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Sexual-Minority College Women's Experiences with Discrimination: Relations with Identity and Collective Action
Abstract
This study examined sexual-minority women's reports of sexism, heterosexism, and gendered heterosexism (discrimination that is both sexist and heterosexist) as predictors of social identity and collective action during college. A measure of gendered heterosexism was developed that assesses women's experiences with discrimination that is simultaneously sexist and heterosexist in nature. This measure was distinct from measures of sexism and heterosexism and had good internal consistency. The sample included 83 sexual-minority college women (mean age = 19.93 years). Significant differences occurred between groups of women based on their identification as lesbian/queer or bisexual. Lesbian/queer women reported significantly more heterosexist discrimination, social identity, and commitment to sexual orientation activism than did bisexual women. After controlling for reported sexism, heterosexism, and their interaction, reported gendered heterosexism uniquely predicted social sexual-orientation identity, commitment to feminist activism, and commitment to lesbian/gay/bisexual/queer (LGBQ) collective action. Thus, young LGBQ women may experience discrimination that is qualitatively different from sexism, heterosexism, or high levels of both sexism and heterosexism. Results are discussed in terms of the implications of intersectionality on sexual-minority women's experiences and identity development.
... To the best of our knowledge, few studies have investigated the consequences of collective action and existing results show a conflicting picture. On the one hand, some studies found that collective action is beneficial for well-being (Breslow et al., 2015;Friedman & Leaper, 2010). In the context of gender-based inequality, for example, women who participated in collective action showed greater well-being relative to women who did not participate (Foster, 2014). ...
... Therefore, it is important to know whether engagement in collective action may be worth such effort and result in beneficial changes in well-being. Consistent with Breslow et al. (2015), Friedman andLeaper (2010), andFoster (2014), in this research, we found a positive association between collective action and life satisfaction, suggesting that people may become more satisfied with their life after participating in collective action. According with Friedman and Leaper (2010), collective action has the potential to buffer the negative impact of disadvantaged conditions on well-being-collective action seems indeed capable of positively contributing to the life satisfaction of unemployed people and precarious workers. ...
... Therefore, it is important to know whether engagement in collective action may be worth such effort and result in beneficial changes in well-being. Consistent with Breslow et al. (2015), Friedman andLeaper (2010), andFoster (2014), in this research, we found a positive association between collective action and life satisfaction, suggesting that people may become more satisfied with their life after participating in collective action. According with Friedman and Leaper (2010), collective action has the potential to buffer the negative impact of disadvantaged conditions on well-being-collective action seems indeed capable of positively contributing to the life satisfaction of unemployed people and precarious workers. ...
The present work proposes that the relation of employment conditions (i.e., unemployment and precarious work vs. permanent employment) with participation in collective action and satisfaction with life depends on the extent to which acceptance of inequality is high or low, and that collective action mediates the association between employment conditions and satisfaction with life. We analyzed data from the European Social Survey (Round 8, 2016) and found that (1) when acceptance of inequality is low (vs. high), employment disadvantage is positively related to engagement in collective action and, in turn, satisfaction with life; (2) employment disadvantage is negatively related to satisfaction with life, and this relation increases when acceptance of inequality is low (vs. high). This study generates findings of interest to inequality researchers by showing the relevance of acceptance of inequality for collective action and life satisfaction in the context of employment.
... In a psychometric review of measures assessing discrimination against sexual minorities, Morrison and colleagues found that the Heterosexist Harassment, Rejection, and Discrimination Scale (HHRDS) was the most commonly used measure of sexual orientationrelated discrimination, and still, it was only used in 12 of 162 studies reviewed (Morrison et al., 2016). The HHRDS was originally developed to measure experiences of discrimination among lesbian women (Szymanski, 2006), but it has since been adapted for use with various sexual minority groups, including sexual minority women (DeBlaere et al., 2014;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Lehavot & Simoni, 2011;Szymanski & Henrichs-Beck, 2014;Watson et al., 2015), sexual minority men (Kleiman et al., 2015;Szymanski, 2009;Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013), and sexual minorities of varying genders (Dunn & Szymanski, 2018;Feinstein et al., 2012Feinstein et al., , 2014Velez et al., 2015). Szymanski (2006) originally identified a three-factor model: (a) harassment and rejection (e.g., verbally insulted and rejected by family members); (b) workplace and school discrimination (e.g., treated unfairly by coworkers; fellow students, or colleagues; denied a raise, a promotion, tenure, a good assignment, a job, or other such things at work that you deserved); and (c) other discrimination (e.g., treated unfairly by strangers; treated unfairly by people in service jobs). ...
... Finally, although all sexual minorities can experience heterosexist discrimination, there are also differences in the types of discrimination experienced by sexual minorities of different sexual, gender, and racial/ethnic identities. For example, bisexual individuals are subjected to unique stereotypes about their sexual orientation (e.g., that they are confused, experimenting, in denial of their true sexual orientation, and promiscuous; Dyar & Feinstein, 2018;Feinstein & Dyar, 2017;Mohr & Rochlen, 1999), sexual minority women are sexually objectified by heterosexual men and they experience gendered heterosexism (i.e., discrimination that is both sexist and heterosexist ;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Hequembourg & Brallier, 2009), and sexual minority people of color experience heterosexism in racial and ethnic minority communities as well as racism in LGBTQ+ communities and dating/close relationships (Balsam et al., 2011). Furthermore, there is some evidence that sexual orientation-related discrimination is more strongly associated with adverse mental and physical health outcomes for transgender and gender diverse (TGD) sexual minorities compared with cisgender sexual minorities (Dyar et al., 2020;Katz-Wise et al., 2017). ...
... The HHRDS is one of the most commonly used measures of sexual orientation-related discrimination (Morrison et al., 2016), but little is known about its psychometric properties across different sexual orientation, gender, and racial/ethnic groups. Although Szymanski (2006) originally identified a three-factor structure, most studies have treated the HHRDS as a single factor (DeBlaere et al., 2014;Dunn & Szymanski, 2018;Feinstein et al., 2012Feinstein et al., , 2014Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Kleiman et al., 2015;Szymanski, 2009;Szymanski & Henrichs-Beck, 2014;Szymanski & Ikizler, 2013;Velez et al., 2015;Watson et al., 2015), and a recent study provided support for a two-factor model in a sample of LGBTQ+ people of color (Smith et al., 2020). Therefore, to better understand the psychometric properties of the HHRDS, the goal of the current study was to test whether it exhibited measurement invariance across groups that varied in sexual orientation, gender, and race/ethnicity. ...
The Heterosexist Harassment, Rejection, and Discrimination Scale (HHRDS) is one of the most commonly used measures of sexual orientation-related discrimination, but little is known about its psychometric properties across different sexual orientations, gender, and racial/ethnic groups. A three-factor model was initially obtained, but most studies treat the HHRDS unidimensionally. Therefore, we tested whether the HHRDS exhibited measurement invariance across sexual orientation, gender, and racial/ethnic groups among 792 sexual minority young adults (aged 18-29) who participated in an online study. Across models, the three-factor solution fit better than the one-factor solution. All models achieved configural invariance and most achieved metric invariance; none of the considered models achieved scalar invariance (1-3 items were not equivalent across groups, depending on the comparison). Findings suggest that the HHRDS generally functions equivalently across sexual orientation, gender, and racial/ethnic groups, but some caution in interpreting scores is warranted.
... This has also been the case for sexual minority individuals who engage in collective action to challenge heterosexist oppression and strive for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights (DeBlaere et al., 2014). Previous research showed that experiences of gendered heterosexist discrimination were positively associated with commitment to sexual minorityrelated collective action among sexual minority women (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Similarly, Dunn and Szymanski (2018) found that heterosexist discrimination was positively related to political activism among sexual minorities. ...
... This proposition is consistent with Duncan's (2018) integrated model of personality and social psychological theories of collective action, which emphasizes that life experiences (e.g., personal experiences with discrimination) are linked to group consciousness and collective action. Empirical studies have found support for this claim and indicated that group identification explains the association between perceived discrimination and collective action (Cronin et al., 2012;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Simon et al., 1998). People with higher ingroup identification may be more concerned with and commit to collective goals and interests, instead of individual prosperity. ...
... In a sample of people living with HIV/AIDS, Molero and colleagues (2011) found that perceived group-based discrimination was positively linked to ingroup identification, which predicted intentions to engage in collective action. Friedman and Leaper (2010) also showed that heterosexist discrimination was associated with greater identification with sexual minorities and higher commitment to collective action. Recent studies also revealed that perceived group discrimination was positively associated with group identification, which in turn was associated with higher levels of collective action intention among people with physical disabilities (Molero et al., 2019) and people with hearing and visual impairment (Pérez-Garín et al., 2021). ...
Minority stress remains pervasive in various aspects of life among sexual minorities. Driven by the awareness of social injustice, some sexual minority individuals may undertake collective action to counteract discrimination, but this does not apply to all members of sexual minorities. The present study used a prospective, longitudinal research design to examine how different dimensions of minority stress (i.e., perceived discrimination and internalized stigma) interact to affect group identification and collective action. A total of 628 sexual minority individuals in Hong Kong were involved in the study. The results showed that prior discriminatory experiences were positively associated with collective action at follow-up through increased levels of group identification and commitment to social justice. The moderating effect of internalized stigma was found in which perceived discrimination was not significantly related to group identification and collective action among those with high levels of internalized stigma. The study extends the literature on the rejection-identification model by understanding collective action as a form of group-level coping in the face of discrimination. It highlights the importance of fostering group identification, strengthening collective action, and mitigating internalized stigma among sexual minorities in psychological practice.
... Growing from previous research suggesting that perceived social support can either help people cope with the negative effects of discrimination (e.g., Dennehy & Dasgupta, 2017;Gee et al., 2006;Holahan et al., 1995;Mossakowski & Zhang, 2014;Noh & Kaspar, 2003) or encourage action to fight against it (e.g., Gil de Zúñiga & Valenzuela, 2011;Son & Lin, 2008), we sought to test whether perceived support might strengthen or weaken the link between witnessing gender discrimination and willingness to engage in collective action for gender justice with general populations of women in the first two studies (U.S. and Ukraine). We also controlled for women's own reported discrimination experiences as prior research shows that being a target of discrimination often drives collective action participation (Foster & Matheson, 1998;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Tropp & Brown, 2004). ...
... The findings highlight that women who frequently witness gender discrimination and perceive less availability of female support are likely to show greater willingness to challenge gender inequality in the public sphere through collective action. These findings remained significant even after we controlled for participants' own discrimination experiences (see Foster & Matheson, 1998;Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Findings from Study 1, thus, suggest thatregardless of their own experiences with gender discrimination-the link between witnessing gender discrimination and willingness to take action against gender discrimination was stronger among women who perceived less support than those who perceived higher support. ...
... Therefore, we argued that witnessing gender discrimination can encourage women to become more willing to promote gender justice. In the current research, we sought to contribute to the collective action literature on gender discrimination (e.g., Foster & Matheson, 1998;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Sweetman, 2013;Ulu g et al., 2020) by examining whether witnessing incidents of gender discrimination among women predicts their willingness to engage in feminist collective action. We also examined whether (a) this association was moderated by women's perceived availability of female support from other close women who stand for equal gender rights and (b) remained significant when controlling for women's personal experiences of gender discrimination. ...
Previous research has indicated that witnessing gender discrimination may instigate women's participation in collective action for gender justice. However, relatively little is known about the role of perceived female support in motivating collective action among women who witness gender discrimination in public life. This study aims to analyse whether and when perceived support from feminist‐minded women moderates the association between women's witnessing gender discrimination and their willingness to engage in collective action for gender justice. We argue that the association between witnessing gender discrimination and willingness to engage in collective action depends on the support women perceive from their female friends and family members. In studies of women in the U.S. (Study 1; N = 271) and Ukraine (Study 2; N = 256), witnessing gender discrimination predicted greater willingness to participate in collective action for gender justice, and this association was stronger when female support was perceived to be lower. Study 3 (N = 1,304) replicated the findings of Studies 1 and 2 with self‐identified feminist women in Turkey. Our research offers novel insights regarding why perceived lack of female support may encourage women to engage in collective action for gender justice.
... Some work suggests that women are more likely than men to identify as queer (Goldberg et al., 2020;Morandini et al., 2017). In addition, queer identity has been found to be especially common among young non-heterosexual women, with 1 in 4 identifying as queer in one sample of college women in California aged 18-23 (N = 83) (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Because gender nonconforming, non-binary, genderqueer, and transgender people are a part of the larger LGBT umbrella, they are also a part of the clustering of queer and LGBT. ...
