in sentences without their sounding unnatural, and the degree to which it resembles other emotion categories in terms of shared features. (54 ref)
The variety of interpersonal relationships in contemporary society necessitates the development of brief, reliable measures of satisfaction that are applicable to many types of close relationships. This article describes the development of such a measure. In Study I, the 7-item Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) was administered to 125 subjects who reported themselves to be "in love." Analyses revealed a unifactorial scale structure, substantial factor loadings, and moderate intercorrelations among the items. The scale correlated significantly with measures of love, sexual attitudes, self-disclosure, commitment, and investment in a relationship. In Study II, the scale was administered to 57 couples in ongoing relationships. Analyses supported a single factor, alpha reliability of .86, and correlations with relevant relationship measures. The scale correlated .80 with a longer criterion measure, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976), and both scales were effective (with a subsample) in discriminating couples who stayed together from couples who broke up. The RAS is a brief, psychometrically sound, generic measure of relationship satisfaction.
Interdependence theory identifies level of dependence and mutuality of dependence as two key properties of interdependent relationships. In ongoing relationships, these structural properties are subjectively experienced in terms of commitment–dependence level is experienced as greater or lesser commitment level, and mutuality of dependence is experienced as greater or lesser perceived mutuality in partners’commitment levels. We examined the associations of these variables with couple well-being using data from two three-wave longitudinal studies. One study examined partners in dating relationships and the second study examined partners in marital relationships. Consistent with predictions, both level of commitment and perceived mutuality of commitment accounted for unique variance in couple well-being: Couples exhibited greater adjustment to the degree that the partners were highly committed to their relationship and to the degree that their commitment levels were mutual. Mediation analyses revealed that the association of mutuality of commitment with couple well-being is partially mediated by negative affect (e.g., anxiety, guilt) and partially to wholly mediated by trust level; perceived mutuality of power is not a reliable mediator of this association.
This research tested three models of how the relationship evaluation components of satisfaction, commitment, intimacy, trust, passion, and love a structured and cognitively represented. Participants in Study 1 rated their intimate relationships on six previously developed scales that measured each construct and on a new inventory-the Perceived Relationship Quality Components (PRQC) Inventory. As predicted, confirmatory factor analysis revealed that, for both sets of scales, the best-fitting model was one in which the appropriate items loaded reliably on the six first-order factors, which in turn loaded reliably on one second-order factor reflecting overall perceived relationship quality. These results were replicated on a different sample in Study 2 and across sex. Implications and advantages of the PRQC Inventory are discussed.
Psychology, like society at large, continues to be baffled by the persistent belief that men and women differ in important psychological ways, in spite of countless studies that fail to demonstrate such differences or that capture them for only a brief moment. New approaches avoid the polarization of `male' and female' traits, emphasizing how and why these qualities change over the life span, across cultures and throughout history. To understand where the differences are, we must look to narrative, power, and the conditions of our lives.
Analyzed lay conceptions of love and commitment from a prototype perspective. In Study 1, Ss listed the features of love and/or commitment. In Study 2, centrality (prototypicality) ratings of these features were obtained. In Study 3, central features were found to be more salient in memory than peripheral features. In Study 4, it was shown that it sounded peculiar to hedge central but not peripheral features. In Study 5, central features of love were expected to be more applicable than peripheral features as relationships increased in love. Similarly for commitment, central features were expected to be more applicable than peripheral features as relationships increased in commitment. In Study 6, violations of central features of love were perceived as contributing to a greater decrease in love than were violations of peripheral features. Similarly, violations of central features of commitment were perceived as contributing to a greater decrease in commitment than were violations of peripheral features. I concluded that the findings across several studies fit best with Kelley's (1983) description of love and commitment as largely overlapping but partially independent.
A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study 1, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations of the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self- and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study 1 were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.
Recent work on natural categories suggests a framework for conceptualizing people's knowledge about emotions. Categories of natural objects or events, including emotions, are formed as a result of repeated experiences and become organized around prototypes (Rosch, 1978); the interrelated set of emotion categories becomes organized within an abstract-to-concrete hierarchy. At the basic level of the emotion hierarchy one finds the handful of concepts (love, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and perhaps, surprise) most useful for making everyday distinctions among emotions, and these overlap substantially with the examples mentioned most readily when people are asked to name emotions (Fehr & Russell, 1984), with the emotions children learn to name first (Bretherton & Beeghly, 1982), and with what theorists have called basic or primary emotions. This article reports two studies, one exploring the hierarchical organization of emotion concepts and one specifying the prototypes, or scripts, of five basic emotions, and it shows how the prototype approach might be used in the future to investigate the processing of information about emotional events, cross-cultural differences in emotion concepts, and the development of emotion knowledge.
Reports initial results of an attempt to introduce and validate a social-psychological construct of romantic love. Starting with the assumption that love is an interpersonal attitude, an internally consistent paper-and-pencil love scale was developed. The conception of romantic love included 3 components: affiliative and dependent need, a predisposition to help, and an orientation of exclusiveness and absorption. The 13-item love-scale scores were only moderately correlated with scores on a parallel 13-item scale of "liking," which reflected a more traditional conception of interpersonal attraction. The validity of the love scale was assessed in a questionnaire study with 158 undergraduate dating couples and a laboratory experiment with 79 undergraduate dating couples. On the basis of the emerging conception of love, it was predicted that college dating couples who loved each other a great deal (as categorized by their love-scale scores) would spend more time gazing into one another's eyes than would couples who loved each other to a lesser degree. The prediction was confirmed. (22 ref.)
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