... For example, one study of LGBTQ people (N = 1075, n = 122 queer-identified) found that queer identity was significantly correlated with the desire to change society to be more supportive of LGBTQ people and more specifically, through laws and policies geared toward LGBTQ rights (Rollins & Hirsch, 2003). Another study of LBQ women in California (N = 83; n = 21 queer women) found that lesbian and queer women (compared to bisexual women) reported higher levels of support for LGBQ rights (which they described as "social sexual orientation identity") through agreement with statements such as "I care about the welfare of other LGBQ people in this country" (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). In addition, a small qualitative study (N = 15) found that queer-identified college student leaders (n = 7) "embraced a public gender and/ or sexual identity in opposition to normative, straight culture" and expressed a vested interest in "changing social systems for the purpose of decentering power" (Renn, 2007, p. 323) both of which may represent alignment with LGBTQ politics and the importance of fighting for LGBTQ rights. ...
... Though there is a "queer dilemma" whereby feminist and queer politics can differ in their processes and motivations (Gamson, 1995, p. 390), feminist identity has been found to be related to queer identity. For example, lesbian and queer women (compared to bisexual women) reported higher levels of support for women's rights (which they called "social gender identity") in one California study of LBQ college women (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). In another study, identifying as queer was related to a two-fold increase in the likelihood of identifying as feminist (Worthen, 2019). ...
Background
There is wide variation and disagreement about the term “queer,” and there is little consensus about who identifies as queer. To speak to this, the current study seeks to answer the questions: (1) Who are queer people? and (2) What characteristics and perspectives relate to identifying as queer?Methods
Queer identity and queer people are investigated using the 2018 LGBTQ and Hetero-cis Population Study, a sample of US adults aged 18–64 stratified by US census categories of age, gender, race/ethnicity, and census region collected from online panelists (N = 3104).ResultsQueer identity was highly visible: about 1 in 8 overall (12.7%, n = 393/3104) and nearly 1 in 5 LGBT people (19.5%, n = 313/1604) identified as “queer.” There were also a sizeable number of heterosexual queer-identified people (n = 84). There were four key findings: (1) Queer identity is attractive to people that express sexual and gender diversity, especially pansexual, two-spirit, leather, non-binary, butch, femme, bear, and twink-identified people; (2) cis women, trans women, and bisexual people (and to a lesser extent asexuals) are less likely to identify as queer; (3) LGBTQ perspectives and political perspectives (including feminism) relate to queer self-identification; and (4) among queer heterosexuals who express sexual and gender diversity, race, ethnicity, and religiosity are also significant.Conclusions
Overall, by looking more closely at these relationships, this study works toward developing a better understanding of what it means to be queer and how to best examine queer people and their lived experiences with queer identity.
... Very little existing research on intersectional minority stress and identity conflict has focused specifically on sexual and gender minorities assigned female at birth (SGM-AFAB), despite the fact that they are in the unique position of being triply marginalized due to their race, gender, and sexual orientation (Bowleg et al., 2003;Calabrese et al., 2015;Everett et al., 2019). The concept of gendered heterosexism has been proposed to describe the intersecting gender and sexual orientation experiences unique to sexual minority women (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Friedman and Leaper (2010) suggest that heterosexism and sexism may be conflated because by eschewing romantic and sexual relationships with men, sexual minority women are rejecting one of the most fundamental aspects of women's traditional gender role. ...
... The concept of gendered heterosexism has been proposed to describe the intersecting gender and sexual orientation experiences unique to sexual minority women (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Friedman and Leaper (2010) suggest that heterosexism and sexism may be conflated because by eschewing romantic and sexual relationships with men, sexual minority women are rejecting one of the most fundamental aspects of women's traditional gender role. Although to our knowledge, the construct of gendered heterosexism has not been quantitatively studied among sexual minority women of color, SGM-AFAB in racial/ethnic communities that value traditional gender roles for women may experience unique forms of heterosexism within those communities (Bridges et al., 2003;Loiacano, 1993). ...
... First, this study was conducted exclusively with SGM-AFAB, which, although it contributes to the sparse existing literature focused on this population, limits the generalizability of our results. Based on the construct of gendered heterosexism (Friedman & Leaper, 2010), heterosexism toward SGM-AFAB may be rooted in the perception that not having a male partner inherently transgresses traditional gender norms for women, which may be strongly held within certain racial/ethnic communities (e.g., Asencio, 2009). Future research using Friedman and Leaper's (2010) measure of gendered heterosexism in samples of SGM-AFAB who identify as people of color would be able to assess the specific nature of the heterosexism they experience in racial/ethnic communities. ...
Objective: Sexual and gender minority people of color (SGM-POC) experience intersectional forms of minority stress, including heterosexism within racial/ethnic minority communities, which can contribute to feelings of conflict between SGM and racial/ethnic identities. Internalized stigma may be a consequence of sexual orientation-based discrimination but has not been tested as a mechanism linking intersectional minority stress to identity conflict among SGM-POC. We hypothesized that the association between experiences of heterosexism in racial/ethnic minority communities and identity conflict would be mediated by internalized stigma among SGM assigned female at birth (SGM-AFAB). Method: Participants were 316 SGM-AFAB who identified as POC. Data were collected as a part of an ongoing longitudinal cohort study of young SGM-AFAB. We tested the longitudinal mediation using data from baseline, 6-month follow-up, and 1-year follow-up assessments. Results: Internalized stigma at 6-month follow-up partially mediated the association between experiences of heterosexism in racial/ethnic minority communities at baseline and identity conflict at 1-year follow-up. Conclusions: For SGM-POC, experiences of heterosexism within their racial/ethnic communities may lead to internalization of those negative attitudes. A consequence of internalizing heterosexist attitudes from one’s racial/ethnic group could be a feeling that one’s sexual orientation and racial/ethnic identities must remain separate, perhaps to maintain connection to one’s racial/ethnic community. Identifying internalized stigma as a mediating process is critical to better understand identity development for SGM-POC, and has important clinical implications for working with this population.
... A commonly used measure is the Heterosexist Harassment, Rejection, and Discrimination Scale (HHRDS;Syzmanski, 2006), which has been integral in identifying the associations between sexual orientationbased discrimination and psychopathology (e.g., internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, suicidal thoughts, and behaviors). The HHRDS has been employed to explore the discrimination-related experiences of a diverse range of sexual and gender minority individuals (DeBlaere et al., 2014;Dunn & Szymanski, 2018;Feinstein et al., 2012;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Kleiman et al., 2015;Lehavot & Simoni, 2011;Sutter & Perrin, 2016;Szymanski & Henrichs-Beck, 2014;Velez et al., 2015;Watson et al., 2015). However, inconsistent findings regarding the psychometric properties of this measure limit the conclusions that can be drawn from this research, as well as the validity of future studies using the HHRDS. ...
... The HHRDS (Syzmanski, 2006) is a 14-item self-report questionnaire that assesses the frequency of experiences of heterosexist harassment, rejection, and discrimination in the past year. Although the measure was initially designed to assess these experiences among lesbian women, the measure has been adapted for use among a broader range of individuals with diverse sexual and gender identities (DeBlaere et al., 2014;Dunn & Szymanski, 2018;Feinstein et al., 2012;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Kleiman et al., 2015;Lehavot & Simoni, 2011;Sutter & Perrin, 2016;Szymanski & Henrichs-Beck, 2014;Velez et al., 2015;Watson et al., 2015). Each item is rated on a scale from 1 (''Never happened to me'') to 6 (''Almost all of the time [more than 70% of the time]''), with higher scores indicating higher frequency of discrimination based on sexual orientation. ...
Despite the Heterosexist Harassment, Rejection, and Discrimination Scale (HHRDS) being a routinely used measure of discrimination , there is no current consensus regarding its fundamental psychometric properties. This study sought to: (a) test the dimensionality of the scale using a classical test theory approach, and (b), if lacking a clear multidimensional structure, use an item response theory approach to develop a concise unidimensional measure and examine differential item and test functioning across various identity factors. In a sample of sexual minority adults (N = 1,243), evaluation of the HHRDS supported a reduced 11-item unidimensional measure. Assessment of differential item functioning suggested differences for some items between cisgender men and cisgender women, cisgender men and gender-diverse individuals, gay/lesbian and bi + individuals, and white/non-Latine individuals and people of color. However, differential item functioning had minimal impact on total test scores, supporting the use of the revised 11-item HHRDS across groups.
... Pesquisas indicam que a vivência mulheres que experimentam o preconceito contra a diversidade sexual a partir de uma perspectiva de gênero, considerando a construção social de masculino como dominante e feminino como submisso, é diferente . Por exemplo, mulheres homossexuais masculinizadas sofrem mais e terão vivências diferentes com o preconceito do que mulheres homossexuais que performam de acordo com os estereótipos de gênero femininos (Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Gaspodini & Falcke, 2019;Szymanski, Kashubeck-West, & Meyer, 2008). ...
... Mulheres que não seguem a agenda heteronormativa vivem experiências de duplo preconceito, acumulando vivências de preconceito por conta da LGBTfobia e do preconceito ligado aos estereótipos de gênero (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Considera-se a interação entre os fatores de discriminação, chamada de interseccionalidade (Kyrillos, 2020). ...
As minorias sexuais e de gênero sofrem de estigma e preconceito. Mulheres que não se enquadram nos padrões normativos da sociedade experimentam grandes níveis de estresse e podem ter mais prejuízos na saúde mental. O suporte de uma rede de apoio pode ser fundamental no enfrentamento dessas vivências. Este estudo buscou avaliar se existem relações entre apoio social, estresse de minoria e indicadores de ansiedade e depressão em mulheres lésbicas e bissexuais brasileiras. Trata-se de um estudo de delineamento quantitativo, correlacional e transversal. Participaram desta pesquisa 53 mulheres cisgênero, brasileiras e residentes do Brasil, com idades entre 18 e 50 anos. As participantes responderam ao questionário sociodemográfico, Escala de Apoio Social, Protocolo de Avaliação do Estresse de Minoria em Lésbicas, Gays e Bissexuais– Versão feminina e a Escala de Ansiedade, Depressão e Estresse. Os resultados indicaram que existe uma correlação entre os indicadores de apoio social e do indicador de revelação da sexualidade do protocolo de avaliação do estresse de minoria. Levando em consideração os achados, fortalecer a rede de apoio pode possibilitar uma revelação da identidade sexual de uma forma menos violenta, espontânea e com acolhimento, servindo de apoio no enfrentamento em situações de preconceito.
... As such, collective action can be framed as a form of group-level resilience given its engagement in and advocacy on behalf of a group. The proactive nature of collective action grants people personal agency in improving their lives (Friedman & Leaper, 2010), which may help buffer the negative effect of discrimination on mental health. Accordingly, collective action may be negatively related to maladaptive psychological outcomes, while attenuating the relations from microaggressions to PTSD symptoms and psychological distress among sexual minority Latinx people by helping them (re)gain a sense of agency. ...
... Group-specific collective action (i.e., antiracist, sexual minority, and immigrant rights) was hypothesized to uniquely negatively relate to PTSD symptoms and psychological distress. Scholars have asserted that the proactive nature of collective action may enhance personal agency, while also building coalitions and solidarity in eradicating systems of oppression (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). As such, collective action was viewed as a potentially protective factor against PTSD symptoms and psychological distress; however, this hypothesis was not supported. ...
Este estudio tuvo como objetivo examinar la relación de diversas formas de microagresiones (es decir, el racismo contra las personas LGBTQ+, el heterosexismo de las personas de color y la cosificación de los inmigrantes) con los síntomas de trastorno de estrés postraumático (TEPT) y angustia psicológica entre las personas latinas de minorías sexuales, al tiempo que se exploraba el posible papel protector de tres formas de acción colectiva (es decir, la antirracista, la de las minorías sexuales y la de los derechos de los inmigrantes). De manera específica, planteamos la hipótesis de que las microagresiones estarían relacionadas positivamente de forma única tanto con los síntomas de TEPT como con la angustia psicológica, mientras que las tres formas de acción colectiva estarían relacionadas negativamente de forma única con estos resultados psicológicos. Por otra parte, planteamos la hipótesis de que la acción colectiva moderaría (es decir, amortiguaría) las asociaciones positivas entre las microagresiones y los resultados psicológicos. En una muestra de 364 personas latinas pertenecientes a minorías sexuales, los resultados sugirieron que cada forma de microagresión estaba asociada positivamente de forma única tanto con síntomas de TEPT como de malestar psicológico, aunque la acción colectiva no estaba relacionada de forma significativa con estos resultados. La acción colectiva antirracista amortiguó las relaciones del racismo contra las personas LGBTQ+ con síntomas de TEPT y de malestar psicológico, mientras que la acción colectiva por los derechos de los inmigrantes exacerbó la relación positiva entre la cosificación de los inmigrantes y el malestar psicológico. Los resultados de este estudio muestran la importancia de explorar múltiples formas de microagresiones para comprender las necesidades de salud mental de las minorías sexuales latinas.
... Researchers have theorized discrimination based on one's sexual orientation may be a source of motivation to help and/or better conditions for others experiencing systemic forms of oppression (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). DiFulvio (2011) conducted 22 interviews with LGBQ + youth. ...
... However, they stress that civic participation for individuals belonging to traditionally marginalized populations (who endure ongoing oppression) can be much more turbulent, often involving interactions with systems of oppression in multiple domains, stripping one of their agency (e.g., education, criminal-legal system). Prior research indicates that experiences with group-based discrimination can motivate an individual's commitment to addressing injustices and fighting for the rights of stigmatized groups (Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Hope & Jagers, 2014). Thus, young people with intersecting positionalities in relation to systems of oppression (e.g., race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender identity) may be more inclined towards civic beliefs and concerns that recognize current systems of power, and thus elect to pursue more system-challenging and community-based avenues of civic participation. ...
This study examined the role of demographics, civic beliefs, and the impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic in association with distinct forms of civic participation. College students were recruited across 10 institutions of higher education to complete an online survey. Bivariate, multivariable linear, and logistic regressions were performed. Findings indicated that participants from traditionally marginalized backgrounds were more likely to engage in systemchallenging forms of civic participation and community engagement than those from more privileged backgrounds. Participants who rated high in critical reflection, viewed racism as a key issue, and were heavily impacted by the COVID‐19 pandemic were also more likely to engage in system‐challenging forms of civic participation. Participants who endorsed beliefs supporting current systems of power were more likely to report they intended to vote. Results highlight implications for antiracist activism, community engagement, and traditional political civic behaviors.
... Qualitative research on pathways to resilience and positive identity development in the face of heterosexist experiences has found that many LGBQ persons report participating in activism aimed at advancing the rights of and improving conditions for sexual minorities in society (for a review, see Szymanski & Gonzalez, 2020), and taking action has been identified as a strategy for healing from and overcoming trauma (Herman, 1992). Quantitative research corroborates these findings with experiences of heterosexist discrimination at both interpersonal (Dunn & Szymanski, 2018;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Swank & Fahs, 2013;Szymanski et al., 2017;Waldner, 2001) and policy (i.e., anti-LGB marriage amendments; Rostosky et al., 2009) levels being positively related to participation in LGBQ activism. Thus, participation in LGBQ activism is one way that sexual minority persons can transform these disempowering experiences and resist heterosexist oppression. ...
... Participation in LGBQ activism also provides opportunities to work with others on the shared goal of eliminating heterosexism which may promote feelings of solidarity, personal control, and empowerment (Hagen et al., 2018;Strauss Swanson & Szymanski, 2020b). Empirically, participation in LGBQ activism was positively related to connection to the LGBQ community (Harris et al., 2015;Rostosky et al., 2018;Szymanski et al., 2017) as well as with other sexual minority persons (Dunn & Szymanski, 2018;Friedman & Leaper, 2010). In a qualitative study on sexual minority women and transgender persons, connection and community emerged as an important theme and was central to their experiences of activism (Hagen et al., 2018). ...
In this study, we examined the relations between participation in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer (LGBQ) activism and posttraumatic growth and positive affect among 516 sexual minority persons. We also examined meaning in life, community connection, and problem-solving coping as potential explanatory variables in these links. We found that more participation in LGBQ activism was related to greater posttraumatic growth and more positive affect at the bivariate level. We also found that participation in LGBQ activism was indirectly related to posttraumatic growth through meaning in life, community connection, and problem-solving coping. Participation in LGBQ activism was indirectly related to positive affect through meaning in life and problem-solving coping. That is, more participation in LGBQ activism was related to more meaning in life, greater community connection, and more active coping when dealing with minority stress, which in turn was related to greater positive psychological functioning. When working with LGBQ clients, professionals might explore activism-based strategies as a potential collective coping response to heterosexism that may foster positive psychological outcomes.
... More specifically, Klar and Kasser (2009) found that general activist identity was related to more positive affect, personal growth, environmental mastery, and self-actualization. Relatedly, involvement in feminist activism was found to be related to greater personal agency (Friedman and Leaper 2010) and higher self-acceptance (Leavy and Adams 1986). Taken together, previous research suggests a connection between involvement in activism and positive psychological functioning, indicating that involvement in anti-sexual assault activism may play a role in promoting post-traumatic growth and positive affect among sexual assault survivors. ...
... Taken together, these results are consistent with previous findings suggesting that perceived control over recovery, adaptive coping, and social support are correlated with positive mental health outcomes for female sexual assault survivors (Campbell et al. 2009;Frazier et al. 2004;Ullman 2014). Findings are also consistent with research demonstrating the general relationship between activist identity and psychological well-being (Klar and Kasser 2009) as well as feminist activism and increased reports of personal agency (Friedman and Leaper 2010). ...
In the present study, we examined the links between involvement in anti-sexual assault activism with post-traumatic growth and positive affect among 282 U.S. adult sexual assault survivors. We also explored potential mediators (i.e., self-blame, shame, community connection, meaning in life, trauma coping self-efficacy, and personal control) in these linkages. Results indicated that involvement in anti-sexual assault activism was positively correlated with both post-traumatic growth and positive affect. In addition, our findings revealed that involvement in anti-sexual assault activism was indirectly related to post-traumatic growth via community connection and coping self-efficacy/control (a composite variable) whereas involvement in anti-sexual assault activism was indirectly related to positive affect through meaning in life and coping self-efficacy/control. That is, more involvement in anti-sexual assault activism was related to greater community connection, more meaning in life, and greater coping/control which in turn was associated with more positive psychological functioning. Results of the present study may inform advocacy and support services and clinical interventions with survivors of sexual assault, with an emphasis on how collective action may foster positive mental health outcomes.
... sessuale"(Calzo et al. 2018;Donahue 2020; Gig et al. 2016;Jones et al. 2019;Luk et al. 2018;Shaw et al. 2020), quando non espressamente escluso dagli studi(Fingerhut et al. 2010; Strübel e Petrie 2020).Le poche ricerche che hanno esaminato le donne bisessuali come gruppo distinto di indagine, hanno mostrato coerentemente maggiori tassi di DA e di comportamenti alimentari disordinati rispetto agli uomini omo-, etero-e bi-sessuali e alle donne lesbiche ed eterosessuali(Austin et al. 2009(Austin et al. , 2013Maloch et al. 2013;Mor et al. 2015;Parker e Harriger 2020;Shearer et al. 2015). Nelle donne bisessuali, infatti, la discriminazione di genere si interseca, sommandosi, alla discriminazione per l'orientamento sessuale, il quale è a sua volta oggetto di una più pervasiva mancanza di accettazione(Dotan et al. 2019;Friedman e Leaper 2010). La maggiore presenza di DA potrebbe infatti essere spiegata dalla duplice discriminazione a cui la bisessualità è frequentemente esposta: non solo da parte della più diffusa società eteronormativa, ma anche da parte della popolazione SM. ...
In the existing literature, most studies on Eating Disorders (EDs) have involved predominantly heterosexual women. This is due to the high prevalence of this disorder in the female population and to the difficulty in recruiting sufficiently large and diversified samples encompassing the plurality of the identity components potentially involved. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the complexity of EDs' clinical picture in both etiopathogenetic and intersectional terms, considering the multiplicity and specificity of the subjects with EDs or at high risk of developing it. A literature review on the prevalence of EDs in the LGBTQI + population is presented here. Particular attention has been paid to the peculiarities of each of the subjectivities of which each letter that makes up the acronym is an expression, highlighting some methodological issues that have limited data availability needed
to accurately inform clinical work and treatment.
... We propose that supporters of #MeToo experience group membership differently based on their motives for joining the movement, including commitment to gender equality and personal experiences with discrimination. Previous research shows that experiencing discrimination, specifically sexual harassment, is a key predictor of activism, likely shaping the subjective experience of being a supporter of the movement (Duncan, 1999;Liss et al., 2004;Friedman and Leaper, 2010). This experience can lead to higher psychological and emotional investment in the group, as captured by group identification and group-based emotions (Duncan, 2012). ...
Introduction
In this research, we examine how intragroup fragmentation, which is the division of a group into smaller subgroups, interacts with different forms of action against gender inequality. We focused on two types of action: actions that promote social change and actions that encourage retribution.
Methods
We investigated these processes within the #MeToo social movement using data collected in Australia (N = 363) and Romania (N = 135). In both samples, we measured antecedents of ’group consciousness’ (previous experience with discrimination, empathic concern, and perspective taking) and its indicators (social identification, perceived group efficacy beliefs, and group emotions such as anger and contempt). As indicators of intragroup fragmentation, we measured endorsement of different categories of group behaviors such as pro-social change action versus pro-retribution action. To assess the predictive power of motivations for joining the movement (antecedents of group consciousness) and of group consciousness for either pro-social or retributive actions, we tested several structural equation models (SEMs).
Results
Our results indicate that the motivations for joining such social movements were more complex than anticipated, with perspective-taking emerging as a significant differentiator. Our analyses further show that different dimensions of group consciousness could predict support for either pro-social or retributive actions.
Discussion
These findings highlight the complexity of the intragroup processes in newly emerging, modern social movements such as #MeToo. Our findings have implications for the study of membership dynamics in social movements and suggest that strategies to mobilise support should be tailored to these complexities. Overall, this research contributes to the current understanding of intragroup dynamics in contemporary social movements, thereby providing insights that could inform both grassroots mobilisation strategies and policy interventions aiming to increase gender equality.
... Those differences in negative affectivity are linked with symptoms of anxiety and depression and mirror the increasing role gender socialization plays in development during childhood and adolescence. These existing systemic differences coupled with membership in a minoritized group, make SGM-AFAB and AFAB of color particularly important to include in research on minoritized stress, especially for SGM-AFAB who are subject to gendered heterosexism (i.e., heterosexism experiences unique to sexual minoritized women) when they break traditional gender roles (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Experiences of minoritized stress associated with SGM status is also especially relevant during adolescence and young adulthood because this is the developmental period when experiences of victimization and discrimination peak . ...
Objectives: Sexual and gender minoritized people (SGM) of color experience stigma unique to their intersection of identities, such as racism from SGM and heterosexism from people of color (POC) in their same racial/ethnic group. SGM POC who experience enacted stigma, like microaggressions, have been found to have poorer mental health outcomes. SGM identity authenticity and connections to the SGM community have been associated with better mental health. We sought to test if intersectional enacted stigma, identity authenticity, community connectedness, and the interactions between enacted stigma and authenticity and community were associated with mental health in assigned female at birth (AFAB) SGM young adults of color. Method: Data come from 341 racial/ethnic minoritized SGM-AFAB (Mage = 21.23, SD = 3.80). Multivariate linear regressions tested main effects of intersectional enacted stigma (heterosexism from POC and racism from SGM) and authenticity and community on mental health, as well as interaction effects on mental health. Results: SGM-AFAB POC who experienced more heterosexism from POC reported more anxiety and depression symptoms. Greater connection to the SGM community was associated with fewer anxiety and depression symptoms. Heterosexism from POC and community connection interacted such that SGM-AFAB who experienced less heterosexism from POC reported fewer mental health symptoms if they were more connected to the SGM community, but SGM-AFAB who experienced more heterosexism did not benefit from stronger community connection. Conclusions: Heterosexism from other POC may put SGM POC at higher exposure for negative mental health outcomes and reduce the mental health benefits of a stronger connection to the SGM community.
... Although few studies of positive identity have specifically focused on bi+ people, community, authenticity, and intimacy have each been described as positive aspects of identifying as bi+ (Rostosky et al., 2010;Wang & Feinstein, 2022). However, previous studies have also found that bisexual individuals report lower levels of positive identity (Petrocchi et al., 2020) and community connectedness (Balsam & Mohr, 2007;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;McLaren & Castillo, 2021) compared with gay and lesbian individuals. In addition, lower authenticity has been linked to greater identity concealment among sexual minority individuals (Riggle et al., 2017). ...
Objective:
Prior research has demonstrated that discrimination is associated with suicidal ideation among bi + individuals, but little is known about resilience factors (both general and bi + specific) that may buffer these associations. This prospective study examined the main and interactive effects of antibisexual discrimination and resilience factors, including general resilience and positive bi + identity factors (community, authenticity, and intimacy), in predicting suicidal ideation at 1- and 2-month follow-up.
Method:
Participants were bi + young adults (N = 396; ages 18-29; 42.7% cisgender men, 42.2% cisgender women, 15.2% transgender/gender diverse individuals; 37.9% racial and ethnic minority individuals) who completed measures of antibisexual discrimination (Brief Antibisexual Experiences Scale), positive bi + identity (Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Positive Identity Measure), general resilience (Brief Resilience Scale), and suicidal ideation (Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation) at baseline, and suicidal ideation again at 1- and 2-month follow-up.
Results:
Greater antibisexual discrimination was significantly associated with increases in suicidal ideation at 1-month follow-up at low levels of community, authenticity, and intimacy, and increases in suicidal ideation at 2-month follow-up at low levels of authenticity. In addition, at high levels of authenticity, greater antibisexual discrimination was significantly associated with decreases in suicidal ideation at 1-month follow-up. In contrast, general resilience did not moderate the associations between antibisexual discrimination and suicidal ideation at 1- or 2-month follow-up.
Conclusions:
Results suggest that promoting positive aspects of bi + identity (community, authenticity, and intimacy), but not general resilience, may help attenuate the effects of antibisexual discrimination on suicidal ideation over time. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... Grounded in Black feminist thought, intersectionality theory posits that the unique combination of multiple marginalized social identities creates subjective experiences that are independent, or go beyond, the individual contribution of each social identity on its own (Bowleg, 2008(Bowleg, , 2012Crenshaw, 1991;Everett et al., 2019). Gendered racism, for example, captures the intersectional nature of racism and sexism experienced among WOC (Thomas et al., 2008), while gendered heterosexism refers to different forms of gender-based oppression and stigma that differs across SM women and men (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Continuing within intersectionality frameworks, SM-WOC from different racial/ethnic groups experience specific stigmas and stereotypes that contribute to modern day forms of discrimination. ...
Objective
Health care discrimination contributes to medical mistrust among marginalized communities. Sexual minority women of color (SM-WOC) are marginalized because of the intersection of their sexual orientation, gender, and race/ethnicity and regularly report poor health care experiences at the intersection of these identities. However, research has yet to quantify differences in the prevalence of reported health care discrimination across SM women of various racial/ethnic backgrounds. As such, this study compared the rates of discriminatory treatment during the most recent medical appointment between SM-WOC (Black, Hispanic, Asian American, Native American) and White SM women.
Methods
We used nationally representative data from the Association of American Medical Colleges survey of health care services. Data were collected from 2010 to 2019 from N = 1,499 SM women (n = 458 SM-WOC). Binary logistic regressions compared frequencies of reported identity-based discrimination between each minoritized racial/ethnic group to White SM women.
Results
Across the sample, 33% of SM-WOC reported discrimination during their last medical appointment compared with 19% of White SM women. Discriminatory treatment was more common among every minoritized racial/ethnic group of SM women compared with White SM women, with variability in frequency of specific forms of identity-based discrimination across minoritized racial/ethnic groups.
Conclusions
Although discriminatory treatment during the last medical appointment was common for all SM women, prevalence was higher for SM-WOC compared with White SM women. Findings have important implications for policy and practice to reduce health disparities such as targeted interventions for SM-WOC and provider trainings in cultural humility, implicit bias, and common microaggressions.
... Collective action has been described as "an active form of community participation through which a member of a group acts as a representative of that group to promote its social conditions" (Breslow et al., 2015, p. 255). Collective action promotes personal agency as a proactive form of coping and may attenuate the effects of minority stress (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Most support for this assertion is based on research with sexual and gender minority individuals and has confirmed that engaging in collective action can buffer negative effects of heterosexism (DeBlaere et al., 2014;Velez & Moradi, 2016). ...
Objectives: Racial/ethnic discrimination has been linked to behavioral and emotional problems in youth from marginalized groups. However, the psychological experience associated with discrimination may differ between immigrant and nonimmigrant youth. Race-based discrimination may impact an adolescent’s view of their own group (private regard) and/or their sense of how others view their group (public regard). Owing to differences in racialization, immigrant adolescents may be affected differently by experiences of discrimination than their U.S.-born peers. The present study examined whether nativity moderated the paths from racial/ethnic discrimination to private and public regard to mental health problems among Vietnamese American youth. Method: Surveys were completed by 718 Vietnamese American 10th and 11th graders (Mage = 15.54 years, 61.4% female, 38.6% male). In this sample, 21.2% were first-generation (i.e., born outside of the United States) and 78.8% were second-generation (i.e., born in the United States with at least one parent born outside of the United States). Results: Multigroup path analysis tested the direct and indirect effects of racial/ethnic discrimination on behavioral and emotional problems via private and public regard and whether associations differed for first- versus second-generation youth. Racial/ethnic discrimination was associated with lower public regard, but not private regard, for both first- and second-generation Vietnamese American youth. Public regard was negatively associated with behavioral and emotional problems only among second-generation youth. No indirect effects were significant. Conclusions: Findings suggest differences in racialized experiences, as well as opportunities to support second-generation Vietnamese American and other marginalized youth from immigrant families from the mental health impacts of discrimination.
... Contrary to previous studies examining the association between LGBQbased discrimination and both mental distress and well-being (Antebi-Gruszka et al., 2020;Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Hall, 2018;Lee et al., 2016;Mallory et al., 2015;Shilo et al., 2015;Slater et al., 2017), LGBQbased discrimination was not associated with greater mental distress and less well-being in this study. This finding shed further light on the applicability of the minority stress framework (Meyer, 2003) to LGBQ + individuals who face multiple forms of discrimination along with LGBQ-based discrimination. ...
Using cross-sectional data collected online from 495 racially and ethnically diverse LGBQ+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, and questioning) participants, the associations between nine forms of discrimination and mental distress and well-being were examined, along with the mediating role of brooding (a severe form of rumination) in these associations and demographic differences in the variables Results indicated that queer and multiracial/other identity individuals who reported lower incomes faced more forms of discrimination compared to their male, gay/bisexual, White, and of higher income counterparts. Moreover, mental/physical ability status-based discrimination was significantly associated with the highest levels of mental distress and the lowest well-being score. The association between LGBQ-based discrimination and mental distress was marginally significant. Furthermore, a greater number of forms of discrimination was associated with mental distress and less well-being. Brooding partially mediated the relationship between multiple forms of discrimination and mental distress, and fully mediated the association between multiple forms of discrimination and well-being. These findings suggest that assessing LGBQ + individuals’ multiple forms of discrimination and their effect on mental health is critical. Similarly, interventions designed to alleviate brooding and facilitate the development of other emotion regulation strategies that would further promote LGBQ + people’s mental health and well-being are warranted.
... Echoing its processual quality, scholars have explored collective identity from an experiential point of view (Neville & Reicher, 2011;Omori, 2016;Steidl, 2020). Some argue that interpretation of individually experienced injustices and group-based interaction contribute to collective identity formation (Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Steidl, 2020). Meanwhile, others view reflexive and collective emotions as experienced in protests as a form of collective identity (Neville & Reicher, 2011). ...
Soundscapes of Feminist Protests in London: Collective Identity Construction through Sonic Resonance Aiming to fill the gaps in sound studies of protests, and contribute to understand the relationship between rationality, meaning, affect, and emotion in social movement studies, in this thesis, I explore the role of, sound, rationality, meaning, affect, and emotion in creating a collective identity, within Feminist Protests in London. Based on, in-depth interviews, participant observation, sonic ethnography, and the analysis of sonic diaries, this research question was investigated from, organizational, sonically descriptive, and participative perspectives. From an organizational perspective, and with the intent to build collective identity, sound is strategically used to produce Sonic Performances including Collective Singing, Music Broadcasting, Speech, and Drumming, which taken together constitute the Feminist protest soundscapes. The meanings of songs and speeches are articulated in such a way as to connect and embed participating individuals to the overall protest frame of gender inequality. Meanwhile, emotionality and affectability of musical styles, voices of speakers, and drum sounds are strategically considered, to unite individuals in collective experiences. From a sonically descriptive angle, and via protest soundscape analysis, it was concluded that the meanings of the general protest frame and the expression of collective emotions and affects correspond, which dominate the protest soundscapes at once. It generates a collective, rational voice, responding to sonic surroundings including the leader’s calls, other participant’s sonic contributions, and the sounds of opponents. From a participative point of view, by partaking in Sonic Performances, participants relate protest claim such as, unequal pay, and women migrant's injustice, to the general protest claim of gender inequality. Furthermore, being affected by positive emotions and sonic affect, participants felt that they were sharing similar experiences, thereby creating a sense of belonging. In this process, however, rational reflection takes place, as some participants chose not to attune (align themselves) with the sonic collective, if and when the meanings articulated in Sonic Performances misrepresented their identity. As rationality, meaning, affect, and emotion resonate in Sonic Performances, Sonic Resonance was conceptualized to explain, the sonic strategies of activists, the fabric of the protest soundscapes, and the process of collective identity formation through the resonating experience of rationality, meaning, affect, and emotion, as enabled by the protest soundscapes. These entities are mutually reflecting and dialectically reinforcing in sound, constructing collective identity. In sum, this thesis contributes to explore 1) the relationship between the rational and the affective dimensions of contentious action; and 2) the interaction between affect, meaning, rationality, and emotion in exploring collective identity formation, especially from an experiential account.
... For example, collective action and storytelling, two forms of activism, provide one with personal agency to improve their life (Friedman & Leaper, 2010). Scholars also recognize the importance of mental toughness within peak sport performances (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002;Gould et al., 2002) whereas mental toughness is measured in part by a sense of control over life's various challenges (Clough et al., 2002). ...
... Pharr, 1997). For example, SMW report being assaulted for not acting according to traditional gender roles, for refusing men's sexual advances, and for being gender nonconforming (Fernald, 1995), findings that underscore the intersection of heterosexist bias and sexism facing SMW (Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Lehavot & Lambert, 2007;Rich, 1980). However, limited research has examined the impact of sexism in a sample of gender-diverse SMW, including whether the association between sexism and mental and behavioral health risks might vary as a function of gender identity and presentation (DeBlaere & Bertsch, 2013). ...
Gender-based stressors (e.g., sexism) are rooted in hegemonic masculinity, a cultural practice that subordinates women and stems from patriarchal social structures and institutions. Sexism has been increasingly documented as a key driver of mental and behavioral health issues among women, yet prior research has largely focused on heterosexual women. The current study examined associations between sexism and mental health (i.e., psychological distress) and behavioral health (i.e., alcohol- and drug-related consequences) among sexual minority women (SMW). We also examined whether these associations might be more pronounced among SMW who identify as gender minorities (e.g., gender nonbinary, genderqueer) or are masculine-presenting compared to those who identify as cisgender women or are feminine-presenting. Participants included 60 SMW (ages 19-32; 55.0% queer, 43.3% gender minority, 41.7% racial and ethnic minority) who completed self-report measures of sexism, psychological distress, and alcohol- and drug-related consequences. Results indicated that sexism was positively associated with psychological distress, alcohol-related consequences, and drug-related consequences, respectively. In addition, sexism was associated with worse mental and behavioral health outcomes among SMW who identify as gender minorities or are masculine-presenting compared to SMW who identify as cisgender or are feminine-presenting. Findings provide evidence that the health impact of gender-based stressors among SMW may differ based on whether SMW identify as gender minorities and based on the extent to which SMW violate traditional gender norms.
... Although limited, researchers have examined the relationship between perception of injustice and activism behavior (e.g., Friedman & Leaper, 2010). These authors found that college students' experiences of injustices have significant associations with increased activism attitudes and behaviors. ...
Applying the Resource Model of Political Participation, this study extended the emerging research on trainees’ social justice advocacy (SJA) by examining race and gender variables among 281 counselors-in-training. Although no racial and gender differences were found regarding trainees’ SJA, we found significant race and gender differences in trainees’ awareness of modern racism and sexism. Structural Equation Modeling revealed that exposure to racist and sexist events and participation in formal diversity experiences had significant links to SJA. Specifically, exposure to racist events and participation in formal and informal diversity experiences were negatively associated with color-blind racial attitudes. Exposure to sexist events was negatively linked to modern sexist beliefs. Implications for theory, training, and research are addressed.
... On colleges and university campuses, racial/ethnic sexual and gender minority students are more inclined to experience chronic minority stressors when negotiating their identities and social functioning during the critical phase of becoming independent young adults (Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Rankin & Reason, 2005;Sheets & Mohr, 2009). Research studies (Brown et al., 2004;Evans & Broido, 2002) report that racial/ethnic sexual gender minority students experience harassment and violence as part of their daily lives in college (D'Augelli, 1992;Waldo et al., 1998) and are associated with highrisk behaviors such as substance use and exposure to chronic stress (Patton & Simmons, 2008;Tyler & Schmitz, 2018). ...
HIV/STI, substance use, and mental health issues disproportionately affect racial/ethnic sexual minority young adults. These health vulnerabilities intensify across the life course, most notably when young adults are independent college students. To identify the perspectives of racial/ethnic sexual gender minorities living on or near an urban university, we implemented an intersectionality-informed SWOT (strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats) analysis, as a qualitative community assessment situated within in a campus-community setting. The community needs assessment was the first step in the strategic prevention framework (SPF) to co-locate substance abuse, mental health, viral hepatitis, and HIV prevention care services for Latinx and Black/African American sexual gender minority young adults at a minority-serving institution. The SWOT analysis identified principles for selecting, adapting, and implementing an evidence-based intervention. The significance of these principles demonstrates the value of intersectionality in evidence-based interventions to influence health education and behavior among racial/ethnic sexual gender minorities.
... Interestingly, students who did not identify as heterosexual reported high participation rates for most of the political engagement measures. This aligns with the possibility that minority sexual orientations may be a motivator toward political action (e.g., Friedman & Leaper, 2010); however, the present study did not have information about the nature and causes of political activities students were involved in. Students who reported disabilities were more highly involved in political activities, a provocative finding that extends past research documenting demographic differences in political engagement and merits further research. ...
Political engagement may be associated with wellbeing among college students in complex ways. The present study examines the associations between six forms of political engagement (activism, expressive political behaviors, traditional political behaviors, political groups, student leadership, and cultural/ethnic organizations) and multiple wellbeing outcomes among college students (N = 10,824) across 28 universities. Overall, the pattern of findings suggests that “traditional” political behaviors are weakly positively associated with wellbeing and “non-traditional” (expressive and activism forms of political engagement) are weakly negatively associated with wellbeing. Findings vary somewhat for students across racial/ethnic background.
... A experiência do EM é diferente para cada grupo e, por isso, os modelos de EM devem levar a identidade sexual em consideração (Lewis, Kholodkov, & Derlega, 2012). Diferenças de gênero e orientação sexual são cruciais, pois homens e mulheres terão contato com estressores de minoria específicos em graus diferentes, assim como gays, lésbicas e bissexuais terão vivências específicas que se refletirão em seus modelos de EM (Friedman & Leaper, 2010;Szymanski, Kashubeck--West, & Meyer, 2008). Além dos EM comuns, o grupo de bissexuais sofre ainda uma dificuldade adicional, o que leva à compreensão de que, por experienciarem dificuldades específicas e adicionais às de gays e lésbicas, bissexuais tenham um modelo próprio de estresse de minoria (Feinstein & Dyar, 2017). ...
This study aimed to evaluate the moderating effects of social support and resilience in the relationship between Minority Stress (MS) and mental health outcomes. A total of 337 women over 18 years of age (M = 26 years, SD = 17.3) participated in this study, including 42.43% lesbian, (n = 143) and 57.57% bisexual women (n = 194). The participants responded to scales that assessed internalized homophobia, victimization, disclosure of sexual orientation, subjective happiness, life satisfaction, depression, anxiety and stress, social support, and resilience. Structural equation modeling was performed to verify the impact of minority stressors on the well-being and psychopathology variables and to test whether social support and resilience moderated these associations. Results showed that resilience moderated the relationship between victimization and psychopathology. Clinical implications are discussed throughout the article.
... These findings are consistent with research suggesting that taking action to improve one's sense of safety (e.g., through self-defense, resistance education programs) may improve self-efficacy and decrease anxiety and feelings of helplessness (Brecklin 2008;Senn et al. 2017). They are also related to findings demonstrating that engaging in activism, specifically in response to sexism and sexual assault, may be related to a variety of positive mental health outcomes (Friedman and Leaper 2010;Leavy and Adams 1986;Strauss Swanson and Szymanski 2020;Szymanski 2004). The absence of a significant relationship between safety concerns and depression may be due to the inclusion of fear of men in the regression model. ...
In the present study, we extend prior research on objectification theory by integrating fear of rape into a mediation model predicting depression in college women. With a sample of 496 U.S. college women 18–37 years-old, we examined three aspects of fear of rape (taking rape precautions, safety concerns, and fear of men), along with body shame and appearance anxiety, as potential mediators in the linkage of interpersonal sexual objectification through body surveillance to depression. We found that sexual objectification was associated with more body surveillance, which in turn was related to more body shame, greater appearance anxiety, more rape precautions, greater safety concerns, and more fear of men. Body shame, appearance anxiety, and fear of men were related to more depression whereas taking rape precautions was related to less depression and safety concerns was not related to depression. Direct relations between sexual objectification and depression, body shame, and the three aspects of fear of rape also emerged. A majority of indirect effects was also significant. Our results suggest that women’s fear of rape is an additional explanatory variable in understanding how interpersonal sexual objectification is related to women’s mental health concerns.
In the present study, we examined relations among reactions to the Dobbs v. Jackson court ruling (heretofore adverse reactions), psychological distress, collective action, and abortion history among cisgender women and people assigned female at birth. Specifically, we examined the ways in which the relation between adverse reactions to the Dobbs v. Jackson decision and psychological distress may vary according to involvement in reproductive justice and antiabortion collective action and abortion history. Results ( n = 894) revealed that adverse reactions were significantly positively related to psychological distress. Furthermore, involvement in reproductive justice collective action was significantly positive to psychological distress whereas the relation between antiabortion collective action and psychological distress was nonsignificant. The positive relation between adverse reactions and psychological distress was exacerbated by high levels of involvement in reproductive justice and weakened by low levels of involvement in antiabortion collective action, and these relations did not vary according to abortion history. In addition, the relation between involvement in antiabortion collective action and psychological distress was significant and positive among those who had had an abortion and nonsignificant for those who had not. These findings reveal the importance of mental health providers attending to their clients’ abortion-related beliefs and histories, involvement in collective action, and psychological distress. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ's website at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/03616843231210219 .
Over the past several decades, higher education literature has started to more meaningfully engage with bi+ student identities, as scholars have displayed an initial interest in amplifying the voices of individuals who are attracted to more than one gender. Yet, the nascent scholarly interest in bi+ student experiences indicates several problematic trends that necessitate further exploration to better guide research and practice. Using a systematic literature review approach and framed using ecological systems theory, this article presents the analysis of 175 pieces of scholarship published since 1990 that described the unique realities of bi+ students. Findings reveal the ways that authors have detailed bi+ student experiences on an individual, micro-, meso-, macro-, exo-, and chronosystem level. Informed by the findings, we then offer implications for future scholarship and higher education practice.
Multicultural and feminist perspectives are characterized by a variety of similarities, and the integration of multicultural and feminist perspectives in counseling psychology has been a key aim of those in these fields for decades. However, the effective implementation this approach often has been proven challenging and elusive, with difficulties defining the complexity of feminist and multicultural factors in inclusive and meaningful ways. Integrating multicultural and feminist perspectives, The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Multicultural Counseling features the accumulated knowledge of approximately forty years of scholarship that flows out of feminist and multicultural efforts within counseling psychology. It brings a feminist multicultural perspective to core domains within counseling psychology such as ethical frameworks, lifespan development, identify formation and change, growth-oriented and ecological assessment, and career theory and practice. Emphasis is placed on the intersections among social identities related to gender, ethnicity/race, sexual orientation, social class and socioeconomic status, religion, disability, and nationality. Articles provide insights and perspectives about specific groups of women include African American women, Latinas, women with disabilities, women in poverty, women who have experienced trauma, and American Muslim women. Also featured are a range of additional multicultural feminist psychological practices such as feminist multicultural mentoring, teaching, training, and social activism.
Everyday forms of political engagement, such as civic participation and collective action, have been recognized as a crucial factor for positive youth development, but less is known about their resilience effects on youth from marginalized populations, especially in less democratic societies. The present study investigated experiences of everyday political engagement among sexual minority youth in China and examined their compensatory and protective effects against heterosexist victimization. A sample of 793 Chinese sexual minority youth was included in the study. The results showed that collective action operated as a protective factor in buffering the effect of heterosexist victimization, such that its association with academic engagement was not significant among those with higher levels of collective action. In contrast, civic participation served the compensatory function and was associated with greater academic engagement, a stronger sense of school belonging, and fewer depression symptoms, but it did not protect against the negative effects of heterosexist victimization. The findings highlight the importance of identity-based action among sexual minority youth and provide insight into the differential resilience effects of everyday political engagement. The study has implications for fostering resilience among sexual minority youth with victimization experiences in school and counseling settings.
Activism is responsible for many of the positive social changes we have seen across time, and is central to pushing for continued social change. However, these positive outcomes do not come without a cost, as activism can also be draining and can lead to physical and emotional harm for those involved. Social policies and intervention programs have addressed how to help people maintain their engagement with activism aims, though few have considered the motivational role of purpose in life. As purpose in life involves a sustained commitment to one's goals, having a purpose in life centered around activism may help an individual remain committed to activism and to the creation of change in the face of these obstacles. If activist purpose can help us understand and predict who is likely to remain engaged in activism, then it is valuable to consider what factors influence the development of activist purpose, in order to continue necessary social change. Thus, in this work we define activist purpose, and theorize as to what factors may be relevant to the development of an activist purpose by situating predictors of activism and collective action within the literature on pathways to purpose in life. This work may thus provide a greater understanding of how to encourage activism or reduce the harmful effects associated with activism.
This study fills a methodological gap in racial justice research by assessing the utility and validity of the Black Community Activism Orientation Scale (BCAOS) in a racially and ethnically diverse sample of college‐going young adults (N = 624, M = 19.4 years, SD = 1.89) from 10 colleges in the United States. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to estimate the goodness of fit of the proposed three‐factor model and assess the validity of the BCAOS. Findings from the confirmatory factor analysis provide statistical support for use of the BCAOS as a measure of racial justice activism in support of Black communities among racially and ethnically diverse college‐going young adults. Findings from the study also suggest that White college students and men are less oriented toward racial justice activism than women and racially marginalized students. Convergent and discriminant validity were established through bivariate correlations of the BCAOS factors with other civic development measures. As more and more young people consider the importance of standing against racial oppression, the BCAOS has utility as an assessment instrument in future racial justice research, education, intervention, and youth programming efforts. The Black Community Activism Orientation Scale (BCAOS) measures racial justice activism. White college students are less oriented toward racial justice activism than students of Color. The BCAOS is valid for racially diverse college students. The Black Community Activism Orientation Scale (BCAOS) measures racial justice activism. White college students are less oriented toward racial justice activism than students of Color. The BCAOS is valid for racially diverse college students.
“Queer” has undeniably gained popularity as a reclaimed identity in the 21st century. Recent studies find that between 5-20% of non-heterosexuals identify as queer. Additionally, about 1 in 3 like to see the “Q” in “LGBTQ” and view “queer” as an empowering identity. Yet alongside this “queer” reclamation, queer people experience stigma including high rates of victimization with 3 in 4 queer women and men reporting sexuality-based discrimination, harassment, and/or violence. In addition, the negative stereotypes that queer women and men are “too hypersexual” and that they are not appropriately feminine/masculine remain fixtures in today’s cultural climate. The “queer” slur is also reportedly used by 1 in 4. I conclude that currently, “queer” should be understood as both reclaimed and stigmatized.
Social workers are expected to serve and advocate for marginalized communities, including but not limited to transgender and nonbinary communities (TNB). However, the extent to which social workers meet this expectation is unknown. Using data from a 2019–2020 survey of students who were enrolled in U.S. social work programs (N = 725), this study examined the predictors for engaging in TNB activism, including interaction effects between subdomains of the adapted Ally Identity Measure and students’ personal endorsement of a Critical Orientation to Social Justice. We found that both students identifying as LGBQ and having more TNB people in one’s social network were associated with an increase in engaging with TNB activism. Among our social work educational variables, we found that students who have a mixed micro/macro focus, those who had taken a course on power, privilege, and oppression, and those who had engaged in intergroup dialogue were more likely to engage in TNB activism. Finally, we found that the interaction effects between the Critical Orientation to Social Justice Scale and two of the adapted Ally Identity Measure subdomains were significant.
Historically, there has been a schism between lesbian and bisexual women that was largely embedded in the rigid rules of the 1970s lesbian feminist movement. Yet while the overt separatist tactics of lesbian feminism that once excluded bisexual women have largely faded away, the current study demonstrates continued evidence of fractures between L (lesbian) v. (B) bisexual women using data from a sample of U.S. adults aged 18-64 stratified by U.S. census categories of age, gender, race/ethnicity and census region collected from online panelists (lesbian women, n = 346; bisexual women, n = 358) and a partial test of Norm-Centered Stigma Theory (NCST) with an emphasis on feminist identity. Specifically, lesbian women’s negativity toward bisexual women (looking at measures of authenticity, unfaithfulness, and hypersexuality) is more pronounced than bisexual women’s negativity toward lesbian women; however, the findings demonstrate that today’s negativity toward bisexual women may not be embedded in feminism as it once was. In addition, the results suggest that feminism may mean something different to bisexual women in comparison to lesbian women (which perhaps may be related to differences in investments in queer activism). Overall, by using NCST’s theoretical framework that focuses on the intersecting roles of sexuality, gender, and feminist identity to investigate lesbian women’s stigma toward bisexual women and bisexual women’s stigma toward lesbian women, this research offers insight into working toward the ultimate goal of ameliorating these schisms.
Research around the importance of activism for positive development has been primarily focused on a single identity, missing the ways in which race and sexual orientation intersect to influence the communities young adults advocate for. The current study assesses how Black lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer or questioning (LGBTQ) young adults’ experiences of discrimination, identity, and community predict involvement in intersectional activism (e.g., activism for LGBTQ communities of color). With a sample of 216 Black LGBTQ young adults from the Social Justice Sexuality project, we used hierarchical linear regression to examine relationships between intragroup marginalization, identity, community involvement, and intersectional activism. While all three constructs explained a significant variance in intersectional activism, only racial marginalization within the LGBTQ community and involvement in LGBTQ communities of color were positively associated with intersectional activism. These findings demonstrate that experiences of intragroup marginalization and connection to communities that center both race and sexual orientation may be important in fostering activism among Black LGBTQ young adults.
Using latent profile analysis, we examined whether different feminist identity profiles are differentially related to career-related cognitions among women. We identified profiles of feminist identity based on feminist attitudes, feminist self-identification, and participation in feminist activism. In addition, we examined whether the profiles are differentially related to women’s career aspirations, anticipated family-interference-with-work, and willingness to compromise career for family. In Study 1, three profiles of feminist identity (Non-labeler, Passive feminist, and Active feminist) emerged from responses of 282 female undergraduate and graduate students ( M age = 20.47). In Study 2, three profiles of feminist identity (Non-feminist, Non-labeler, and Active feminist) emerged from responses of 490 adults recruited from Mechanical Turk ( M age = 38.62). Results showed that the profiles characterized by stronger feminist self-identification were more positively related to women’s career-related cognitions than the profiles characterized by weaker feminist self-identification. Moreover, the profiles characterized by stronger participation in feminist activism were more positively associated with career-related cognitions. These findings suggest a potential benefit of feminist identity and participation in feminist activism for women’s career aspirations.
Sociopsychological theorizing and research on collective action (e.g., social protests) has mushroomed over the last decade, studying a wide variety of groups, contexts, and cultures. Through a quantitative research synthesis of four motivations for collective action (1,235 effects from 403 samples; total N = 123,707), we summarize and synthesize this body of research into the dual chamber model, a comprehensive and potentially cross-cultural model of collective action. We aim to replicate previous meta-analytic conclusions (about identity, injustice, and efficacy) and break new theoretical ground by (a) integrating a fourth motivation (morality) into the very heart of the psychology of collective action, (b) extending these four motivations to advantaged group members acting in solidarity with the disadvantaged, and (c) integrating theoretically relevant structural (i.e., cultural and other contextual) constraints. Results substantiated the dual chamber model as all four motivations yielded unique, positive, medium-sized effects and interrelationships were positive (particularly among morality and identity, conceptualized as the dual chambers of the protester's beating heart). Meta-analytic structural equation modeling supported the added value of including morality. Moreover, findings confirmed that the strongest specific motivations were emotional injustice and politicized identification, while newly adding moral conviction to that list. Finally, the four motivations extended to advantaged group members acting in solidarity with the disadvantaged, while only the identity motivation was constrained by theoretically relevant cultural dimensions and values (e.g., collectivism and hierarchy). We discuss the implications and limitations of the dual chamber model for integrative theorizing, innovative research, and the practice of collective action. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
Intersectionality is a theoretical framework that investigates how interlocking systems of power and oppression at the societal level influence the lived experiences of historically and socially marginalized groups. Currently, there are no consistent or widely adopted quantitative methods to investigate research questions informed by intersectionality theory. The objective of this systematic review is to describe the current landscape of quantitative methods used to assess intersectionality and to provide recommendations on analytic best practices for future research. We searched PubMed, EMBASE, and the Web of Science in December 2019 to identify studies using analytic quantitative intersectionality approaches published up to December 2019 (PROSPERO CRD42020162686). To be included in the study, articles had to: (1) be empirical research, (2) use a quantitative statistical method, (3) be published in English, and (4) incorporate intersectionality. Our initial search yielded 1889 articles. After screening by title/abstract, methods, and full text review, our final analytic sample included 153 papers. Eight unique classes of quantitative methods were identified, with the majority of studies employing regression with an interaction term. We additionally identified several methods which appear to be at odds with the key tenets of intersectionality. As quantitative intersectionality continues to expand, careful attention is needed to avoid the dilution of the core tenets. Specifically, emphasis on social power is needed as methods continue to be adopted and developed. Additionally, clear explanation of the selection of statistical approaches is needed and, when using regression with interaction terms, researchers should opt for use of the additive scale. Finally, use of methods that are potentially at odds with the tenets of intersectionality should be avoided.
The article puts French scholarship regarding gay and lesbian political participation into international (US and European) perspective, with a focus on homosexual movements, mobilization processes, and electoral behavior. The article draws lessons from the available evidence and identifies several gaps: while homosexual movements have been well covered internationally and to a lesser extent in France, the "micro" level of gay and lesbian individuals has been largely neglected. Individual politicization and voting behavior of LGBT people have received little attention in the US and are absent of European and French political science, delineating a large research agenda.
The article puts French scholarship regarding gay and lesbian political participation into international (US and European) perspective, with a focus on homosexual movements, mobilization processes, and electoral behavior. The article draws lessons from the available evidence and identifies several gaps: while homosexual movements have been well covered internationally and to a lesser extent in France, the “micro” level of gay and lesbian individuals has been largely neglected. Individual politicization and voting behavior of LGBT people have received little attention in the US and are absent of European and French political science, delineating a large research agenda.
Background
As a fundamental means for transforming and advancing the conditions of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals, collective action has gained increasing attention in research, policy, and practice over the past decade. While collective action is influential in driving public awareness and policy changes, less is known about its psychological effects on individuals undertaking collective action.
Methods
The present study developed a scale to measure collective action for LGBT rights and examined the underlying dimensions of collective action in a sample of 1,050 LGBT individuals in Hong Kong. The moderating roles of collective action on the relationship between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms were also examined.
Results
The LGBT Collective Action Scale measured two dimensions of collective action, i.e., private and public collective action. Private collective action moderated the association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms among sexual minority men and women; however, the moderating effect of public collective action was only found in sexual minority women.
Conclusions
These differential moderating effects could be attributed to gender role socialization and gender-specific coping mechanisms in response to minority stress. Although public collective action is more powerful in triggering structural changes than private collective action, individuals in less democratic societies may not necessarily have access to public collective action due to the absence of opportunity structures. Private collective action, which is able to be initiated and undertaken individually, can be directed to transform heterosexist biases in interpersonal context. For LGBT individuals in less democratic societies, private collective action may be a more manageable way to maintain mental health in the face of stigmatization.
The qualitative content analysis examines the motivations and barriers to engagement in activism of 1360 LGBTQ+ people (Mage = 21.05, SD = 7.46). Data on motivators and barriers to activism were collected through force choice and write‐in responses. Content analysis of the write‐in responses revealed six themes for motivation for activist participation (social justice, empathy for others, internal motivation, personal experience with heterosexism, improving one's own situation, and build LGBTQ+ community) and six themes for barriers to activism (lack of resources, concern about others' disapproval, lack of opportunity, concerns about safety, disagree with practices/attitudes of some groups, and no interest/lack of commitment). This study adds to the understanding of various motivations and impediments to activism by understanding engagement or lack of engagement in activism in participants' own words, which can help make opportunities for activism more accessible to more individuals in the LGBTQ+ community.
Participation in activist groups has been demonstrated to have myriad benefits for LGBTQ+ individuals, including decreasing the negative mental health effects of discrimination. In this brief report, we present results from an exploratory study examining two factors that impact individuals’ involvement in activist groups: internalized heterosexism and connection to LGBTQ+ community. Participants (N = 1999) were LGBTQ+ adults aged 18–80 who were recruited online. Results revealed that participants who engaged in activist groups reported more connection to the LGBTQ+ community and less internalized heterosexism when compared to participants who did not engage in activist groups.
This chapter explores feminist interventions in the study of social movements with a focus on feminist movement building and sustainability. Major trends in feminist social movement scholarship – including dominant conceptions of gendered emotion, intersectional identities, and a global perspective – are examined. The chapter begins with a brief history of traditional social movement scholarship, examining the origins of social movement theory and strategies for success; surveying the arc of social movement traditions situated through an historical lens enables a broad view of the progress that has been made as well as areas that require sustained attention. The relationship between feminism and social movements is then interrogated, highlighting the achievements and challenges of centralizing gender equality within social change agendas. In the final section, two examples of social justice movements explicitly impacted by the concerns outlined above are explored: Palestinian Working Woman Society for Development (PWWSD) and Black Lives Matter (BLM).
Intersectionality suggests that stigmatization experienced across multiple identities has a demobilizing effect, making people less likely to challenge systemic inequalities through political engagement. Using data collected from a unique survey of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) respondents, this study analyzes how experience with injustice across racial and sexual identities affects political participation. I find (1) heterosexist stigma is positively associated with political participation; (2) racist stigma is positively associated with participation in the form of political persuasion among both whites and racial minorities; and (3) there is a tipping point after which the compounded effects of stigma across multiple identities negatively affect political participation, but primarily among the most politically active LGBT people.
In this article the author reviews research evidence on the prevalence of mental disorders in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (LGBs) and shows, using meta-analyses, that LGBs have a higher prevalence of mental disorders than heterosexuals. The author offers a conceptual framework for understanding this excess in prevalence of disorder in terms of minority stress— explaining that stigma, prejudice, and discrimination create a hostile and stressful social environment that causes mental health problems. The model describes stress processes, including the experience of prejudice events, expectations of rejection, hiding and concealing, internalized homophobia, and ameliorative coping processes. This conceptual framework is the basis for the review of research evidence, suggestions for future research directions, and exploration of public policy implications.
SUMMARY Two hundred six lesbian and bisexual female youth aged 14 to 21 were sampled from social and recreational settings. Most were aware of their same-sex attractions in adolescence, but disclosure to others lagged by five years. Youth on average spent 30% of their lives aware of their orientation without disclosure to others. According to youths' reports, three-quarters of their mothers and half of their fathers knew of their sexual orientation. Half had experienced repetitive verbal abuse, 12% reported several threats, and 7% had been assaulted multiple times. Youths who had self-identified as lesbian or bisexual or had told others of their sexual orientation reported more lifetime sexual orientation victimization. Fewer mental health symptoms were associated with having support from parents and with having not lost friends due to their sexual orientation. Less past sexual orientation victimization and fewer fears about future attacks were significant predictors of having less mental health symptoms. To decrease the victimization young lesbians and bisexual females experience, efforts need to be made to help families become more supportive and to make schools safer.
This paper describes the development, reliability, and validity of the Schedule of Sexist Events (SSE), a measure of lifetime and recent (past year) sexist discrimination in women's lives. A culturally diverse standardization sample of 631 women completed the 20-item SSE. Factor analyses revealed that the SSE-Lifetime and SSE-Recent have four factors: Sexist Degradation, Sexism in Distant Relationships, Sexism in Close Relationships, and Sexist Discrimination in the Workplace. The SSE-Lifetime and SSE-Recent scales had high internal-consistency (.92, .90) and split-half (.87, .83) reliability, and the factors were similarly reliable. Validity was established by demonstrating that scores on the SSE-Lifetime and SSE-Recent correlate as well with two other measures of stressful events (the Hassles Frequency and the PERI—Life Events scales [PERI-LES]) as those measures correlate with each other. Sexist discrimination (events) can be understood as gender-specific, negative life events (stressors). Descriptive data indicated that sexist discrimination is rampant in women's lives. Additional analyses revealed significant status differences in experiencing sexist discrimination, with women of color reporting more sexism in their lives than White women.
Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18–25. A theoretical background is presented. Then evidence is provided to support the idea that emerging adulthood is a distinct period demographically, subjectively, and in terms of identity explorations. How emerging adulthood differs from adolescence and young adulthood is explained. Finally, a cultural context for the idea of emerging adulthood is outlined, and it is specified that emerging adulthood exists only in cultures that allow young people a prolonged period of independent role exploration during the late teens and twenties.
Although violence based on sexual orientation is now widely recognized as a serious problem in the United States, social science data concerning the prevalence and consequences of such crimes are limited. In the present study, questionnaire data about victimization experiences were collected from 147 lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (74 females, 73 males) in the Sacramento, CA area. In addition, 45 of the respondents participated in a follow-up interview. Forty-one percent reported experiencing a bias-related criminal victimization since age 16, with another 9.5% reporting an attempted bias crime against them. The distribution of bias-related victimization and harassment experiences in the sample resembled patterns reported in other U.S. surveys with similar samples. Compared to other respondents, bias-crime survivors manifested higher levels of depression, anxiety, anger, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress. Methodological and substantive issues in empirical research on hate crimes against lesbians and gay men are discussed.
Abstract Double relative deprivation, which has been virtually ignored in research on relative deprivation, was expected to predict women's collective action over and above egoistic and collective deprivation. The role of socio-political resources in perceiving deprivation and participation in action was also investigated. Female,students (N=164) completed a questionnaire designed to assess their perceptions of egoistic, collective, double relative deprivation (defined as the interaction between,egoistic and collective deprivation), resource availability and participation in collective action. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that double relative deprivation predicted collective action over and above egoistic and collective relative deprivation, and that resource availability also uniquely predicted action. Implications for expanding,conceptual and operational definitions of these constructs are discussed. Double Relative Deprivation 3 On December 6, 1989, at the Université de Montreal, Canada, a man entered a classroom,of engineering students waving a semi-automaticrifle. He forced the male students from the room, and to the women he yelled, "You are feminists. I hate feminists." He killed fourteen women, injured more, then turned the rifle on himself. His suicide note made apparent his intentions to send " the feminists, who have always ruined my life, to their Maker" (Lépine, as cited in Malette & Chalouh, 1991). ,The tragedy of the "Montreal Massacre" inspired women,across the country to participate in collective actions,. Women who had rarely acted on behalf of women's rights began to participate in candlelight vigils and protests to "take back the night", and to lobby for governmental,investigation into violence against women,and new
Whether or not a woman can “choose” her sexuality has been subject to debate because it contests essentialist notions of sexuality as fixed and determined early in life. This article explores the variabilities among women in sexual object choice and expression and elaborates on the claim that women's sexuality is fluid. It does so by presenting a summary of interviews with women of all sexual orientations who do, in fact, experience their sexuality as a conscious choice. Their own words reveal the plasticity of sexual attractions, experiences, and identities and the more fluid sexuality that emerges as a result. The article also highlights the importance of considering cultural and historical context—specifically the contemporary feminist movement—as it affects the range of possibilities in women's construction of their sexual desire and identity.
Prejudice against gay men and lesbians could be driven by at least two types of expectancy violations: those pertaining to sexual orientation per se, and perceived violations of traditional gender roles (e.g., the fact that gay men are often inferred to be feminine and lesbians to be masculine). However, it is unclear whether one or the other (or both) of these expectancy violations are actually important in driving prejudicial reactions. In a completely crossed design, participants were asked to evaluate a target who varied with respect to biological sex, sexual orientation, and gender role (i.e., whether they were masculine or feminine). In addition, we also examined the contingency of these variables on preexisting individual differences in prejudice toward gay men and lesbians as a whole. Results showed a moderate trend among high prejudice participants to disparage "double violators," that is, individuals who simultaneously violate expectations about both sexuality and gender roles. Implications for current research and practice are discussed.
Social connectedness and its relationship with anxiety, self-esteem, and social identity was explored in the lives of women. Social connectedness was negatively related to trait anxiety and made a larger unique contribution to trait anxiety than social support or collective self-esteem. Women with high connectedness also reported greater social identification in high, as compared with low, cohesion conditions. Women with low connectedness exhibited no difference in either condition. Social connectedness was also positively related to state self-esteem across both conditions but did not have an effect on state anxiety. Future research in gender and cultural differences, self-evaluation process, and intervention strategies are discussed in light of the findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study extends research on dimensions of sexual minority experience by examining differences between bisexual and lesbian/gay adults in adaptation to sexual orientation stigma. The authors investigated sexual orientation self-disclosure, connection to community, and 4 identity-related variables (internalized homonegativity, stigma sensitivity, identity confusion, and identity superiority) in a community sample of 613 lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Sexual orientation effects were found on 3 of these 6 variables: Bisexual participants reported higher levels of identity confusion and lower levels of both self-disclosure and community connection relative to their lesbian/gay peers. Taken together, the 6 variables predicted indicators of psychosocial functioning. Associations among the 6 dimensions of sexual minority experience and psychosocial functioning did not differ for bisexual and lesbian/gay participants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three daily diary studies were conducted to examine the incidence, nature, and impact of everyday sexism as reported by college women and men. Women experienced about one to two impactful sexist incidents per week, consisting of traditional gender role stereotypes and prejudice, demeaning and degrading comments and behaviors, and sexual objectification. These incidents affected women's psychological well-being by decreasing their comfort, increasing their feelings of anger and depression, and decreasing their state self-esteem. Although the experiences had similar effects on men's anger, depression, and state self-esteem, men reported relatively fewer sexist incidents, suggesting less overall impact on men. The results provide evidence for the phenomena of everyday prejudice and enlighten our understanding of the experience of prejudice in interpersonal encounters from the perspective of the target.
Social identity theory suggests that feminist identity should predict engagement in collective action on behalf of women. We examined predictors of collective action by asking female college students (N = 215) to complete a set of questionnaires that measure life experiences, beliefs about feminism and collective action, feminist self-labeling, and involvement in women-focused collective activities. Life experiences (i.e., having a feminist mother, having taken a women's studies class, and having experienced sex discrimination), feminist attitudes and beliefs, feminist self-labeling, and belief in collective action were positively correlated with collective action, whereas conservatism was negatively correlated with collective action. A logistic stepwise regression revealed that the Synthesis stage of feminist identity development was the only variable that uniquely contributed to predicting feminist activism.
Factors related to young women's reported likelihood of confronting sexism were investigated. Participants were 338 U.S. female undergraduates (M = 19 years) attending a California university. They were asked to complete questionnaire measures and to write a personal narrative about an experience with sexism. Approximately half (46%) the women reported confronting the perpetrator. Individual factors (prior experience with sexism, feminist identification, collective action) and situational factors (familiarity and status of perpetrator, type of sexism) were tested as predictors in a logistic regression. Women were less likely to report confronting sexism if (1) they did not identify as feminists, (2) the perpetrator was unfamiliar or high-status/familiar (vs. familiar/equal-status), or (3) the type of sexism involved unwanted sexual attention (vs. sexist comments).
Feminist and critical race theories offer the concept of intersectionality to describe analytic approaches that simultaneously consider the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of identity, difference, and disadvantage. To understand how these categories depend on one another for meaning and are jointly associated with outcomes, reconceptualization of the meaning and significance of the categories is necessary. To accomplish this, the author presents 3 questions for psychologists to ask: Who is included within this category? What role does inequality play? Where are there similarities? The 1st question involves attending to diversity within social categories. The 2nd conceptualizes social categories as connoting hierarchies of privilege and power that structure social and material life. The 3rd looks for commonalities across categories commonly viewed as deeply different. The author concludes with a discussion of the implications and value of these 3 questions for each stage of the research process.
Although researches (e.g., K. L. Dion, K. K. Dion, & A. W.-p. Pak, 1992) have associated perceiving personal discrimination with negative psychological symptoms, group consciousness theorists (e.g., S. L. Bartky, 1977) have suggested that perceiving personal discrimination can be empowering. To attempt to reconcile these presumably opposing findings, the author suggested that the method of coping with perceiving personal discrimination would better predict whether the outcomes are negative or positive than would the perception of personal discrimination alone. Female university students (N = 262) in the United States completed questionnaires assessing perceptions of personal discrimination, psychological symptoms, and psychosocial behaviors. Coping mechanisms predicted psychosocial behaviors better than did personal discrimination: The more the participants used social support to cope, the more collective action and less helplessness behavior they reported. Also, the more the participants used avoidance to cope, the more helplessness behavior they reported.
Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25. A theoretical background is presented. Then evidence is provided to support the idea that emerging adulthood is a distinct period demographically, subjectively, and in terms of identity explorations. How emerging adulthood differs from adolescence and young adulthood is explained. Finally, a cultural context for the idea of emerging adulthood is outlined, and it is specified that emerging adulthood exists only in cultures that allow young people a prolonged period of independent role exploration during the late teens and twenties.
While heterosexist family undermining has been demonstrated to be a developmental risk factor in the life of persons with same-gender orientation, the issue of protective family factors is both controversial and relatively neglected. In this study of Israeli gay males (N = 114), we focused on the interrelations of family support, family acceptance and family knowledge of gay orientation, and gay male identity formation, and their effects on mental health and self-esteem. A path model was proposed based on the hypotheses that family support, family acceptance, family knowledge, and gay identity formation have an impact on psychological adjustment, and that family support has an effect on gay identity formation that is mediated by family acceptance. The assessment of gay identity formation was based on an established stage model that was streamlined for cross-cultural practice by defining three basic processes of same-gender identity formation: self-definition, self-acceptance, and disclosure (Elizur & Mintzer, 2001). The testing of our conceptual path model demonstrated an excellent fit with the data. An alternative model that hypothesized effects of gay male identity on family acceptance and family knowledge did not fit the data. Interpreting these results, we propose that the main effect of family support/acceptance on gay identity is related to the process of disclosure, and that both general family support and family acceptance of same-gender orientation play a significant role in the psychological adjustment of gay men.
In this article the author reviews research evidence on the prevalence of mental disorders in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (LGBs) and shows, using meta-analyses, that LGBs have a higher prevalence of mental disorders than heterosexuals. The author offers a conceptual framework for understanding this excess in prevalence of disorder in terms of minority stress--explaining that stigma, prejudice, and discrimination create a hostile and stressful social environment that causes mental health problems. The model describes stress processes, including the experience of prejudice events, expectations of rejection, hiding and concealing, internalized homophobia, and ameliorative coping processes. This conceptual framework is the basis for the review of research evidence, suggestions for future research directions, and exploration of public policy implications.
Debates persist over whether bisexuality is a temporary stage of denial or transition, a stable "3rd type" of sexual orientation, or a heightened capacity for sexual fluidity. The present study uses 5 waves of longitudinal data collected from 79 lesbian, bisexual, and "unlabeled" women to evaluate these models. Both the "3rd orientation" and "fluidity" models had support, but the "transitional stage" model did not. Over 10 years, 2/3 of women changed the identity labels they had claimed at the beginning of the study, and 1/3 changed labels 2 or more times. Yet, contrary to the "transitional stage" model, more women adopted bisexual/unlabeled identities than relinquished these identities; few bisexual/unlabeled women ended up identifying as lesbian or heterosexual. Overall, the most commonly adopted identity was "unlabeled." Bisexual/unlabeled women had stable overall distributions of same-sex/other-sex attractions but greater absolute fluctuations in attractions from assessment to assessment than lesbians. All women reported declines in their ratio of same-sex to other-sex behavior over time. These findings demonstrate that the distinction between lesbianism and bisexuality is a matter of degree rather than kind.
There is a certain degree of controversy about the usefulness and appropriateness of the label and identity “queer.” Despite this controversy, the argument of this article is that queer is a useful and defensible label and identity that emphasizes the commonality, recognition, and respect required for an effective, inclusive social movement. This contention is supported by the challenge presented by transgender and the consequent destabilization of the concepts associated with sex and gender, as well as identities based on sex, gender, and sexuality. In addition to the transgender challenge, bisexuality also reinforces the contention, particularly in troubling the concept of sexuality.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between heterosexist events, internalized homophobia, and substance use and abuse among 824 lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals. Participants completed the Schedule for Heterosexist Events (SHE), Internalized Homophobia Scale (IHP), Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), and the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST). A MANCOVA with age as a covariate and sexual orientation as a cofactor indicated there were significant differences in how lesbians, gay males, and bisexuals experienced heterosexism and internalized homophobia. In particular, gay males and lesbians reported experiencing more heterosexism than bisexuals, and gay males and bisexuals reported experiencing more internalized homophobia than lesbians. Participants who were classified as having at least one alcohol or drug use disorder were significantly more likely to have experienced heterosexism and internalized homophobia than those who were not classified as having a substance use disorder. Implications for mental health counselors, counselor educators, and researchers are noted.
This study examined the effects of external and internalized heterosexism and sexism on lesbians' mental health. Hierarchical regression analysis, controlling for education and income, identified recent sexual???orientation???based hate crime victimization, recent sexist events, internalized heterosexism, and the interaction of recent sexual???orientation???based hate crime victimization and recent sexist events as significant predictors of psychological distress, accounting for 31% of the variance.
SUMMARY This study investigated and compared predictors of well-being in lesbians/bisexual women and gay/bisexual men. Well-being was assessed using measures of self-esteem, life satisfaction, and depression. Predictor variables included involvement in lesbian/gay/bisexual (LGB) culture, rejection of negative stereotypes of LGBs, positivity of gay/lesbian identity, and perceived acceptance by family, heterosexual friends, and work/school associates. A survey instrument was developed and distributed in the Greater Buffalo area in Spring and Summer of 1994, to which 168 lesbians and bisexual women and 152 gay and bisexual men responded. Overall, results were very similar for lesbian/bisexual women and gay/bisexual men. Having a positive LGB identity was the most robust predictor of psychological well-being in both women and men who participated in the study. In addition, rejection of negative stereotypes predicted positive LGB identity. Results are discussed within the context of lesbian/bisexual women's mental health and suggestions for research and practice are described.
To answer the question “Who's gay?”—and its logical follow-up, “Does it matter?”—researchers usually define homosexuality with reference to one of three components or expressions of sexual orientation: sexual/romantic attraction or arousal, sexual behavior, and sexual identity. Yet, the three components are imperfectly correlated and inconsistently predictive of each other, resulting in dissimilar conclusions regarding the number and nature of homosexual populations. Depending on which component is assessed, the prevalence rate of homosexuality in the general population ranges from 1 to 21%. When investigators define the homosexual population based on same-sex behavior or identity, they enhance the possibility of finding a biological basis for homosexuality and a compromised mental health (suicidality).
Harassment and discrimination based on sexual orientation was studied in a sample of 121 undergraduate students between 19 and 22 years of age. Over three fourths of the respondents reported verbal abuse and over one fourth had been threatened with violence. Other students were the most frequent victimizers. Few reported victimization to authorities. Fear for one's personal safety on campus was related to frequency of personal harassment. The implications of harassment and discrimination on the development of young lesbians and gay men are discussed.
This study focuses the social context for sexual minority friendships by investigating the friendship patterns of lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Participants were 405 self-identified lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals (18 to 79 years old). Results suggest that like their heterosexual counterparts, sexual minorities primarily form close friendships with individuals who are similar to themselves in sex and race. Sexual minorities, however, are more likely to report cross-orientation over same-orientation friendships. Among sexual minorities, unique friendship patterns exist across sex, sexual orientation, and race. Lesbian and gay participants drew the majority of their friends from the lesbian, gay, and bisexual community while bisexual women and men primarily formed friendships with heterosexual individuals.
Two studies leading to the development of a short form of the Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ) are reported. In Study 1 three items selected for high correlations with the total score (SSQ3) were administered to 182 university students together with several personality measures. SSQ3 had acceptable test-retest reliability and correlations with personality variables similar to those of the SSQ. Internal reliability was marginal although acceptable for an instrument with so few items. Study 2 employed three sets of data in developing a six-item instrument (SSQ6). The SSQ6 had high internal reliability and correlated highly with the SSQ and similarly to it with personality variables. The research findings accompanying the development of the short form social support measure suggest that perceived social support in adults may be a reflection of early attachment experience.
This study explored the racial and gender attitudes and feminist activism of 100 self-identified African American feminists (50 women and 50 men) to determine (a) whether Black feminists possess weak racial identities due to feminist influences stereotypically associated with White American culture, (b) if Black feminist men share similar gender attitudes, beliefs, and feminist activism levels with Black feminist women, and (c) whether racial and gender identity attitudes predict feminist activism. Multivariate analyses revealed strong racial and feminist identities (measured by the Racial Identity Attitudes Scale-Form B [RIASB] and the Gender Role Journey Scale, respectively) and no significant gender differences. However, Black women reported a wider range of feminist activism than Black men. A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that sexual orientation, preference for the label feminist, and high scores on the Gender Role Journey Personal-Professional Activism subscale were important predictors of feminist activism. Empirical findings refute common stereotypes characterizing feminism as White, emasculating, of no interest to men, and divisive.
The present study investigated the effects of women's studies courses on women students' feminist identity development as defined by Downing and Roush (1984). In Study 1, the authors operationalized the five stages of the Downing and Roush model. Factor and reliability analyses performed in both Study 1 and Study 2 yielded a 39-item, self-descriptive, closed-ended feminist identity development scale (FIDS). In Study 2, the FIDS was administered at the beginning and end of the semester to 184 students in introductory women's studies courses and 39 controls. MANOVA and qualitative data from an open-ended questionnaire and semistructured interviews revealed that the women's studies students did experience development in terms of the model's stages, while the controls did not. In addition to suggesting a novel approach to evaluating women's studies courses, the results provided preliminary validity for the FIDS and the model on which it was based.
It was hypothesized that women may have more depressive, anxious, and somatic symptoms than men because they experience a deleterious stressor that men do not: sexist treatment. A total of 255 students (180 females, 75 males) at a state university completed an anonymous questionnaire containing measures of these symptoms. Women were found to exhibit significantly greater symptoms than men on all of them. Further, women who experienced frequent sexism had significantly more symptoms than men on all symptom measures, whereas women who experienced little sexism did not differ from men on any symptom measure. These findings suggest that gender-specific stressors not only play a role in psychiatric symptoms among women but may account for well-known gender differences in those symptoms as well.
This article explores the relationship between identity, emotion, and feminist collective action. Based on interview research, the analysis confirms the central importance of anger in collective action and its particular significance for feminist identity and activism. As an emotion thought deviant for women, the anger inherent in feminist collective action frames created problems for participants in terms of relationships with partners, friends, and work colleagues. Participants performed emotion work to deal with negative responses to their feminist identity, but this depleted emotional energy and created stress. Participation in movement events provided much-needed emotional support and an outlet for deviant emotions.
Students on college and university campuses who are gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgendered encounter unique challenges because of how they are perceived and treated. In this article, Sue Rankin shares the findings of her research with students, staff and faculty from 14 universities. Selected quotes reveal the experiences of LGBTs on campus and the climate that perpetuates heterosexism.
Measured 3 properties of gender identity—perceived similarity to other women, sense of common fate, and centrality of gender to the sense of self—in national surveys of women in the US. Results of telephone interviews with 214 women in 1979 and 715 women in 1983 support the general proposition that these properties of identity are implicated in different ways in collective discontent, criticism of the legitimacy of gender disparities, and acceptance of change-oriented collective action. The sense of common fate proved the most important, even after adjustments were made for the structural resources in Ss' lives that helped them develop both a sense of common fate and gender consciousness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examines short-term psychological effects of prejudice attributions on African American women. Black female college students (N= 112) imagined themselves in an audiotaped scenario in which White male students made negative evaluations of them. Participants completed self-report measures of psychological stress and state self-esteem after they rated the likely contributions of various causal attributions to the negative evaluations. Attributions included personal characteristics of the participant and classmates, as well as 3 kinds of prejudice: racism, sexism, and ethgender prejudice (the interaction of racism and sexism). Attributions to racism and ethgender prejudice predicted increased stress and decreased state social self-esteem. Results contradict assertions that prejudice attributions are self-protective and imply that prejudice might involve internal and external causal dimensions.
Lesbian and gay young adults can experience adverse life conditions associated with their sexual minority status. It is not always easy for them to obtain the necessary social support to cope with these challenges. We used short-term longitudinal data from a survey of 197 lesbian and gay young adults (121 males and 76 females) to investigate how and to what extent the availability of confidants affects depression, hopelessness and self-esteem. We also investigated whether and to what extent mental health outcomes are related not only to initial levels of confidant support but also to changes regarding the availability of confidants. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and hierarch-ical stepwise regression analysis. Results showed that confidant support at base level correlated only with the perceived quality of lesbian and gay friendships and not with parental acceptance. Also, change in confidant support over time seemed to be more important than its initial levels.
The diverse life experiences of contemporary lesbians are shaped by women's differing ties to two social worlds, the majority heterosexual society and the minority subculture of the lesbian or sexual-minority world. This article presents a detailed conceptual analysis of a dual-identity framework that emphasizes lesbians' simultaneous affiliations with both lesbian and mainstream/heterosexual communities. The usefulness of this approach is discussed, with emphasis on implications for understanding individual differences in exposure to gay-related stress and mental health. Results from a survey of 116 lesbians showed that scores on measures of Lesbian Identity and Mainstream Identity were not significantly correlated with each other. Both lesbian and mainstream identities were significantly related to lesbians' reported experiences of discrimination, feelings of internalized homophobia, and life satisfaction. Limitations of the dual-identity framework and suggestions for future research are considered.
This study investigated tenth- and twelfth-grade adolescents’ (N ≤ 264) judgments about the acceptability of same-sex peers
who varied in terms of their sexual orientation (straight, gay or lesbian) and their conformity to gender conventions or norms
in regard appearance and mannerisms or activity. Overall, the results of this study suggest that adolescents’ conceptions
of the acceptability of their peers are related not just to sexual orientation but also conformity to gender conventions.
Both straight and gay or lesbian individuals who were non-conventional in their appearance and mannerisms were rated as less
acceptable than individuals who conformed to gender conventions or those who participated in non-conventional activities.
Most surprisingly, for boys, the straight individual who was non-conforming in appearance was rated less acceptable than either
the gay individual who conformed to gender norms or was gender non-conforming in choice of activity.
This study was designed to examine the relations among dimensions of feminism and internalized heterosexism in 227 lesbian and bisexual women. In addition, psychometric support for 2 newly created multiple-item scales, Self-Identification as a Feminist (SIF) and Involvement in Feminist Activities Scale (IFAS), is provided. Results indicate that internalized heterosexism is correlated significantly with most of the feminist dimensions assessed in this study (i.e., self-identification as a feminist, involvement in feminist activities, attitudes toward feminism, feminist identity development, and various feminist ideologies). Interesting relations among feminist identity development and feminist ideologies were found. In addition, involvement in feminist activities was uniquely predicted by self-identification as a feminist and the Embeddedness-Emanation and Active Commitment dimensions of feminist identity development. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
This study examined group identification and situational ambiguity as moderators of attributions to discrimination and self-esteem following negative feedback. As predicted, high gender-identified women made more discrimination attributions than low identified women when situational prejudice cues were ambiguous, but not when prejudice cues were absent or overt. Also as predicted, women exposed to overt prejudice cues had higher self-esteem than those exposed to ambiguous cues or no prejudice cues. The relationship between discrimination attributions and self-esteem was positive among women exposed to overt prejudice but negative among those exposed to no prejudice. Across conditions, however, the more that women discounted ability as a cause of their negative feedback (i.e., blamed discrimination more than ability), the higher their self-esteem. Results qualify and extend prior research and demonstrate that personal and situational factors moderate both the tendency to make attributions to discrimination and the consequences of those attributions for self-esteem.
This study takes a multifaceted approach to group consciousness. The authors assessed changes in women’s feminist consciousness due to their exposure to feminism through women’s studies. Feminist consciousness was measured at the beginning and end of a semester during which some research participants were enrolled in an introductory women’s studies course. Women’s studies students were compared with students who were interested, but not enrolled, in women’s studies. As expected, women’s studies students showed an increase on several aspects of feminist consciousness, whereas non-women’s studies students did not. Non-women’s studies students became less sensitive to sexism. It is also noteworthy that, although they became more feminist, women’s studies students did not become more negative toward men. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/69064/2/10.1177_0146167299025003010.pdf
It has been asserted that women's studies classes profoundly influence the students who take them (e.g., Musil, 1992a). This paper reviews the literature on the changes that take place in students as a result of these classes, including changes in self-expression, sense of commitment and responsibility, critical thinking, empowerment, and acknowledgment of diversity. Students have been found to become more liberal in their attitudes toward women, and their feminist identity, job motivation, job certainty, and self-esteem to increase, after taking a women's studies class. The psychological literature reveals a lack of exploration of students' identity development in relation to women's studies. Finally, methodological concerns are discussed, and directions for future research are presented.
This paper examines heterosexual adults attitudes toward bisexual men and women using data from a 1999 national RDD survey (N = 1,335). Ratings on 101-point feeling thermometers were lower (less favorable) for bisexual men and bisexual women than for all other groups assessed--including religious, racial, ethnic, and political groups--except injecting drug users. More negative attitudes toward bisexuals were associated with higher age, less education, lower annual income, residence in the South and rural areas, higher religiosity, political conservatism, traditional values concerning gender and sexual behavior, authoritarianism, and lack of contact with gay men or lesbians. White heterosexual women expressed significantly more favorable attitudes than other women and all men. A gender difference was observed in attitudes toward bisexuals and homosexuals: Heterosexual women rated bisexuals significantly less favorably than they rated homosexuals, regardless of gender, whereas heterosexual men rated male targets less favorably than female targets, regardless of whether the target was bisexual or homosexual.